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Resistant Starch: Physiological Roles and Food Applications
Abstract
A portion of starch and starch products that resist digestion in small intestine has been described as resistant starch. Starch may become resistant to digestion due to several reasons, as it may be physically inaccessible, retrograded, or chemically modified. Resistant starch may be categorized as a functional dietary fiber, as defined by the American Association of Cereal Chemists and Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academics. Resistant starch appears to confer considerable health benefits like reduction in risk of colon cancer, hemorrhoids, diverticulosis, constipation, increased fecal bulking, modulation of blood glucose level, and blood cholesterol level as well as play a prebiotic role. Resistant starch has low water holding capacity, small particle size, and bland flavor. Incorporation of resistant starches in baked products, pasta products and beverages imparts improved textural properties and health benefits. Resistant starches are being examined for both their potential health benefits as well as functional properties to produce high quality foods. However, the results and findings of different studies are hampered by differences in experiment design, and differences in sources, types, and doses of resistant starch.
... Therefore, regarding their digestion behavior, the diverse starch fractions can be classified as rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) [7, 10] and a crystallized starch fraction non-digestible denominated resistant starch (RS) [11][12][13]. The botanical origin shows a great influence in starch digestibility since it set up their structural characteristics and physicochemical properties, and therefore, the amount of each starch fraction [5,7,10]. ...
... Starch is content on cereals, legumes, roots, nuts, and their derived products. During gastrointestinal digestion, starch is first hydrolyzed in the mouth by the activity of the salivary α amylase, able to hydrolyze the glucose-glucose bonds with direction α(1-4), releasing diverse dextrins and maltose [5]. The starch digestion is completed in the intestine by the digestive action of the intestinal enzymes α amylase, isomaltase, and glucoamylase, that provoke the starch debranching on the α(1-6) bonds and the hydrolysis of the α(1-4) bonds, releasing high amounts of glucose [6,7]. ...
... RS is shown as a great potential functional ingredient because of their great techno-functional properties such as small particle size, color, soft flavor, well properties for the extrusion process, high temperatures of gelatinization, and low water retention capacity, together with their low caloric values (1. 6-2.8 kcal/g) [5,11,25]. In addition, may improve the lifespan of dry products and avoid the ice crystals during the ice creams production [5,25,29,46]. ...
In recent years, scientific research has focused on evaluating the relationship between consumption and the effect of food components on the body, with the aim of improving the health condition of the population. In particular, starch is the main component in grains and provides most of the energy in the diet. It is classified according to its nutritional characteristics as rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and non-digestible starch (RS). Several studies have reported that different starch fractions show a correlation between digestibility and assimilation with physiological effect and metabolic impact. Each type of starch fraction consumed shows a different postprandial response, such that SDS and RS generate a slower absorption rate and lower serum glucose concentration, leading to a gradual uptake of glucose into the tissue, as well as a probiotic effect. Current reports suggest that consumption of SDS- and RS-rich products can generate a postprandial response of prolonged glucose uptake without hyperglycemic peaks, and improve the efficiency of modulation of carbohydrate metabolism. In this regard, there is a growing interest in carbohydrates with functional effects generating an emerging area of study. The aim of this chapter is to describe the potential functional effect and metabolic impact of consumption of the SDS and SR fractions of starch.
... The extent and rate of carbohydrate digestion in the human body is highly dependent upon the chain length as it is ingested, hence, the number of glycosidic bonds present and their form. Small structured carbohydrates like maltose, glucose and fructose often present in sweet foods like confectionary and fruits are digested and absorbed relatively quickly as little or no enzymatic digestion is required [6]. Larger, more complex carbohydrates on the other hand such as oligosaccharides and starch can take a significantly longer time to digest -based on this information, starches can be classified into three main forms based on their rate of digestibility [7]: RDS is strongly correlated with high glycemic index foods as it is mainly amorphous starch that may have been either completely or partially gelatinized. ...
... Larger, more complex carbohydrates on the other hand such as oligosaccharides and starch can take a significantly longer time to digest -based on this information, starches can be classified into three main forms based on their rate of digestibility [7]: RDS is strongly correlated with high glycemic index foods as it is mainly amorphous starch that may have been either completely or partially gelatinized. These include baked goods likes white breads and cookies that are digested fairly quickly, in less than 20 min [6]. SDS is frequently found in weight loss and healthy eating programs as digestion takes significantly longer, between 20 and 110 min. ...
... This heating process with subsequent cooling, allows additional starch to crystallize and hence RS to form. RS3 has a number of applications in food manufacturing as it has the ability to form during food processing, unlike both RS1 and RS2 [6]. RS3 is formed most efficiently when the amylose portion of the starch is higher than usual, allowing for efficient packing and stacking upon cooling. ...
... The nutritional property of starch is related to the rate and extent of digestion and absorption and based on the degree of digestion and absorption; starches are classified into various groups. The starches which are digested by enzymes and form glucose can be further classified into two types: glycemic and resistant (Sharma et al., 2008). Glycemic starches undergo hydrolysis by enzymes in digestive tract to form glucose and they are further classified into slowly digestible starch (SDS) and rapidly digestible starch (RDS). ...
... RS-rich foods release glucose slowly and hence results in lower insulin response and greater use of stored fat (Nugent, 2005). The passage of undigested starch into the colon results in limited absorption of glucose into the small intestine (Sharma et al., 2008) and this condition not only helps to reduce the clinical conditions such as diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance, but also in the treatment of weight control and obesity. Replacement of 5.4% of total dietary carbohydrates with RS in a meal could significantly increase postprandial lipid oxidation suggesting reduction in fat accumulation in long-term (Higgins et al., 2004). ...
... Because of the higher starch gelatinization temperature and lower viscosity, RS2 is often used to improve the gluten structure of biscuits, bread and other pasta products, to increase the product moisture content, and has certain commercial value (Korus et al. 2009). RS3 consists of retrograded starch, mainly the recrystallized amylose, formed during cooling of gelatinized starch and cooked foods that are stored at room or low temperature (Sharma et al. 2008), which is widely used in food processing industry. ...
... We deduced that the subtype of RS in these materials was mainly RS2 according to the characteristics of RS2. RS3 is retrograded starch, mainly coming from the gelatinized starch after cooling (Sharma et al. 2008), thermally very stable and hardly digested. RS content in these plant materials increased by 0.33% after storage at 4℃ for 7 days, but the difference was not signi cant between RSc (0.73%) and RSr (1.06%) (P<0.05) ( Table 1, Additional le 1: Fig. S2). ...
Background
Resistant Starch (RS) is a functional starch that has functions of regulating diabetes, hypertension and obesity. The effects of most starch synthesis-related genes (SSRGs) on RS content and their relationships are largely unknown.
Results
In current study, ninety-nine lines from a recombinant inbred line were selected to investigate the effects of SSRGs on the RS content in different process status. Results revealed that RS content decreased dramatically after cooking, but it did not increase significantly after cooling for 7 days. And RS was closely related to many indexes of physicochemical properties, but was not correlated with granule size. Waxy (Wx) played an important role in controlling RS content and Wxa could elevate RS content in raw milled rice, cooked rice and retrograded rice. Soluble starch synthase IIa (SSIIa) had an impact on RS2, and RS2 content of indica SSIIa were significantly higher than that of japonica SSIIa (SSIIaj). Moreover, interaction of Wx and SSIIa was responsible for variations of RS content in three sample types, RS2 and volume proportion of different size starch granules.
Conclusions
Wx and SSIIa together significantly regulate different types content of RS in rice, but SSIIa only affects RS2. Wxa-SSIIaj is favorable to forming large-diameter starch granules.
... at room or low temperature (Sharma et al. 2008), which is widely used in food processing industry. ...
... We deduced that the subtype of RS in these materials was mainly RS2 according to the characteristics of RS2. RS3 is retrograded starch, mainly coming from the gelatinized starch after cooling (Sharma et al. 2008), thermally very stable and hardly digested. RS content in these plant materials increased by 0.33% after storage at 4℃ for 7 days, but the difference was no significant between RSc (with a mean of 0.73%) and RSr (with a mean of 1.06%) at 0.05 level (Table 1, Additional file 1: Figure S1). ...
Background
Resistant Starch (RS) is a healthy dietary fiber that has functions of regulating diabetes, hypertension and obesity. Previous studies mainly focused on investigating RS in raw rice or cooked rice separately, which may receive different results.
Results
In this study, ninety-nine lines from a recombinant inbred line (RIL) were selected to investigate the effects of starch synthesis-related genes on the RS content in different process status. RS content in rice will change by different processing ways. Waxy (Wx) played an important role in controlling RS content and Wxa could elevate RS content, and soluble starch synthaseII-3 (SSII-3) had an impact on RS2. Additionally, interaction of Wx and SSII-3 was responsible for variations of RS content in three sample types and RS2. Wx could affect RS in cooked rice and retrograded rice under the same SSII-3 allele. Moreover, the correlation analysis results indicated that RS was closely relative with many indexes of physicochemical properties.
Conclusions
Wx and SSII-3 could regulate RS content of rice, but SSII-3 especially affected RS2. The findings herein should provide useful information for molecular breeding of rice RS.
... Resistant starches are not broken down by human digestive enzymes and can be used as a more palatable source of dietary fibre co mpared with traditional sources (Öztürk and Köksel, 2014;Sharma et al., 2008). These starches are thus used to fortify products such as cereals, and baked and fried goods, while maintain ing or even improving sensory attributes such as taste, crispiness, texture and mouthfeel (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2010;Raigond et al., 2015). ...
... The native starches of ackee, corn and potato were found to have a resistant starch content of 44.42, 8.81 and 77.31 % (dry weight basis), respectively. The types of resistant starch found in native starches are RS1 (physically inaccessible starches locked within cell walls) and RS2 (starches having rigid crystalline structures), both of which beco me co mp letely digestible when freshly cooked (Raigond et al., 2015;Sharma et al., 2008). Such starches are therefore not suitable as a functional ingredient in baked or cooked products. ...
