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Shared Activities and Marital Satisfaction: Causal Direction and Self-Expansion versus Boredom
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
Abstract
Fifty-three married couples were randomly assigned to engage in activities for 1.5 hours each week for 10 weeks that were self-defined as (a) exciting or (b) pleasant, or couples were in a (c) no-special-activity control group. Pretest and post-test data were obtained on a standard marital satisfaction measure (adjusted for scores on a social desirability index). A planned linear contrast comparing the two activities groups to the control group was not significant and had a small effect size; thus the theory that any kind of activity enhances marital satisfaction was not supported as an explanation for the well-established association of time together and satisfaction. However, the other planned orthogonal contrast found significantly higher satisfaction for the exciting than the pleasant group, a difference that had a moderate effect size. This finding is consistent with views emphasizing habituation as an obstacle to relationship maintenance - for example, Aron & Aron's (1986) prediction from their self-expansion model that sharing stimulating activities will enhance marital satisfaction.
... In general, a positive relationship has been observed between joint activities and couple relationship satisfaction (Johnson et al., 2006;Orthner, 1975;Reissman et al., 1993). Previous research has also indicated that various activities, such as playing games together, chatting, sharing hobbies, walking or biking, and cooking or dining together, are significant contributors to couple relationship satisfaction (Ward et al., 2014), in addition to cultural activities such as attending concerts or shows (Harmon, 2016). ...
... Second, our results suggest that social visits involving both partners are a key factor in couple relationship satisfaction. This is in line with previous studies suggesting that joint activities significantly increase couple relationship satisfaction (Flood & Genadek, 2016;Reissman et al., 1993). Joint activities also define and reinforce the couple's identity within a shared universe as well as provide opportunities to improve communication and conflict management skills (Hickman-Evans et al., 2018). ...
This study examined the relationship between couple relationship satisfaction and the transitivity of ties with family and friends within couples, i.e., the tendency of partners to share friends and family. In this case, transitivity was measured by using three indicators: (1) the proportion of shared friends (friendship network overlap); (2) the frequency of contact that each partner has with their own friends and family as well as those of their partner; and (3) whether social visits to friends and family are made with/without the partner (togetherness). The data were obtained from the Measurement and Observation of Social Attitudes in Switzerland survey, which included 1320 partnered individuals residing in Switzerland. The association between the transitivity of ties with family and friends within couples and couple relationship satisfaction was estimated by using structural equation modeling. According to the results, transitivity was consistently informed by the three selected indicators (i.e., friendship network overlap, frequency, and togetherness), while transitivity positively contributed to couple relationship satisfaction. Moreover, transitivity explains a couple’s relationship satisfaction more than the partner’s education level and nationality, or the duration of the couple’s relationship. By emphasizing the role and importance of joint visits by each member of the couple, this study provides unique insights into the ways in which marital satisfaction can vary.
... The strengths of Study 1 include the use of a large sample size and multiple relationship quality metrics. Additionally, our quasiexperimental design comparing individual experiences for couples that traveled together on their most recent vacation to those who did not is similar to experimental self-expansion studies where one group is assigned to do self-expansion while the other is not (e.g., Reissman, Aron, & Bergen, 1993). Study 1 allowed for a wide array of leisure vacation types and self-expanding activities as participants focused on their last leisure vacation with no restrictions. ...
... We found that couples who do more new, interesting, challenging, and exciting things together while on vacation (i.e., self-expanding experiences) report higher romantic passion and physical intimacy after vacations have ended. Self-expanding experiences happen in many ways and situations that do not have to be complex, costly, or complicated when new, interesting, adventurous, romantic, and humorous experiences will do (e.g., Aron et al., 2022;Graham, 2008;Reissman et al., 1993). The tourism industry can capitalize on our research by providing and promoting an array of self-expanding activities for different market segments. ...