Seeds of the ackee fruit are high in starch content and are a major waste product of the ackee aril canning industry. The objective of this study was to investigate the physicochemical and functional properties of isolated ackee seed starch. De-hulled seeds were dried and milled into 'flour' which was defatted by Soxhlet extraction using petroleum ether. Starch extraction was carried out using 0.2% w/v NaOH solution (24°C, 6 h) and the starch residue soaked in aqueous NaOH (0.05% w/v) for 12 h to remove soluble impurities and then subjected to a bleaching treatment (HCl, 0.01 N). Solubility, swelling power, water absorption, oil absorption and extent of syneresis o f the starch were measured and hypoglycin content was determined by reversed phase HPLC. Pasting, thermal properties, crystalline pattern, granule morphology and gel texture were determined, and the gelatinised starch used to prepare retrograded resistant starch. Ackee seed starch comprised small granules which exhibit a C-type diffraction pattern. The starch showed restricted swelling, moderate peak viscosity, and low breakdown compared with commercial corn and potato starches, while the water absorption and oil absorption values were similar to the commercial starches. Ackee starch had a high setback, high syneresis, produced opaque pastes and formed a hard gel texture. Apparent amylose content and the content of retrograded starch were high. Based on the properties, the starch may be suitable in manufacturing of noodles and to produce retrograded resistant starch and may have applications in fat replacers, dusting/face powders and bioplastics.
... Dietary fiber's role against colon cancer has been outlined in detail. Anti-carcinogenic activity can be achieved in two ways: (a) by decreasing the synthesis of carcinogenic compounds in the colon and (b) by increasing fecal volume, which decreases the contact of cancer risk agents present in feces with intestinal mucosa (Sharma, Yadav & Ritika, 2008). DF helps lower cancer risk, especially for colorectal cancer, which begins in the large intestine, by promoting fermentation that produces short-chain fatty acids (Xiong et al., 2022). ...
Background: Every year, the food business produces a sizeable amount of waste, including the portions of fruits and vegetables that are inedible, and those that have reached a stage where they are no longer suitable for human consumption. These by-products comprise of components such as natural antioxidants (polyphenols, carotenoid etc.), dietary fiber, and other trace elements, which can provide functionality to food. Due to changing lifestyles, there is an increased demand for ready-to-eat products like sausages, salami, and meat patties. In this line, meat products like buffalo meat sausages and patties are also gaining the interest of consumers because of their rich taste. Meat, however, has a high percentage of fat and is totally deprived of dietary fiber, which poses severe health problems like cardiovascular (CV) and gastrointestinal diseases. The health-conscious consumer is becoming increasingly aware of the importance of balancing flavor and nutrition. Therefore, to overcome this problem, several fruit and vegetable wastes from their respective industries can be successfully incorporated into meat products that provide dietary fiber and play the role of natural antioxidants; this will slow down lipid oxidation and increase the shelf-life of meat products.
Methodology: Extensive literature searches have been performed using various scientific search engines. We collected relevant and informative data from subject-specific and recent literature on sustainable food processing of wasted food products. We also looked into the various applications of waste fruit and vegetable products, including cereals, when they are incorporated into meat and meat products. All relevant searches meeting the criteria were included in this review, and exclusion criteria were also set.
Results: The pomace and peels of fruits like grapes, pomegranates, cauliflower, sweet lime, and other citrus are some of the most commonly used fruit and vegetable by-products. These vegetable by-products help inhibit oxidation (of both lipids and proteins) and the growth of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, all without altering the consumer's acceptability of the product on a sensory level. When included in meat products, these by-products have the potential to improve the overall product quality
and lengthen its shelf-life under certain circumstances.
Conclusion: Cost-effective and easily accessible by-products from the fruit and
vegetable processing industries can be used in meat products to enhance their quality
features (physicochemical, microbial, sensory, and textural aspects) and health
benefits. Additionally, this will provides environmental food sustainability by
lowering waste disposal and improving the food’s functional efficacy.
... After the acclimatization, the mice were injected intraperitoneally with/without azoxymethane (AOM) dissolved in 0.9% NaCl at a dosage of 0.01mg/g body weight (BW). (21) Then the azoxymethane (AOM)-injected mice was fed intragastrically for 7 consecutive days with 2% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to speed up the occurrence of colon cancer. After that, the mice were observed and fed with 5 g of different formulized pellets based on the group division for 10 weeks (5 mice in each group). ...
BACKGROUND: Administration of resistant starch (RS) influences the diversity and the composition of microbiota as well as inhibits the growth of cancer cell. Banana as a potential source of RS has been reported. Although Musa paradisiaca has been reported to induce apoptosis in colon cancer cells, Musa balbisiana, which has low glycemic index and suitable for particular patients, has not been investigated yet.
METHODS: Starches of M. balbisiana and M. paradisiaca were prepared and mixed with other components to make 3 types of mouse pellets. Mouse model for colon cancer was prepared and fed with different types of mouse pellets. Blood was collected and processed for measuring β-glucuronidase and malondialdehyde (MDA) with Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method. Resected ceca were incised to collect the inner part for short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) measurement with gas chromatography analysis. Resected colas were fixed and processed for immunohistochemistry to detect Caspase-3.
RESULTS: Colon-cancer-mice fed with the M. balbisiana and M. paradisiaca starches-contained pellets had significant higher concentrations of total SCFA (p=0.003), acetic acid (p=0.000), propionic acid (p=0.000) and butyric acid (p=0.000); lower concentration of β-glucuronidase (p
... amylose and amylopectin (72,73). Previous studies have shown that the abundant RS in legumes is associated with postprandial blood glucose content, contributing to a positive effect on type 2 diabetes (74, 75). ...
Regular consumption of low-glycemic index (GI) foods is a common strategy for type 2 diabetes patients. To evaluate the potential application of adzuki beans in low-GI foods, the phenolic profile and alpha-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) activity of four varieties of adzuki beans (G24, Te Xiao Li No. 1, Gui Nong No. 1, and Qian Xiao Hei) were determined. The starch digestibility properties and in vitro glycemic index (IVGI) of these beans were also evaluated using the in vitro digestion model coupled with 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid colorimetry. The results indicated that these adzuki beans, containing numerous phenolics, showed inhibitory activities to alpha-amylase with the α-AI activities between 1.760 ± 0.044 and 3.411 ± 0.186 U/g. The resistant starch (RS) contributed predominantly to the total starch with proportions between (69.78 ± 2.45%) and (81.03 ± 0.06%); Te Xiao Li No. 1 was the highest compared with the other varieties. The adzuki beans were categorized into low- or medium-GI foods, and the IVGI ranged from (39.00 ± 0.36) to (56.76 ± 4.21). These results suggested that adzuki beans can be used as a component of low-GI foods.
... In addition, it helps reduce the postmeal glycemic response and prevent colon cancer (Asare et al., 2021). Due to its limited digestion and comparable physiological features, RS is regarded as a component of dietary fiber (Nugent, 2005;Sharma et al., 2008). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of different reaction conditions on the digestibility properties of buckwheat starch-myristic acid complex samples produced using different myristic acid concentrations and different reaction temperatures. Response Surface Methodology was used to investigate the effect of reaction temperature (60-90°C) and fatty acid concentrations (0.1-0.8 mmoL/g) on digestibility properties. Resistant starch (RS) contents of samples increased with an increase inreaction temperature. The reaction temperature affected the rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) content of samples. The highest RS content (32.57%) was obtained using 0.45 mmoL/g myristic acid at 90°C. The F, p (<0.05), and R2values indicated that the selected models were significant for the digestibility properties of samples. The complex formation of buckwheat starch with myristic acid seems promising to increase the RS content. Buckwheat appears to have the potential as an RS source, although the studies are quite new yet.Keywords:buckwheat starch, myristic acid, resistant starch, starch-lipid complex
... The cooking time of analog rice was influenced by gelatinization temperature whereby the higher gelatinization was influenced by the chemical components of flour (Sukamto and Patria, 2020). As amylopectin has less ability to bind water than amylose, any rice with higher amylose content is more difficult to gelatinize (Sharma et al., 2008). Table 3, it can be seen that the fortification of collagen from different types of fish scale caused significantly different cooking times (p<0.05). ...
Analog rice is not sufficient if it only contains low sugar, low GI, and high fibre, but also needs to be fortified with other nutritional components. Fish collagen can be used for analog rice fortification because it contains amino acids. This study aimed to determine the effect of adding collagen from various types of fish scales on the characteristics of analog rice made from arrowroot and seaweed flour. The materials in this study were collagen from various types of fish scales (tilapia, milkfish, red snapper, and goldband goatfish), arrowroot flour, and seaweed flour. The parameters analyzed were proximate analysis, amino acid content, crude fibre, dietary fibre, cooking time, hedonic evaluation, and morphology observation of analog rice. The results showed that the fortification of collagen from various types of fish scales produced analog rice with significantly different (p<0.05) characteristics. The fortification of collagen from various types of fish scales can improve the proximate, amino acid content, and cooking time of analog rice. However, collagen fortification did not provide a significant difference (p>0.05) to the hedonic value (except for aroma parameters), crude fibre, and dietary fibre content in analog rice. Analog rice produced in this study contained higher nutrition than milled rice. Analog rice in this study contained 8.45 to 13.54% of lipid, 8.45 to 13.54% of protein, 22.4 to 23.90% of crude fibre, and 1.67 to 1.73% of dietary fibre. Therefore, it can be used as a substitute for milled rice and as functional food for people.