Despite limited empirical support, vacations are marketed as beneficial for romantic partners. Using the self-expansion model as a foundation, we tested how self-expanding (e.g., novel, interesting, challenging) vacation experiences are associated with passion, physical intimacy, and relationship satisfaction. Study 1 (n = 238 partners) found that higher individual self-expanding experiences on vacations predicted higher post-vacation romantic passion and relationship satisfaction for couples traveling with their partners, but not those that did not travel together. Study 2 examined 102 romantic dyads that traveled together and found that higher self-expanding experiences on vacations predicted more post-vacation physical intimacy. Our findings advance self-expansion research and provide evidence for the tourism industry to design and promote self-expanding vacation experiences for couples seeking improved relationships and meaningful vacations.
... This suggests that on days when couples engaged in these activities more than they typically did, they experienced an increase in relationship satisfaction, which could reflect a heightened sense of engagement or emotional connection with one another on these days. These results align with previous research and the selfexpansion model, which emphasizes the role of exciting and engaging activities on promoting relationship satisfaction (Aron et al., 2000;Cortes et al., 2020;Girme et al., 2014;Harasymchuck et al., 2020;Harasymchuk et al., 2022;Muise et al., 2019;Reissman et al., 1993). COUPLES' ACTIVITIES AND RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION Lastly, this study considered the effects of baseline levels and changes in couples' activities on change in relationship satisfaction over time. ...
Shared leisure activities play a crucial role in close relationships, with prior research linking exciting joint activities with higher relationship satisfaction. While most studies have focused on comparing different couples, rather than examining variations within couples, this study expands on previous findings by exploring both between- and within-couple associations of shared activities with relationship satisfaction, as well as their short- and long-term effects. This research draws on data from 1,039 heterosexual couples, who completed four sets of daily diaries over a 20-month period (> 62,000 observations total). Results suggest that joint activities (without others present), shared daily life experiences, and frequent sexual contact were associated with higher relationship satisfaction at both between- and within-couple levels. Additionally, daily conversations and shared activities with others were linked to short-term increases in relationship satisfaction within couples but were not associated with higher overall satisfaction between couples. Over time, those couples who managed to maintain high levels of joint activities, sexuality, and conversations experienced weaker declines in relationship satisfaction. Understanding these dynamics can provide deeper insights into how shared experiences influence romantic relationships and inform strategies to enhance relationship satisfaction.
... Why would individuals differ in their energy allocation to specific social relationships? Research has long demonstrated that people spend more time with those whom they like [40] and to whom they are more committed [41,42]. In other cases, people may spend more time with others simply because they are (physically) nearby. ...
Past studies have investigated the variability in how people engage with their personal networks, yet less is known about how people perceive their energy allocation to different ties. Drawing on an online survey sample (N = 906), we tested whether subjective perceptions of energy allocation conform to so-called Dunbar’s Number(s). In addition, we evaluated the predictive roles of Big Five personality traits and self-esteem while controlling for differences in network structure. Results revealed significant heterogeneity in perceived energy allocation to different layers of personal networks (i.e., inner 5 vs. middle 15 vs. outer 150 relationships). In contrast to expectations, extraversion was not associated with perceived energy allocation, whereas self-esteem was associated with greater energy allocation to the middle (vs. inner) network layer. Our findings add to our knowledge of how people perceive relationship maintenance across their personal networks, along with the links to key psychological traits. More broadly, the findings suggest that more attention should be paid to psychological implications of the middle layer of personal networks. To conclude, we discuss the importance of studying individual differences in how people prioritize – and reflect on – different relationships in their networks.
... In related homework-style studies, couples assigned to engage in novel and exciting (versus mundane but pleasant) activities report greater relationship quality; for a review, see Aron et al. (2022). For example, Reissman et al. (1993) assigned couples to participate in 1.5 h of exciting activities per week or 1.5 h per week of pleasant activities, or couples were assigned to a no-activity control condition for ten weeks. Participants assigned to the novel condition reported greater relationship quality than the other two conditions at the end of the study. ...