... Through the interaction of two phases-an aqueous phase comprising the soluble polymers and an [14], Nugent [7], Sharma et al. [15], Brouns et al. [16], and Scholz-Ahrens et al. [17]. ...
Starch is recognized biopolymer because it is abundant in nature. Dietary starches are major energy source for various human civilizations, and it is obvious that they may also contribute to health in very particular ways. Resistant starch has got a lot of interest because of its possible health advantages (similar to soluble fibre) as well as its functional qualities. Resistant starch improves blood cholesterol levels, microbial flora, gastrointestinal tract function, the glycemic index, and helps with diabetes management. Aside from the significant health advantages of starch, there is an additional benefit that it has a smaller effect on food sensory characteristics than usual sources of fiber, such as grains, bran, or fruits. Moreover, when boiled, many starches form weak-bodied and unpleasant gels, which are influenced negatively by temperature, humidity, and storage duration. The present review article highlights resistant starch as a functional food, starch extraction method, preparation of starch nanoparticles, nano and microencapsulation of probiotics in detail.
... Central in all kitchens are the options to heat the tubers or parts thereof by boiling, microwaving, frying or baking. Potato needs to be heated to make it digestible for non-ruminants (Sharma et al. 2008), amongst them, humans. So all processes at home involve at least one step, whereby the tubers or parts thereof are subjected to high temperatures up to 100 °C. ...
The processing potato ontology includes the three domains of growers, processors and cooks producing tubers, products and dishes, respectively. Dishes consist of three subdomains: types of dishes prepared from products, kitchen operations and consumer preferences. Preparing meals with potato as ingredients dates from the time of the domestication of the crop in the Andes region. It involves washing, peeling, partitioning in smaller sections and heating to gelatinize the otherwise, for non-ruminants, indigestible starch. Since the Columbian Exchange, both the crop and processing expanded globally. The history of potato processing starts with the pre-historic pre-Columbian era when drying as a means to preserve and render the tuber less bulky and making flour and alcoholic drinks were common practice. Once the crop was a global food crop, processing established, initially into an array of nourishments for seafaring and military purposes and later for aviation, convenience and to satisfy hedonistic needs. The domains are studied through a four-tier analysis: first a description and delimitation of the domain are made, next allocation of classes with their attributes followed by awarding a value to an attribute as to the degree it applies to the class, yielding a heatmap, and fourthly, a dendrogram is produced that shows clustering of classes and of attributes with similar features.
... It also helps in regulating blood glucose and cholesterol. Resistant starch is even informed to have prebiotic functions [5]. Buckwheat is also known to have high flavonoids, denoting a powerful class of natural antioxidants [2]. ...
Whole buckwheat (WBW) flour was added (0 to 50 g/100 g) in wheat flour to develop different blends of the flour. The physicochemical and functional properties of WBW flour added chapatis were studied. The protein, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre content was increased from 13.31 to 21.03, 2.20 to 2.88 and 8.69 to 15.69 respectively in control to WBW-50 samples. In addition, the increase in WBW flour incorporation (WBW-50) in chapatis showed an increase in the level of total phenolics (53.33%), flavonoids (67.5%) and antioxidant capacity (46.8%). Additionally, 8.9% in in-vitro protein digestibility was noted at 30 g/100 g WBW chapati. 30% WBW flour added chapatis showed better sensory acceptability, nutritional and functional properties. The underutilized flour of buckwheat can improve the nutritional properties of chapati and other staple foods by increasing plant-based protein content.
... Butyrate is one of the significant energy substrates for colonocytes and has been shown to inhibit the malignant transformation of such cells in vitro, indicating the importance of the readily fermentable fractions of RS in preventing colon cancer (Asp & Björck, 1992;Wang et al., 2018). As observed in vitro, the inhibitory effect of butyrate on cancer cell proliferation is due to the process of arresting one phase of the cell cycle (Sharma & Yadav, 2008). Another study showed that the presence of resistant starch in the diet (in combination with wheat bran) had a beneficial effect on increasing the frequency of bowel movements and shortening the time of intestinal transit, which may also be an essential element in the prevention of colorectal cancer (Muir et al., 2004). ...
Starch is an essential source of energy for the human diet. Resistant starch is the portion of starch that is not digested in the small intestine and is fermented in the colon by microorganisms, resulting in the formation of short-chain fatty acids, which may be associated with some metabolic effects. In this regard, this review aims to present relevant research on the health benefits of consuming resistant starch and its effects on physiological properties such as intestinal health, glycemic balance, lipid metabolism, and body weight to be evaluated. However, the effect of resistant starch in reducing the risk of diet-dependent disorders such as diabetes, obesity, lipid disorders, and intestinal health is promising but still inconclusive.
... Branching triggers an opened kindstructure with void spaces easily hosting solvent molecules and hydrolytic enzymes: amylopectin is quite soluble in water and easily broken down in glucose units by digestive amylases. Quite the opposite, the linear chains of amylose tightly interact between them, deriving in a refractory arrangement not prone to be solubilized neither to be enzymatically processed: amylose properties reflect in "resistant starch" behavior, so-called since it withstands the enzyme action in the stomach and small intestine promoting lowering of glucose level in the blood after a meal (Sharma et al., 2008;Birt et al., 2013). ...
Cereals represent an important source of beneficial compounds for human health, such as macro- and micronutrients, vitamins, and bioactive molecules. Generally, the consumption of whole-grain products is associated with significant health benefits, due to the elevated amount of dietary fiber (DF). However, the consumption of whole-grain foods is still modest compared to more refined products. In this sense, it is worth focusing on the increase of DF fractions inside the inner compartment of the seed, the endosperm, which represents the main part of the derived flour. The main components of the grain fiber are arabinoxylan (AX), β-glucan (βG), and resistant starch (RS). These three components are differently distributed in grains, however, all of them are represented in the endosperm. AX and βG, classified as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), are in cell walls, whereas, RS is in the endosperm, being a starch fraction. As the chemical structure of DFs influences their digestibility, the identification of key actors involved in their metabolism can pave the way to improve their function in human health. Here, we reviewed the main achievements of plant biotechnologies in DFs manipulation in cereals, highlighting new genetic targets to be exploited, and main issues to face to increase the potential of cereals in fighting malnutrition.
... RS is classified into five subcategories according to the mechanism of resistance against digestion [9]. RS reaches the colon, where it is fermented to short-chain fatty acids by the microbiota [10] and provides many health benefits to humans, including reducing postprandial blood glucose levels and improving insulin sensitivity [11][12][13]. RS also helps prevent type 2 diabetes and manage obesity and cardiovascular diseases [14]. Starch characteristics can be altered by physical, chemical, and enzymatic modifications [15,16]. ...
In this study, the effects of sonication and temperature-cycled storage on the structural properties and resistant starch content of high-amylose corn starch were investigated. Sonication induced a partial depolymerization of the molecular structures of amylopectin and amylose. Sonication treatment induced the appropriate structural changes for retrogradation. Although the relative crystallinity of sonicated starch was lower than that of non-sonicated starch, sonicated starch after retrogradation showed much higher relative crystallinity than non-sonicated starch. Regardless of sonication treatment, temperature-cycled storage resulted in a higher degree of retrogradation than isothermal storage, but the rate of retrogradation was greater in sonicated starch than in non-sonicated starch, as supported by retrogradation enthalpy, the Avrami constant, and relative crystallinity. The highly developed crystalline structure in sonicated starches due to retrogradation was reflected by the large amount of resistant starch.
... The use of resistant starch produces minimum changes in the organoleptic profile of the product. It means that the RS are appropriate for developing actual healthier substitutes of common foods, such as white bread, cakes, muffins, cookies, noodles, and pasta (Homayouni et al., 2014;Sharma, Yadav, & Ritika, 2008) (Fig. 1). Many efforts of increasing the fiber content of these kinds of foods result in the conversion of the original food into a different product, i.e., a product that attempts to be similar to the original one but actually constitutes another kind of food due to the noticeable changes produced by the fiber addition: bran bread, rye or barley bread, wholegrain pasta and muffins, etc. ...
Resistant starches (RS) are those that by localization, physical, or chemical causes, are unavailable for enzymatic attack, thus acting as dietary fiber in our organism. Several beneficial effects of the RS intake have been reported, among them, their ability to modulate glycemia, cholesterolemia, and the homeostasis of gut microbiota, the prevention of colonic cancer and metabolic diseases, the improvement of the immune response, and the contribution to the management of obesity and body weight. RS can be used as an alternative to obtain fiber-enriched foods such as bread, muffins, cakes, and cookies, as well as pasta and noodles, without drastically modifying the sensory and technological aspects that consumers expect from these traditional wheat-based products. They are also a smart alternative to incorporate fiber in gluten-free products. The present review summarizes the main recent advances on the study of the metabolic effects of RS intake, several examples of RS obtained from different sources in the native state, retrograded or chemically modified, and also addresses examples of the employment of different types of RS in the formulation and characterization of more healthful starch-based products.
... Experiments conducted in order to fully characterise the effect of RS on glycaemic, insulinaemic, lipidaemic and cholesterolaemic control in humans have obtained conflicting results [134,135]. RS2 consumption in insulin-resistant individuals had no effect on body weight or fat storage, although improvements in insulin sensitivity were reported [136]. Another study conducted in healthy individuals with RS2 found significant reductions in visceral and subcutaneous abdominal adiposity, which were accompanied by reductions in total cholesterol and LDL [48]. ...
Dietary fibre has long been established as a nutritionally important, health-promoting food ingredient. Modern dietary practices have seen a significant reduction in fibre consumption compared with ancestral habits. This is related to the emergence of low-fibre “Western diets” associated with industrialised nations, and is linked to an increased prevalence of gut diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, type II diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. The characteristic metabolic parameters of these individuals include insulin resistance, high fasting and postprandial glucose, as well as high plasma cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Gut microbial signatures are also altered significantly in these cohorts, suggesting a causative link between diet, microbes and disease. Dietary fibre consumption has been hypothesised to reverse these changes through microbial fermentation and the subsequent production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which improves glucose and lipid parameters in individuals who harbour diseases associated with dysfunctional metabolism. This review article examines how different types of dietary fibre can differentially alter glucose and lipid metabolism through changes in gut microbiota composition and function.