According to self-expansion theory, sharing novel experiences with a romantic partner can help prevent boredom and maintain relationship quality. However, in today’s globalized modern world, partners spend less time together and are more likely to live apart than in previous generations, limiting opportunities for shared novel experiences. In two in-lab experiments, we tested whether shared novel activities in virtual reality (VR) could facilitate self-expansion, reduce boredom, and enhance relationship quality. In Study 1, couples (N = 183) engaged in a shared novel and exciting activity in either VR or over video. Participants in the VR condition reported greater presence (i.e., felt like they were in the same space as their partner) and were less bored during the interaction compared to the video condition, though no main effects emerged for reports of self-expansion or relationship quality (relationship satisfaction and closeness). Consistent with predictions, people who reported more presence, in turn, reported greater self-expansion, less boredom, and greater relationship quality. In Study 2, couples (N = 141) engaged in a novel and exciting or a mundane experience in VR. Results were mixed such that participants in the novel VR condition reported less boredom and greater closeness post-interaction, though no effects emerged for self-expansion or relationship satisfaction. In exploratory analyses accounting for immersion, couples who engaged in the novel virtual experience reported more self-expansion, less boredom, and greater closeness. The findings suggest that virtual interactions may have less potential than in-person interaction to promote self-expansion but offer interesting future directions given VR’s ability to enhance presence beyond video interactions.
... In related homework-style studies, couples assigned to engage 66 in novel and exciting (versus mundane but pleasant) activities report greater relationship 67 quality [10]. For example, Reissman and colleagues [16] assigned couples to participate in 68 1.5 hours of exciting activities per week or 1.5 hours per week of pleasant activities, or 69 couples were assigned to a no-activity control condition for ten weeks. Participants as-70 signed to the novel condition reported greater relationship quality than the other two con-71 ditions at the end of the study. ...
According to self-expansion theory, sharing novel experiences with a romantic partner 11 helps couples maintain relationship quality. However, partners spend less time together and are 12 more likely to live apart today than in previous generations, limiting opportunities for shared novel 13 experiences. In two in-lab experiments, we test whether shared novel activities in virtual reality 14 (VR), when couples are not physically in the same space, can facilitate self-expansion and, in turn, 15 reduce boredom and enhance relationship quality among couples. In Study 1, couples (N = 183) who 16 engaged in a shared novel and exciting activity using VR (i.e., a virtual hot air balloon ride through 17 a Kenyan safari) compared to those who viewed the same experience during a video chat, reported 18 more presence (i.e., felt like they were in the same space as their partner) and in turn, found the 19 interaction more self-expanding (i.e., novel, broadening) and less boring, and reported greater close-20 ness and relationship satisfaction, suggesting the potential of VR to simulate shared activities. In 21 Study 2, after accounting for how immersed participants were in the virtual environment, couples 22 (N = 141) in the novel and exciting condition (i.e., a virtual gondola ride through the Swiss Alps) 23 reported more self-expansion and, in turn, less boredom and higher relationship satisfaction follow-24 ing the experience, compared to those in the mundane condition (i.e., sitting on a virtual porch). The 25 findings provide some initial evidence that couples can experience "virtual" self-expansion, which 26 might create novel opportunities for connection. 27
... Additional research related to the mental health implications of companion animal-related self-expansion is needed, as well as how the level of self-expansion may change over time. Research indicates that levels of self-expansion in human-human relationships are higher at the beginning of relationships but often decrease over time without continued engagement in new and exciting activities, and research is needed in the humancompanion animal relationship field to explore whether this is true for human-companion animal relationships as well (Aron and Aron, 1986;Reissman et al., 1993). Additionally, more research is needed related to the nature of self-expansion among different types of companion animals. ...
Although many people experience a close and complex relationship with their companion animals, our understanding and measurement of this relationship has lagged far behind that of human-human relationships. Important advances in human-human relationship concepts and measurement have yet to be applied in the context of human-companion animal relationships, including the critically relevant concept of self-expansion (i.e. the process through which positive content is added to the self). The aim of this research was to develop and validate a new full and short-form measure of self-expansion within the human-companion animal relationship, the Companion Animals Self-Expansion Scale (CASES). The sample included in the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) phase consisted of 366 adult English-speaking companion animal owners, while the sample included in the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) phase consisted of 368 adult English-speaking companion animal owners. All participants completed demographic questions and the CASES. Analyses revealed the full version of the CASES to be 15 items, six of which were retained for the short form of the scale based on their consistently high-factor loadings and theoretically relevant content. The CASES, as well as its short form, the CASES-SF, are both reliable and valid in measuring self-expansion within the human-companion animal relationship.