... Some studies about the effect of RS on bread quality and staling rate have been published, and these results are controversial. (Sharma et al., 2008) found that wheat bread with RS results with high volume, uniform crumb size, and neutral taste. On the other hand, it has also been reported that RS decreases the specific volume of bread and increases crumb firmness (Ozturk et al., 2009;Rosell & Santos, 2010). ...
The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of resistant starch and garlic on the technological quality of wheat bread. Bread formulations with 20% of resistant starch (RS), 3% of garlic (G), and with both ingredients together (RS+G) were compared with control wheat bread (C). A decrease in specific volume and crust color on RS bread was obtained while both parameters increased by garlic addition. Resistant starch led to harder crumbs, while garlic led to softer ones. Besides, fresh crumbs with garlic had a more elastic structure (low elastics moduli and high relaxation time) and presented the crunchiest crust. This work shows that the addition of garlic highly improved the baking quality, which had been negatively affected by resistant starch. Thus, combining garlic and resistant starch as ingredients, a functional baked product of good quality and nutritionally improved was obtained.
... The RS is a linear molecule of a-1,4-D-glucan, essentially derived from the retrograded amylose fraction (Sharma et al., 2008). According to the literature, the damage in amorphous zones and cristallinity of rice starch increases significantly at US treatment temperature between 40 o C and 55 °C (Cui et al., 2010). ...
A probiotic nutraceutical based on functionalised rice bran (RB) supplemented with lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis‐idaea L.) pulp (LP) at various levels (10‒50 g/100 g d.w.) was developed. Prior to immobilisation of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cells, RB‐LP matrix was structured by ultrasound (US) (850 kHz; power 160 W) for 20 min at 40 °C. Xanthan gum and sodium alginate were used for the stabilisation of RB‐LP matrix. Survival and fermentative activity of the immobilised LAB cells was studied by monitoring pH, cell number, antimicrobial activity, lactic and acetic acids production. US treatment increased by 17.5% soluble dietary fibre (SDS) contents in RB but reduced on average by 49.9% hyperoside, quercetin, quercitrin, and coumaric acid contents in LP material. RB substrate supplemented with LP (20‒50 g/100 g d.w.) resulted in higher antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus for Lactobacillus brevis, and against Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus for Pediococcus acidilactici. RB‐LP matrix stabilised with alginate‐xanthan and alginate maintained 8.09‒8.67 log CFU/g live cells of immobilised L. brevis after 7 weeks of storage at 4 °C. In the case of protection under simulated in vitro digestion conditions, RB‐LP gels with sodium alginate demonstrated the highest cell survival with 4.25 CFU/g viable cells remaining in the product and 5.23 log CFU/g live cells in the digestion medium.
... Ada kemungkinan bahwa pengolahan modern dan praktek konsumsi pangan telah menyebabkan RS yang dikonsumsi rendah, yang dapat berkontribusi terhadap kenaikan penyakit usus besar yang serius di negara-negara makmur. Hal ini membuka kesempatan untuk pengembangan kultivar baru sereal dan bahan berbasis pati untuk produk-produk makanan yang dapat meningkatkan kesehatan masyarakat (Topping, Fukushima and Bird, 2003;Sharma and Yadav, 2008 ...
Rice is the leading food and a carbohydrate source for most of the world's and Indonesia population, but most rice tends to have a high glycemic index (IG). A product with a low IG is better, not only for people with diabetes but also for healthy people. Resistant starch (RS) functions as a new food ingredient that has a low glycemic index. RS is a part of starch or starch products resistant to digestion when through a gastrointestinal tract. RS has the same physiological effects as dietary fiber, can affect body weight and energy balance, increase lipid excretion to reduce calorie intake and reduce serum lipid levels, zero caloric content so that it can be used as a low-calorie food additive that can control body weight effectively. RS can be made through starch modification by physical treatment (heat treatment), chemical treatment, enzymatic treatment, and a combination of heat and enzymatic. Factors that influence RS's formation include starch properties, starch interactions with other components, processing conditions, heat processes, other treatments, and storage conditions. Therefore, the rice starch modification that contains a lot of RS needs to be known. Rice starch Hydrolysis with the dual enzyme α-amylase and pullulanase (DMT) can increase the highest RS level (51.0%) due to the increased degree of starch crystallinity. High RS results in an increase in gelatinization temperature, ΔH and phase transition temperatures, and a decrease in the speed of starch hydrolysis and weight loss.
... It is arranged in the form of polymeric granules, rendering it the benefit of both soluble and insoluble fibre. It is supplemented as low calorific value ingredient into food product, and it enhances their organoleptic and dietary fibre content (Sharma et al. 2008). The therapeutic effects of RS include regulation of cholesterol level, glycemic control, plasma glyceride level and mineral absorption. ...
The impact of gut microbiota on the health of the host is undeniable. Different microbial genres and strains present effects over several axes of health. Two examples are the regulation of lipids metabolism and the process of cellular aging. These health aspects have a common point: the activity of the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; this enzyme may regulate both energy homeostasis and cellular senescence. In the recent years, these aspects have gained research interest, and this has produced a growing set of information that includes outlines of the molecular mechanistic routes that the kinase may use to regulate lipids homeostasis and cellular aging. Probiotic microorganisms of the genres Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus present more frequently an effect over AMPK activity, but the molecular effectors and the complete molecular mechanism are not yet described. In the present chapter, a general vision of these types of pathways and the molecular targets impacted by AMPK activity is presented.
... RS is the starch that is resistant to enzymatic digestion, but is digested by the microbiota in the distal gastrointestinal tract [1]. RS has assumed importance in our daily diet due to its various beneficial health properties mostly mediated by short chain fatty acids produced during its fermentation in the large intestine [3,4]. In this sense, another starch fraction, slowly digestible starch (SDS), has received interest for its beneficial health effects [1,5,6,7]. ...
Functional foods such as sweet cookies, masala cookies and khakhra were prepared by incorporating modified starch extracted from selected traditional rice varieties. The products were standardized by incorporating modified rice starch served as test product group and without incorporating modified rice starch served as control product group. The developed products such as sweet cookies, masala cookies and khakhra were stored up to 90 days at room temperature (25-30ºC) and relative humidity (40-60%). The packaging material used was 300 gauge low density polyethylene (LDPE). Samples from sweet cookies and masala cookies were drawn in triplicates for evaluation when fresh and after 15, 30, 45, and 60 days of storage, whereas samples from khakhra were drawn when fresh and after 30, 60, and 90 days of storage duration. The products were evaluated for their In vitro starch digestibility. In all the stored products, there was a significant (p<0.05) decreasing trend in rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and starch digestibility index (SDI), whereas increasing trend was observed in resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) as the storage period increased.
Предмет дослідження. Моніторинг виробництва резистентного крохмалю у світі та вплив його застосування на якість хліба. Останнім часом все більше уваги приділяється здоровому харчуванню людей з урахуванням особливостям організму, стресових ситуацій та ритму життя. Неправильне харчування призводить до розвитку ожиріння, цукрового діабету, панкреатиту, а також може викликати страждання від «прихованого голоду». Зниження споживання вуглеводів у раціоні сприяло розвитку напряму застосування у виробництві харчових продуктів так званого стійкого або резистентного крохмалю як низьковуглеводного інгредієнту. Мета. Моніторинг досліджень щодо властивостей резистентного крохмалю (РК) як функціонального інгредієнту харчових продуктів та його впливу на якість харчових продуктів на прикладі хліба. Методи та методика. Застосовано аналітичний метод. Результати. Для отримання резистентного крохмалю застосовують різні методи оброблення його нативної структури: фізичні, хімічні, ферментативні та генетичні. Стійкий крохмаль природним чином зустрічається у ряді сільськогосподарських продуктів і в трьох формах. RS1 переважає в насінні, бобах, а також в необробленому або мінімально переробленому цілісному зерні. RS2 перетравлюється дуже повільно і зазвичай міститься в картоплі, кукурудзі, недостиглих бананах та борошні. RS3 стає стійким тільки тоді, коли частини крохмального ланцюга розширюються, а потім скорочуються під час приготування або обробки їжі. Картопля, хліб і деякі злаки (до прикладу, кукурудзяні пластівці) є звичайними джерелами RS3. RS4 не зустрічається в природі й утворюється в результаті хімічної або термічної обробки, має як розчинні, так і нерозчинні властивості. РК використовують у виробництві хлібобулочних і молочних продуктів, різних закусках, пластівцях для сніданку, пастах, локшині, кондитерських виробах, м'ясних продуктах і напоях, а також у фармацевтичній промисловості і як альтернативу антибіотикам у прикормі курчат і поросят. Показано вплив комерційних продуктів резистентного крохмалю на якість хліба залежно від складових основи борошняної суміші. Сфера застосування результатів. Харчова промисловість, а саме крохмале-патокова галузь.
Background and aim: Across the globe, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus is rapidly increasing, even in populations with significant undernutrition. In this study, the effect of the fermentation period and soybean flour (SBF) supplementation on the glycemic indices and starch digestibility of biofortified provitamin A cassava meal was investigated. Methods: Biofortified provitamin A cassava (TMS 011368) was processed into cassava meal (garri) under two fermentation periods (24 h and 72 h) and supplemented with SBF at 0 – 80 % to produce different composite meals. These later were evaluated for their predicted glycemic index (pGI) and in vitro starch digestibility. Results: SBF supplementation significantly (p<0.05) decreased the hydrolysis index and pGI from 68.15 – 47.28 % and 73.20 – 44.56 % for composite meals fermented for 24 and 72 h, respectively. pGI, digestible starch, and resistant starch contents were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in composite meals fermented for 72 h than for 24 h. An increase in SBF supplementation significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the resistant starch, and digestible starch contents of the samples. Conclusion: Composite meals fermented for 24 h and supplemented with 40 – 80 % SBF had a reduced rate of in-vitro starch hydrolysis and glycemic indices, which may therefore be better suited for dietary prevention and management of diabetes mellitus.
Resistant starch (RS) in recent times has gained a lot of interest in scientific research due to its numerous health benefits. It is also known as a prebiotic and a functional ingredient. There are five types of RS in which RS1 and RS2 are naturally available, and the remaining three are obtained from the modification of starch by physical (RS3), chemical, enzymatic (RS4), and addition of lipid (RS5). Incorporating the five types of RS as a functional ingredient in various food products has been done worldwide. In particular, the incorporation of RS in dairy products provides low‐cost health products that are feasible for people all around the world. RS as a prebiotic combined with probiotics present in the dairy product produces synbiotics which is more beneficial than consuming RS via other food products. Combining prebiotics and probiotics has a healthier impact on the human body. The accumulation of data regarding the different types of RS incorporated in dairy products is given in this review. To better serve today's consumers, researchers should look for low‐cost, high‐nutritional‐value products. It can be fulfilled by the resistant starch incorporated in dairy products. Although starch and milk were widely available, they were largely underutilised. We can make a variety of healthy food products by modifying and combining these ingredients. The RS in dairy products acts as a stabiliser, a source of food for microorganisms, and a fat substitute. This review's goal is to provide knowledge on these topics.
Resistant starch (RS) consists of a glucose plant polymer that is extremely abundant in nature and easily obtained through simple technological processes in the food industry. Its molecular conformation, as well as its specific localization within the plant tissues, makes this molecule sterically inaccessible to the activity of amylolytic enzymes, which can degrade any other type of starch. Such a characteristic allows resistant starch to act as dietary fiber when ingested by humans, and it is used as a substrate by the gut microbiota. By metabolizing the resistant starch, the microbiota can produce organic fatty acids of low molecular weight, mainly butyrate, propionate, and acetate, also known as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). Besides being a valuable energy source for colonocytes, SCFA promotes a plethora of beneficial and systemic effects on human metabolism. Researchers worldwide have been investigating the broad spectrum of benefits generated by the inclusion of resistant starch in the diet, including its effect on counteracting metabolic diseases. The worldwide abundance, easy access, and variety of industrial applications of resistant starch make it a functional food of great interest to the scientific community and for the development of new dietetic approaches capable of promoting health for the world’s population. This review will cover physiological aspects associated with RS intake and its impact on microbiota and health, especially to counteract chronic non-communicable diseases.
Diet is an essential factor to maintain health by regulating host metabolism and immunity. Host immunity acts as a critical regulator of metabolic changes. By using differentially immune-biased mice C57BL/6 and BALB/c, we demonstrated the metabolic consequence of consuming diets rich in non-resistant starch (starch-rich), unsaturated fat (sunflower oil-rich), and saturated fat (coconut oil-rich) for shorter (four weeks) or longer (eight weeks) duration. Time kinetics of various diets on two differentially immune-biased mice revealed that starch-rich and unsaturated fat-rich diets reduced insulin resistance (IR) and visceral adiposity in BALB/c mice. In contrast, a saturated fat-rich diet enhanced both parameters. In C57BL/6 mice, a fat-rich diet enhanced IR with time while visceral adiposity remained unchanged. Eight weeks' consumption of a saturated fat-rich diet led to the highest visceral adiposity in C57BL/6 mice, while the same diet resulted in the maximum IR in BALB/c mice. The current report presented a detailed metabolomic analysis of treatments with various diets using a) uni- and b) multi-variate analyses. We also calculated the differential index for each treatment for each mouse strain using a vector analysis of the multivariate linear discriminant data. The outcome of the vector analysis of metabolite profiles identified metabolites that affected lipid and glucose metabolism to establish the inter-strain physiological differences.
The study intended to explore the influence of corn resistant starches type III (RS3s) prepared by autoclave, debranching, and microwave heat on the rheology, structure, and viable counts of set yogurt. The rheological analysis suggested that RS3s enhanced the elastic and viscous modulus of yogurt, and that microwave-heated RS was the most effective for improving viscoelasticity. Fitting the creep data using the Burger model showed that yogurt with microwave-heated RS increased the structural strength of yogurt, which displayed the highest instantaneous and viscoelastic deformations. The confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy micrographs demonstrated that autoclaved and debranched RS3s formed large fragments and disrupted the continuity of the milk protein structure; however, microwave-heated RS evenly filled the gel network and formed an interpenetrating network with proteins. The bacterial count and acidity of yogurt indicated that microwave-heated and debranched RS3s promoted the growth of lactic acid bacteria and accelerated the fermentation process of yogurt. The results of this study demonstrated that microwave-heated RS is a favorable supplement to the microstructure and rheological properties of yogurt compared with autoclaved and debranched RS3s.
Starch is the main energy contributor for humans. When the starch reaches the small intestine in the digestive system, α-amylases, glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase break down or hydrolyze the starches to yield free glucose followed by absorption. However, some typical starches are not readily broken down by enzymes and absorbed in the small intestine; these have lately become known as resistant starch (RS). RS consists of an extensive range of materials and several different types (RS1 to RS5), and its physiological effects are comparable to those of dietary fiber. Therefore, RS behaves as a prebiotic, and it is also not absorbed in the human intestine. Health benefits of RS are reported in improvement of microflora and colonic health, lower glycemic index, treatment of diabetes, attenuation of blood cholesterol levels, decreased bile stone development, enhanced mineral absorption, and ability to enhance fat oxidation. Several factors affect the RS content in foods, namely, the characteristics of native starch, processing techniques, and storage temperature. Technically, RS can be prepared through different methods: chemical, physical, and enzymatic modifications. Food industries employ these RS preparation methods to produce food constituents that reduce the products’ caloric content and enhance their textural and sensory characteristics. Reports show that the consumption of RS has decreased over the last few decades, possibly because of intake of low-fiber foods and fast foods. Observing this tendency, food scientists have developed a number of RS or dietary fiber-rich products that are now available in the market. RS seems to be ideal for fortification of ready to eat cereals, pasta, snacks, noodles, fried foods, and baked foods to enhance their functionality.
Nowadays dietary starches are considered as a tool for maintaining good health. Recently resistant starch has received much attention because of its specific contribution to human health. Resistant starch escapes digestion in the small intestine and fermented in the colon by colonic microorganisms. Resistant starch has wide applications in varieties of food products. In the present study, types of resistant starch, their sources, physiological benefits, have been discussed briefly. This chapter focuses on factors affecting starch digestion, resistant starch content, characterization of resistant starch and various techniques employed to study their structural features.
In this paper, we examine the role and effect of resistant starch (RS) in human nutrition; further, the structure and properties of RS, the food sources based on resistance to digestion in the colon, and the physiological effects of RS are described. The nutritional value of RS, the effect of RS on short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, the relationships between RS and colon function, and the relationships between food starch, dietary fibre, and RS content and colon cancer development are reviewed. It has been shown that the use of RS in foods may have some benefits. Resistant starch, digestion of resistant-starch-containing foods have a number of health benefits for colon function but appear to have less effect on lipid-glucose metabolism. It has a positive effect on colon bacterial activity, promotes the growth of beneficial microbes, and reduces the activity of enzymes that are harmful to the digestive system. Under the influence of RS, increased SCFA production lowers the pH of the colon and stimulates bile acid secretion. The decreased pH protects against colon cancer and inhibits the conversion of primary and secondary bile acids, which are cytotoxic to intestinal cells. At the end of the review article, the relationships between RS and the colon microflora, its use as a prebiotic, and the relationship between RS and glucose metabolism are analysed. It was found that the use of RS in the diet might have benefits as it shortens the time it takes food to pass through the colon and increases the amount of stool. It was also found that the physicochemical properties of foods can directly affect the amount of RS and thereby the blood glucose levels and insulin response.
Background and objectives
Resistant starch (RS) has health-promoting properties, but can be altered during frying. The aim of this study was to examine the textural, and sensory characteristics of fried rice batters with varying amounts of RS.
Findings
Adding resistant starch (RS2 and RS3) to rice batters or using a high RS rice flour significantly increased resistant starch contents after frying. The instrumental textural analysis of the fried batters indicated all of the fried rice flour batters used had higher hardness values and quantity of fractures when compared to wheat batter. Sensory evaluation using battered onion strips indicated that adding RS to rice flour batters did not significantly alter the attributes for hardness, fracturability, crispness, and toothpacking. However, the sensory evaluation for battered onion strips indicated the low RS rice flour displayed significantly higher values for hardness, fracturability, and crispness when compared to the high RS rice flour.
Conclusions
The addition of RS or the use of high RS rice flour in fried battered onion strips did not significantly alter the textural and sensory attributes that consumers enjoy.
Significance and novelty
Rice is a source of RS and can be included in fried food batters to promote better health.
Ninety-nine lines from recombinant inbred lines were selected to investigate the effects of starch synthesis-related genes on resistant starch (RS) content in different proceeding types. RS in raw milled rice (RSm), hot cooked rice (RSc), and retrogradation rice (RSr) showed a wide variation among the lines, especially RSm arrived at 10.61%. Divergent variability of RSm, RSc and RSr indicated that there were different regulation mechanisms for them. Waxy wildtype allele (Wxa) could elevate RSm, RSc and RSr, but Soluble starch synthase IIa (SSIIa) only played a vital role in regulating RSm. Wxa-indica SSIIa could increase RSm, and Wxa-japonica SSIIa (SSIIaj) could elevate RSc and RSr. The mean diameter of Wxa-SSIIaj was significantly bigger than others. The bigger starch granules, the higher RSc and RSr. Starch granules morphology with high-RSm would have a higher percentage in polyhedral and angular shape. The results provide new information for rice breeding with high-RS content.