... These findings, as well as the findings regarding the negative association between relationship duration and self-expansion, imply that human-pet relationships require maintenance, just as human-human relationships do. For example, in human-human relationships, engaging in novel and exciting activities can be a common relationship maintenance strategy and an opportunity for increasing the experience of self-expansion [44][45][46]. Within human-pet relationships, pet owners may need to seek ways to inject self-expansion into their daily lives, especially as their pets age or as the relationship duration increases. Opportunities for self-expansion can include simple activities such as walking one's dog to a new place or playing with a new toy with one's cat. ...
Simple Summary
The present research explored the links between human–pet relationship duration, pet life stage, and four markers of relationship quality: pet-related self-expansion, perceived pet responsiveness, perceived pet insensitivity, and human–animal bond, for dog and cat owners. Human–pet relationship duration negatively predicted self-expansion for dog and cat owners, and self-expansion was also higher for owners of younger pets compared to owners of older pets. Perceived pet responsiveness, perceived pet insensitivity, and human–animal bond were not associated with relationship duration or pet life stage. The findings of the present research indicate that human–pet relationship duration and pet life stage have implications for how much people feel a pet helps them grow.
Abstract
Although many companion animal (or “pet”) owners report that their relationships with their pets are important, we know little about how animal ownership duration and animal life stage are related to relationship quality. In a sample of 1303 dog and cat owners, the present research explored the associations between relationship duration, pet life stage (puppy/kitten, young adult, mature adult, and senior), and four markers of relationship quality: pet-related self-expansion, perceived pet responsiveness, perceived pet insensitivity, and human–animal bond. We found that relationship duration was negatively and linearly associated with self-expansion for both dog and cat owners. Results comparing relationship quality markers across pet life stages revealed that for both dog and cat owners, self-expansion was higher for owners of younger animals compared to owners of older animals. There were no significant effects for perceived pet responsiveness, perceived pet insensitivity, or human–animal bond based on relationship duration or animal life stage. These findings indicate that the duration of the relationship with one’s pet and animal life stage have implications for how much people feel a pet helps them grow, whereas other markers of human–pet relationship quality likely vary based on other experiences.
... One way of achieving ongoing self-expansion as the relationship progresses is through participating in shared novel and exciting activities with one's partner (Aron et al., 2013). Participating in activities with a partner that are perceived as novel and exciting is associated with increased relational self-expansion (Harasymchuk et al., 2020(Harasymchuk et al., , 2021 and enhanced relationship quality and romantic attrac tion (Aron et al., 2000;Coulter & Malouff, 2013;Graham, 2008;Lewandowski & Aron, 2004;Muise et al., 2019;Reissman et al., 1993). Generally, research has defined these activities in a variety of ways including arousing and novel (commonly referred to as exciting; Aron et al., 2000, Aron et al., 2013Malouff et al., 2012), and have been examined in both lab settings (Aron et al., 2000) and in the context of couples' daily lives (Harasymchuk et al., 2020). ...
New and exciting activities with a partner have been linked to a variety of benefits for intimate relationships; however, less is known about what hinders these activities. The goal of the present research was to examine the barriers that people face when planning shared new and exciting (i.e., self-expanding) relationship activities with their intimate partner and whether some people have traits (i.e., destiny and growth beliefs) that promote persistence in the face of these barriers. Across two studies, participants in intimate relationships reflected on barriers associated with participating in self-expanding activities that they planned with their partner in the past and identified the frequency of these barriers in the past six months (Study 1), and then rated the extent to which barriers interfered with their ability to carry out the activities (Study 1 and 2). In Study 2, participants completed measures of destiny and growth beliefs, and identified their level of enjoyment and desire to participate in similar self-expanding activities in the future. In both studies, we found that participants rated finances, limited resources, and obligations as barriers that interfered the most with activities. Our findings suggest that barriers were more likely to interfere with activities for people higher in destiny beliefs (vs. growth beliefs). Growth beliefs were significantly associated with greater enjoyment from self-expanding activities and a greater likelihood of participating in similar activities in the future (vs. destiny beliefs). Our findings have implications for understanding barriers that couples face when engaging in self-expanding activities in their intimate relationships.