This study was to characterise the undigested nutrients present along the gastrointestinal tract of birds offered common wheat- or maize-based diets, with the goal of optimising utilisation of enzymes to enhance digestive efficiency. Wheat- and maize-based diets were offered to 240 mixed-sex broilers (10 birds/pen; n = 12) from 1 to 35 d post-hatch. Digestibility of dry matter, starch, crude protein and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) were measured in the crop, gizzard, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caeca and excreta at d 12 and 35 post-hatch. Analysis of nutrient levels in the excreta presented that more than 30% of nutrients provided in the feed was wasted, irrespective of wheat or maize diet type. On average, 92 g/kg crude protein, 92 g/kg insoluble NSP and 14 g/kg oligosaccharides were not utilised by birds at d 12 post-hatch. The quantity of water-insoluble NSP in the small intestine at d 12 was lower in birds offered the wheat-based diet compared to those fed the maize-based diet (P < 0.05), with the reverse being true for water-soluble NSP (P < 0.001). On average, 84 g/kg crude protein, 79 g/kg insoluble NSP and 9 g/kg oligosaccharides remained in the excreta at 35 d of age. At this time period, accumulation of feed in the gizzard was noted for birds offered both diets, but was more pronounced in those offered the maize-based diet (P < 0.001). Birds offered the maize-based diet demonstrated improved utilisation of oligosaccharides compared to those fed the wheat-based diet at both d 12 and 35 (P = 0.087 and P = 0.047, respectively). Protein utilisation in the jejunum and ileum was greater in birds offered the wheat-based diet compared to those fed the maize-based diet (P = 0.004 and P < 0.001, respectively). Thus, while both diets supported standard growth performance of birds, the degree and flow of nutrient disappearance along the gastrointestinal tract was influenced by cereal type and bird age.
Resistant starch can escape digestion by a host's small intestinal glucoamylases and transit the colon, where it is degraded by gut bacteria. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the prebiotic activities of resistant starch nanoparticles (SNPs) on the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum (recently re-named Lactiplantibacillus plantarum subsp. Plantarum (L. plantarum)). The results showed that SNPs (0.5% w/v) could be continuously fermented by L. plantarum and that many viable L. plantarum were maintained at 9.5 log CFU/mL until the 70th hour of cultivation. Conversely, the viable L. plantarum yield was merely 6.75 log CFU/mL when the carbon source used was glucose. The addition of SNPs increased the hydrophobicity and the β-sheet content of the surface layer proteins of L. plantarum, which may have increased the intestinal adhesion of L. plantarum. Furthermore, the content of short-chain fatty acids, especially butyric acid, increased and proved beneficial for host health.
Introduction. Buckwheat grain has long been used in food technology. However, its aboveground part remains understudied even though it is richer in biologically active substances than grain. The research objective was to evaluate the potential of buckwheat grass as a raw material for functional tea beverages. Study objects and methods. The research featured the lower and upper parts of the stem, leaves, and flowers of common buckwheat, as well as buckwheat tea beverages. The content of polyphenol compounds was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, while the amount of rutin was measured by HPLC analysis. Sensory properties were analyzed by standard methods and quality score, and antioxidant activity – by DPPH radical scavenging method. Results and discussion. The sensory analyses proved that the best tea beverages were made from the upper part of the plant: the samples had a strong smell of meadow grass and honey. The taste of the samples was pleasant, sweetish, with a honey and light floral aftertaste. As the total score (maximum score – 20) increased, the tea samples were arranged in the following order: lower stem (14.3) > upper stem (16.8) > leaves, (18.5) > blend – mix of leaves, flowers, and upper stem (18.6) > flowers (19.3). Polyphenol compounds were found in all parts of the plant: flowers – 6.67%, leaves – 5.71%, blend – 5.45%, upper and lower stem – 1.92 and 1.32%, respectively. Only 30–40% of buckwheat grass polyphenol compounds were found in tea beverages. Most of them were in the samples prepared from leaves and flowers – 1.78 %. Rutin made up most of the polyphenol compounds found in the leaves (5.05%), but its content was lower in other parts of the plant: 3.43% in the blend, 3.03% in the flowers, 1.08 and 0.76% in the upper and lower stem. Except for the lower stem samples, the tea contained from 15 to 75% of the daily rutin intake. All the tea samples showed antioxidant activity: flowers – 66.7%, leaves – 62.3%, and blend – 52.5%. In terms of ascorbic acid, it was 69, 64, and 52 μmol/g dry matter, respectfully. The same samples demonstrated antiradical activity. Conclusion. Common buckwheat grass can serve as a raw material for tea beverages. Buckwheat tea is a natural functional food product with zero caffeine. They have a pleasant taste and aroma. They owe their high biological activity to the high content of rutin and other polyphenol compounds.
Scope
Resistant starch type-2 (RS2), can mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress in hemodialysis (HD) patients. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on the impact of the RS2 on the gut microbiota community in these patients. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of enriched RS2 cookies on the gut microbiome in HD patients.
Methods and results
This comprised a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of age-, sex-, and BMI-matched patients and controls. The RS2 group received enriched RS2 cookies (16 g/d of Hi-Maize® 260, Ingredion) for four weeks, while the placebo group received cookies made with manioc flour. Fecal microbiota composition was evaluated by the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. Analysis of the microbiota revealed that Pielou's evenness was significantly decreased after RS2 supplementation. Notably, we observed that RS2 intervention upregulated significantly 8 Amplicon Sequencing Variants (ASV's), including Roseburia and Ruminococcus gauvreauii, which are short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) producers. Furthermore, it was associated with the downregulation of 11 ASV's, such as the pro-inflammatory Dialister.
Conclusions
RS2 intervention for four weeks in HD patients effectively altered SCFA producers in the gut microbiota, suggesting that it could be a good nutritional strategy for patients with CKD on HD.
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Prebiotics are compounds naturally present in some foods or can be synthesized by microorganisms and enzymes. Among the benefits associated with prebiotic consumption are the modulation of the intestinal microbiota that increase the production of short chain fatty acids and prevent the development of some disorders such as colon cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, diabetes, obesity, among others. Traditionally, prebiotics have been used in diverse food formulations to enhance their healthy potential or to improve their technological and sensory properties. However, different alternatives for the production of prebiotic products are being explored, such as edible coatings and films. Therefore, this review aims to highlight recent research on edible coatings and films incorporated with different prebiotics, the concept of prebiotics, the general characteristics of these materials, and the main production methods, as well as presenting the perspectives of uses in the food industry. Current works describe that polyols and oligosaccharides are the most employed prebiotics, and depending on their structure and concentration, they can also act as film plasticizer or reinforcement agent. The use of prebiotic in the coating can also improve probiotic bacteria survival making it possible to obtain fruits and vegetables with synbiotic properties. The most common method of production is casting, suggesting that other technologies such as extrusion can be explored aiming industrial scale. The use of film and coating carried of prebiotic is an emerging technology and there are still several possibilities for study to enable its use in the food industry. This review will be useful to detect the current situation, identify problems, verify new features, future trends and support new investigations and investments.
Resistant starches (RSs) with different structural features were isolated from both native and pullulanase-debranched and acid-hydrolyzed pea starches. Their microscopic changes, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) composition, microbiota communities, and structural characteristics of the corresponding fermenta residues by the end of 24 h of the in vitro fermentation period were investigated. The microbial fermentation clearly caused numerous cracks and erosion on the RS granule surface. In comparison to the positive control, significantly higher levels of butyrate, propionate, and total SCFA were produced after 24 h of in vitro fecal fermentation when resistant starches were used as substrates. The RS substrates with different structural characteristics enabled varying growth of Bifidobacterium spp., Eubacterium spp., and Faecalibacterium spp. The discrepancy in microbiota communities associated with the differences in SCFA from the fermentation of RS with different structural features would be critical toward the rational design of foods containing resistant starch with targeted health benefits.
Background
Resistant starch (RS) has been unanimously identified as a replacement for dietary fiber due to its balanced nutritional functionality and sensory implications. Main source of resistant starch is presently from tubers and cereals. However, on the basis of dependence on resource intensiveness, these crops were questioned recently and a necessity of shifting starch source to a sustainable source was highlighted. This resulted an increase in interest for millet sourced RS, lately. Recently, this fact attracted research community's attention and numerous studies have been reported. However, a literature compiling the recent developments and highlighting the importance, opportunities of RS sourced millets as a cereal replacement is limited.
Scope and approach
This review is focused on comprehending the recent developments and food application of millet RS. Starch profile of different millets and influence of different millet and various unit operations in millets RS formation has been also conferred. Research prospects and importance of millet RS in meeting future RS demand sustainably is highlighted. Commercial viability of high RS millet flour and conventional corn RS has been evaluated.
Key Findings and Conclusion: Millets is a sustainable raw-material for RS manufacturing and a potential replacement to cereals. The inherent nutraceutical functionality and climatic tolerance gives millets an edge over cereals. Thermal and chemical treatments are efficient manufacturing processes for millet RS. Influence of millet protein and fat could increment the RS content. The versatility of millet RS permit multiple food applications.
Starch is of the most important carbohydrates in human diets for maintaining normal body's energy metabolisms. However, due to the increased number of chronic diseases worldwide, the further study of the starch property in the dietary formula becomes essential for revealing its association with preventing or intervening the occurrence of such diseases as diabetes, obesity, intestinal diseases and even cardiovascular diseases. Considering that different starches demonstrate different digestion property based on their individual structural characteristics, in particular, the existence of resistant starch (RS) attracts much more interests recently because of its being a major producer of short-chain fatty acids followed by gut microbial fermentation. Furthermore, the understanding of the interaction between RS and microbiota in the gut and its substantial influence on the regulation of diabetes, kidney, disease hypertension and others is still being under investigated. Therefore, this chapter summarized the fine structure of starch, resistant starch structural characteristics, formation and preparation of resistant starches and their corresponding physiological property.
Over the last two to three decades, the consumption rate of dietary fibre has effectively increased owing to its health promoting properties including prevention of various non communicable bowel diseases and various other ailments. Resistant starch nowadays is an important diet ingredient of staple foods consumed globally that has caught attention for being an efficient dietary fibre conferring various health benefits. Colonic fermentation of fibre fractions by gut microflora produces short chain fatty acids that enhance colonic functions, prevent colorectal cancer risk, has a positive influence on digestive system gut micro flora, decreases blood cholesterol, controls glycemic response of body and manages diabetes plus an overall favorable effect on cellular functions. Out of various SCFA’s produced butyrate has been proposed to have a direct involvement in preventing DNA damage and angiogenesis of colorectal cancers. With these proven benefits various food formulation consisting resistant starch are now commercially available e.g. (BARLEY max™), a high amylose barley product that improves butyrate production in body. Resistant starch has been studied across the globe with the clinically proven evidences by various in vivo and in vitro studies showing immense health benefits. Keeping these benefits in view, the chapter on resistant starch becomes imperative. Beginning with the overview, the chapter discuss in detail the types and properties of Resistant Starch. Since RS have immense health benefits, the work in depth explores the neutraceutical properties like Prebiotic potential, Anti-cancerous properties, Hypoglycemic properties and hypolipidemic properties followed by the conclusion.
Owing to their perceived therapeutic effects, functional foods have been a matter of extensive research in recent years. Prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics are the important members of this family exhibiting property that improves health, mental well-being and particularly reflected as an outcome of optimized gastrointestinal health status. The most commonly employed probiotic strains are lactobacilli, bifidobacteria, B. coagulans and L. johnsoni. Prebiotics are the oligosaccharides, either extracted from plant, mammal’s milk or synthesized industrially by enzymatic hydrolysis which are utilized by probiotic microorganisms in the intestine and impart health benefits such as stimulation of gut microflora, enhancing mineral absorption and host immunity, prevention of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and lowering cholesterol levels. Prebiotics are non-digestible oligosaccharides which are fermented in the intestine. The commonly known prebiotics are inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide, galacto-oligosaccharide, lactulose, lactosucrose, xylo-oligosaccharide and resistant starch. The prebiotic compounds when used in combination with probiotic microorganism are termed synbiotics which happen to be more effective and acceptable in terms of their beneficial effects. Presently, prebiotics and its synergistic therapy, i.e. synbiotic is gaining much importance because it manages human health at the same time providing nutrition. Till now, a number of foods like vegetables, fruits such as onion, tomato, garlic, carrots, banana, etc. are known to show good prebiotic effects. Various industrially formulated prebiotic products are also available in the market that resemble naturally found prebiotics and exhibit nutritional and therapeutic effects.
Une des causes de l’augmentation de la prévalence de l’obésité et des maladies chroniques au niveau mondial (notamment dans les pays occidentaux) est la consommation de régimes hypercaloriques. A l’inverse la consommation d’un régime riche en fibres alimentaires est favorable à une bonne santé. Or la consommation de fibres alimentaires dans les pays occidentaux (20 g/j en France) est inférieure aux recommandations alimentaires préconisées par les organismes de santé (30 g/j). Un des moyens possibles d’augmenter l’ingestion des fibres est la mise à disposition d’aliments enrichis en fibres, et en particulier de fibres capables d’impacter favorablement sur la santé métabolique (les fibres fermentescibles). L’objectif de ma thèse a donc été de déterminer si, chez des mini-porcs en situation de surnutrition, une supplémentation en un mélange de fibres fermentescibles inclues dans un aliment de consommation courante (le pain) était capable de limiter l’apparition des désordres métaboliques associés au développement de l’obésité. Quatorze mini-porcs femelles ont été nourries 2 mois avec un régime en surnutrition enrichi en saccharose (10% p/p) et huile de palme (10% p/p) supplémenté ou non avec un mélange de fibres (25 g/j, pectine, inuline et amidons résistants) inclues dans un pain (250 g/j). Les animaux ont été cathétérisés au niveau intestinal et hépatique pour mesurer les flux nets splanchniques de nutriments durant l’adaptation aux régimes expérimentaux. Des fèces ont été prélevés pour analyser le microbiote et son activité. A l’euthanasie des animaux (après 56 jours de traitement nutritionnel), des tissus (jéjunum, caecum, foie, muscle, tissu adipeux) ont été prélevés pour un phénotypage métabolique (histologie, transcrits de gènes, protéomique).Nous avons mis en évidence que la supplémentation en fibres fermentescibles, après 2 mois de surnutrition, permettait de limiter la prise de poids corporelle, l’accumulation de gouttelettes lipidiques dans le foie et stimulait l’activité oxydative des tissus périphériques (comme le muscle). La moindre accumulation de gouttelettes lipidiques dans le foie est associée à une réduction de l’entrée des lipides (Fabp1) et une baisse probable de la lipogenèse (Srebp-1c). Ce mécanisme, confirmé par l’analyse des flux de nutriments, a induit une augmentation de la biodisponibilité en nutriments énergétiques vers les tissus périphériques. Les nutriments en excès sont pris en charge par le muscle via une augmentation de l’activité oxydative (↑ ARNm Pgc1α, Pparα, Nrf2, Acox, Ucp2, sdha, Cpt1-m). Ces modulations de dialogue foie- muscle avec la supplémentation en fibres pourrait passer par GLP1 et/ou GLP2 synthétisés par les cellules L de l’intestin (↑ ARNm de GCG jéjunum) et par une stimulation de la signalisation par les acides gras à chaine courte (AGCC) dans le caecum (↑ ARNm GPR41) mais probablement pas par une action directe des AGCC sur les tissus périphériques. Ces résultats montrent donc une amélioration du profil métabolique des mini-porcs en surnutrition lors de la supplémentation en fibres alimentaires fermentescibles via une réorganisation de l’utilisation des nutriments entre le foie et les tissus périphériques et une adaptation de leurs activités métaboliques. La quantité de fibres et de pain supplémentées dans notre étude, raisonnable, permet d’envisager une étude chez l’homme pour valider ces concepts et la stratégie nutritionnelle.
Bananas are a valuable crop that are embedded with various micronutrients. Unripe bananas are of interest because they are used by commercial interests as a source of starch. These starches can be modified to resistant forms to slow digestibility and lower glycemic index. In this context, they are of interest in diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease research. Additionally, there is pharmaceutical interest in modified banana starches in terms of drug delivery and in the textile industry as filler in yarn. Due to the texturizing capacity, mouthfeel, and palatability of banana starches, the beverage, bakery, and confectionery industries have investigated their use for novel formulations. This Review summarizes the properties and applications of banana starches. Bananas are a valuable crop that are embedded with various micronutrients. This Review summarizes the properties and applications of banana starches.
Not all starch that is ingested into the human body is digested into D-glucose –
the portion that defies this process is referred to as resistant starch (RS) where
chemically and mechanically, five different forms have been identified. Regardless
of the form, an extensive breadth of health benefits has been associated with the
consumption of RS. These include the potential of RS becoming part of weight
and diabetes management plans as well as improved colon health and prevention
of colon cancer. Therefore, in the past decade, there has been a significant
amount of research into how RS concentrations can be increased in various food
systems, which have had varying degrees of success; however, are limited to either
enzymatic, thermal, or acidic alterations to starch. In a similar fashion, chemical
methods of RS measurement have also received a considerable amount of change
and enhancement over time, though with most of them to some extent attempting
to replicate human carbohydrate digestion.
Resistant starch (RS) is starch that is not converted into glucose during its passage through the small intestine. There are five types of RS and four of those are used as food ingredients (RS2, RS3, RS4, and RS5). RS2 is native, uncooked/ungelatinized starch granule and is resistant to α-amylase attack because of the granule organized, semi-crystalline structures. RS3 is retrograded starch (primarily amylose) that is resistant to α-amylase attack due to its crystalline nature. Several processes are employed to enhance its yields, increasing the amounts of linear starch chains of crystallizable size. RS4 is starch that has been chemically modified to an extent that prevents binding of starch polysaccharide molecules in the active site of α-amylase (substitution) or that strongly inhibits granule swelling and solubilization (cross-linking), or whose molecular structures have been altered by other chemical reagents or enzymes. RS5 products are partially crystalline amylose-lipid complexes. RS products have been successfully incorporated into bakery and beverage products. The health benefits achieved when a RS product replaces some of the flour or starch in a food formulation are related to a decreased glycemic response and an increased production of butyric acid in the colon, which maintains or improves colon health.
Resistant Starch - A Functional Dietary Fibre
Six subjects with ileostomies consumed five diets containing 61-164 g starch/d of which 0.4-34.8 g was resistant starch (RS). Ileal excretion of starch was 97% of that measured as dietary RS in vitro with no significant difference between RS fed and starch recovered on any of the test diets. Variation in starch excretion between subjects was partly due to differences in mouth-to-stoma transit time. In vitro fermentation of ileal effluent from RS-supplemented diets produced significantly more short-chain fatty acids, a higher molar proportion of butyrate (17% compared with 12%), and a lower concentration of ammonia compared with control subjects. These results indicate that the amount of starch that reaches the large intestine can be predicted from measurements in vitro for a wide range of RS intakes under normal eating conditions. They also support the hypothesis that RS, through fermentation, has distinctive influences on the colonic environment.