Objective
This study evaluated family leisure as a moderator of negative associations between family of origin adversity and subsequent marital relationship satisfaction.
Background
Negative experiences during childhood often affect marital outcomes. However, the vulnerability‐stress‐adaptation model of marriage suggests couples can adapt in healthy ways to manage vulnerabilities. Family leisure is often used to address stress. Family leisure remains a strong predictor of relationship well‐being due to its ability to strengthen emotion regulation and build psychological resources, motivating an evaluation of family leisure as a potential ameliorating factor for links between family of origin adversity and marital relationship satisfaction.
Method
The study used a national dyadic sample of heterosexual married couples from the Couple Relationships and Transition Experiences (CREATE) study in the United States in 2021 ( N = 1,462 couples). This study estimated an actor–partner interdependence model with dyadic connections and individual controls to evaluate family leisure in the context of married couples with past family of origin adversity.
Results
Family leisure positively associated with marital satisfaction directly but did not moderate family of origin adversity.
Conclusion
The study confirmed negative links between family of origin adversity and marital relationship satisfaction. Although the study also confirmed positive links between family leisure and relationship satisfaction, family leisure was not helpful as a buffer for family of origin adversity.
Implications
Findings suggest couples with family of origin adversity should not use family leisure as a primary means of addressing stress from family of origin experiences to help with marriages and may have more success with other strategies.
The purpose of the present study was to examine marital partners' perceptions of the underlying similarities among the marital maintenance strategies initially reported by Dindia & Baxter (1987). The perceptual judgment sorts of ninety-one married persons were analyzed using individual differences multidimensional scaling, hierarchical cluster analysis and content analysis. Results indicated that husbands and wives sorted the maintenance strategies similarly. Three underlying dimensions organized the perceptual space: constructive/destructive communication styles, ambivalence-based versus satiation-based conditional use and proactivity/passivity. Six cluster neighborhoods were situated in the three-dimensional space: Last Resort Strategies, Satiation Strategies, Inward Withdrawal Strategies, Problem Avoidance Strategies, Destructive Strategies and Constructive Strategies. The findings differ substantially from the a priori classification typology employed by Dindia & Baxter (1987).
Although relationship research has concentrated on relational formation and termination processes, most of the time spent in long-term relationships is devoted to relational maintenance and/or repair. The present study examines the maintenance/repair strategies reported by fifty couples (n= 100 spouses). It attempts to discover the strategies and the ways in which their number and choice are related to marital satisfaction, participation in a marital enrichment programme, length of marriage and respondent gender. Forty-nine strategies were identified and clustered into twelve superordinate strategy types. Respondents most frequently reported use of prosocial, ceremonial, communication and togetherness strategy types. More strategies were reported in accomplishing maintenance than repair of the relationship. However, the same types of strategies were reported for both maintenance and repair with the exceptions of metacommunication and anti-ritual/spontaneity strategies. The number of strategies correlated negatively with length of marriage. Implications for future research include the need for comparative work among premarital, marital and divorced couples. In addition, the need to develop understanding of such strategies for use in marital enrichment programmes is discussed.
The cognitive significance of being in a close relationship is described in terms of including other in the self (in K. Lewin's [1948] sense of overlapping regions of the life space and in W. James [1890/1948] sense of the self as resources, perspectives, and characteristics). Exp 1 (with 24 college students), adapting W. B. Liebrand's (see record
1985-20117-001) decomposed-game procedures, found less self/other difference in allocations of money to a friend than to a stranger, regardless of whether Ss expected other to know their allocations. Exp 2 (with 20 female undergraduates), adapting C. G. Lord's (see record
1988-00331-001) procedures, found that Ss recalled fewer nouns previously imaged with self or mother than nouns imaged with a nonclose other, suggesting that mother was processed more like self than a stranger. Exp 3 (with 17 married graduate students), adapting self-schema, reaction-time (RT) procedures (e.g., H. Markus; see record
1977-27587-001) found longer latencies when making "me/not me" decisions for traits that were different between self and spouse versus traits that were similar for both, suggesting a self/other confusion with spouse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 studies, the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale, a single-item, pictorial measure of closeness, demonstrated alternate-form and test–retest reliability; convergent validity with the Relationship Closeness Inventory (E. Berscheid et al, 1989), the R. J. Sternberg (1988) Intimacy Scale, and other measures; discriminant validity; minimal social desirability correlations; and predictive validity for whether romantic relationships were intact 3 mo later. Also identified and cross-validated were (1) a 2-factor closeness model (Feeling Close and Behaving Close) and (2) longevity–closeness correlations that were small for women vs moderately positive for men. Five supplementary studies showed convergent and construct validity with marital satisfaction and commitment and with a reaction-time (RT)-based cognitive measure of closeness in married couples; and with intimacy and attraction measures in stranger dyads following laboratory closeness-generating tasks. In 3 final studies most Ss interpreted IOS Scale diagrams as depicting interconnectedness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper investigates the relationship between the proportion of time husbands and wives spend in individual, joint, and parallel leisure activities and marital satisfaction over five marital career periods. A probability sample of upper-middle-class families in a moderate-sized Southeastern city yielded 216 husbands and 226 wives for the study. The results suggest that the three leisure activity patterns are differentially related to marital satisfaction, that husbands and wives are not influenced alike by leisure, and that the marital career period is a most critical variable in determining the influence of leisure.
This paper examines factors associated with marital interaction, particularly work roles, marital structure, and marital happiness. Evidence from a nationwide probability sample of 2034 men and women suggests that heavy work involvement of husbands as well as wives, number of children, and a traditional division of household labor all reduce the proportion of time couples spend in joint activity. The determinants of interaction are found to differ significantly by racial/ethnic group. A major finding of this paper is the importance of marital happiness as a determinant of interaction. Using two-stage least-squares analysis, the paper examines the nonrecursive relationship between interaction and happiness and concludes that previous research has overestimated the effect of interaction on marital happiness.
This article is a report of a preliminary study in the definition and measurement of marital conventionalization. Marital conventionalization is defined as the extent to which a person distorts the appraisal of his marriage in the direction of social desirability. Since the measurement of the variable is direct, the major focus is upon establishing content validity for a short scale of marital conventionalization. Since the results indicate that marital conventionalization is both extensive and intensive, it is necessary to control for its effect in any study of highly ego-involved areas, particularly the area of marital adjustment.
This study examines the amount of time dual-earner couples spend together by analyzing time diaries (N = 177) from the 1981 Study of Time Use. We find that time together is substantially reduced by the number of hours couples work (combined) and how they schedule these hours. Sociocultural and life-cycle factors appear to have very limited net effects on time spent together. There is a theoretically predictable relationship between marital quality and time couples spend together: the more time together in certain activities, the more satisfactory the marriage. As the number of dual-earner families increases, more spouses may be less able to sustain each other emotionally.
This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32 item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in earlier work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it is not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
This paper examines the relationship between the extent of shared participation of husbands and wives in leisure activities and the extent of communication and task sharing in the marriage. Because marriage is an interactional system and leisure activities vary in their interactional requirements, a theory is proposed linking leisure activity patterns to marital interaction. The hypotheses generated by the theory were tested on a random sample of 223 husbands and 228 wives. The results indicate that interaction in leisure activities is related to interaction in marriage but that this relationship varies over the marital career. Also, it was found that the hypothesized relationship was greater when openness of communication was used as the marital interaction indicator compared to household task sharing. The theory is then reformulated in light of the data analysis.