1. The extent of utilization of α-amylase ( EC 3.2.1.1)-resistant retrograded starches in vivo was assessed in male Wistar rats (about 100 g body-weight). All animals were given a fibre-free semi-synthetic basal diet (SS) containing sucrose as the only carbohydrate source, ad lib., for 13 d. On day 14, after an overnight fast, rats were allocated to one of five dietary treatments ( n 30):1, fibre-free basal SS diet; 2-5, basal SS diet supplemented with 100 g sucrose, Solka floc (cellulose), resistant maize starch (RCS) or resistant pea ( Pisum sativum ) starch (RPS)/kg diet. Animals allocated to each dietary treatment were divided into three groups of ten rats which were given the appropriate diet for 8 or 9, 17 or 18 and 29 or 30 d (8/9, 17/18 or 29/30 d groups respectively). Rats were fed on 12 g diet/d (treatment 1) or 13.2 g diet/d (treatments 2-5) for the first 20 d, and 14 or 15.4 g/d respectively until the end of the experiment. Rats fed on the supplemented basal diets were thus given 10% more food to allow for the addition of the test carbohydrate. Faecal carbohydrate excretion was determined at intervals in the 17/18 d groups. At the end of each experimental period animals were killed after consuming their daily food ration and small intestinal length, weight of caecal and ileal contents and tissue, and pH of caecal contents measured. The amount of carbohydrate in the caecal and ileal contents from the 8/9 and 17/18 d groups was determined.
2. Weights of ileal and caecal contents, caecal tissue and faecal output were significantly greater at all time points for rats fed on the resistant starches compared with those fed on basal and sucrose-supplemented diets. Values were higher for RPS-fed rats than for RCS-fed rats.
3. The quantity of carbohydrate recovered from ileal and caecal contents showed that both RCS and RPS were partially digested and absorbed as carbohydrate, but that RPS was digested to a lesser extent.
4. The concentration of carbohydrate decreased between the ileal and caecal sites when RPS and RCS were given but was essentially unchanged when cellulose was given. This is consistent with rapid fermentation of a fraction of these starches.
5. Faecal carbohydrate elimination in the 17/18 d groups fed on RCS and RPS declined with time, which suggested an adaptive response resulting in increased utilization of the starches. This adaptive response was slower in the RPS-fed rats than the RCS-fed rats.
6. The present study indicates that, in the rat, there are significant differences in the utilization of resistant starches from different sources.
Serum and liver lipidemic responses in hamsters fed diets containing 2% cholesterol and different dietary fiber sources were studied. The following diets were made from: a) the control diet made from extruded cassava starch (CSH) contained 9.3% cellulose, b) cassava starch extruded with 9.7% resistant starch (CS-RS), c) cassava starch extruded with 9.9% oat fiber (CS-OF), d) the reference diet contained 9.5% cellulose, and no cholesterol was added. Total cholesterol, LDL+VLDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in serum of hamsters fed on the CS-RS (17.87%, 62.92% and 9.17%, respectively) and CS-OF (15.12%, 67.41% and 18.35%, respectively) diets, as compared to hamster fed with the CSH diet. Similar results were found in the livers of hamsters fed on the CS-RS and CS-OF diets, as compared to hamsters fed with the CSH diet. The diets containing these fibers could be used as active ingredients in human diets to improve the human health.
The digestion of four sources of resistant starch (RS) has been studied in twelve healthy volunteers who ate controlled diets for 15 d periods. RS from potato, banana, wheat and maize (17−30 g/d) was compared with a starch-free diet, a diet containing wheat starch that was fully digested in the small intestine, and with 18·4 g NSP from bran/d. RS increased stool wet weight by 1·6 g/d per g RS fed for potato, 1·7 for banana, 2·5 for wheat and 2·7 for maize, but this was significantly less than bran NSP at 4·9 g/g. RS was extensively digested in twenty-seven of thirtyfour diet periods but five subjects were unable to break down one or two of the RS sources. Faecal N and energy excretion were increased. RS decreased NSP breakdown and RS2 (resistant starch granules) tended to prolong transit time. All forms of RS increased faecal total short-chain fatty acid excretion. RS2 (from potato and banana) gave greater proportions of acetate in faeces, and RS3 (retrograded starch from wheat and maize) more propionate. We have concluded that RS2 and RS3 are broken down in the human gut, probably in the colon although in 26% of cases this breakdown was impaired. RS exerts mild laxative properties, predominantly through stimulation of biomass excretion but also through some sparing of NSP breakdown.
The digestibility of the starch in plant foods is highly variable, and is dependent on a number of factors, including the physical structure of both the starch and the food matrix. An in vitro technique has been developed to categorize starch in plant foods according to its likely rate and extent of digestion in the human small intestine. The in vitro method provides values for rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch and resistant starch (RS). In the present study values for the RS content of foods, as measured by the analytical technique, were compared with the recovery of starch from these foods when fed to healthy ileostomates. Nine ileostomy subjects were given a polysaccharide-free diet with a breakfast supplement, on each of 2 d (two subjects) or 3 d (seven subjects), of biscuits made from wheat, potato or banana flours or from moist-heat-processed wheat or maize flours. RS intakes measured in vifro ranged from 8·5 to 15·0 g/d for the test biscuits, and mean starch recoveries in ileostomy effluent were 100·4 (n5, range 91−106)% of those values, but there was substantial variation between individuals. It is proposed that RS is defined as ‘the sum of starch and starch-degradation products that, on average, reach the human large intestine’. The analytical method for the measurement of RS in vitro based on this definition is shown to provide an accurate prediction of the average amount of starch that is likely to escape complete digestion and absorption in the human small intestine.
Until the early to mid-1980s, the only nationally based information about dietary fiber intake in the Australian population came from the apparent consumption or food disappearance data collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The only data available from direct survey of individuals was on selected, and usually small, subpopulations and, furthermore, Australian databases were limited, so survey analyses relied on British food databases.
To study the postprandial effects of changing the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio (Am:Ap) in the starch fraction of a meal, male volunteers were given hot mixed lunches ( 13% of energy as protein, 24% as fat, 6% as mono- and disaccharides, and 57% as polysaccharides) in which Am:Ap was either 0:100 or 45:55. The increase in Am:Ap resulted in a change in the shape of the glucose and insulin responses in the blood with significantly lower initial responses but a small increase for glucose and a decrease for insulin if averaged over the 6 h of the study. The rises in the concentration of free glycerol and free fatty acid that occurred after an initial drop were stronger at low Am:Ap. High-Am:Ap meals induced more satiety up to 6 h postprandially. There was no effect of Am:Ap on postprandial triacylglycerol in the blood or on breath hydrogen except for a weak trend toward a higher concentration at 6 h after the high-Am:Ap meals.
To study the intracolonic digestion of starch, 5 healthy volunteers were maintained on a constant diet for 7 days. On the fourth day, the cecum was intubated and a suspension of raw wheat starch (50 g, in 500 ml of 154 mM NaCl and containing 10 g of polyethylene glycol 4000) was infused into the distal ileum at 2 ml/min. Hydrogen excretion in breath was measured, cecal contents were sampled, and symptoms were recorded. For the 2–3 days before and after starch infusions, fecal weight, pH, and percentage of dry matter were monitored; fecal outputs of starch, volatile fatty acids, lactic acid, ethanol, polyethylene glycol, α-amylase, nitrogen, and ammonia were also measured. A lactulose (10 g) hydrogen breath test was performed 5–7 days after the starch infusions. After the infusion of starch, concentrations of lactic and volatile fatty acids increased and pH decreased markedly in cecal contents. None of the fecal values changed significantly after starch, however, indicating that carbohydrate catabolism was nearly complete and that the colon absorbed the catabolic products efficiently. Abdominal symptoms, especially bloating, were noted by all subjects, and 2 subjects complained of cramping pain. No subject experienced diarrhea. The amounts of starch metabolized in the colon (47.3 ± 2.9 g), as calculated from the excretion of H2 in breath compared to the hydrogen breath test after lactulose, were close to the actual load (50 g).
The original fiber hypothesis of Burkitt (1971) proposed that a high consumption of fiber-containing foods is associated with a lower frequency of large bowel cancer. Although this association still seems valid, the mechanisms by which fiber-containing foods produce such an effect remain unclear. Furthermore, definitive clinical trials in humans to demonstrate the cancer-prevention properties of dietary fiber have yet to be successfully completed. In the meanwhile we have only the results from retrospective, correlation, and case-control studies in humans and controlled prospective studies in animals. In a recent review of the literature (Jacobs, 1988), I found that 62% of correlational and 48% of case-control studies showed evidence of a protective effect of dietary fiber. Moreover, out of the 11 case-control studies showing a protective effect, eight reports found vegetables to be the protective fiber-containing food. This suggests that not all fiber-containing foods are equally protective and that vegetables may be protective because of some ingredient they contain other than fiber. A further possible explanation is that not all forms of dietary fiber have a similar effect on colon carcinogenesis. Recent advances in the chemical analysis of dietary fibers and in our knowledge of the effects of fibers on gastrointestinal physiology have permitted a reanalysis of the fiber and cancer literature according to the physiochemical properties of individual fibers.
Starch is both a major component of plant foods and an important ingredient for the food industry. Starch in food reviews starch structure and functionality and the growing range of starch ingredients used to improve the nutritional and sensory quality of food. Part one illustrates how plant starch can be analysed and modified, with chapters on plant starch synthesis, starch bioengineering and starch-acting enzymes. Part two examines the sources of starch, from wheat and potato to rice, corn and tropical supplies. The third part of the book looks at starch as an ingredient and how it is used in the food industry. There are chapters on modified starches and the stability of frozen foods, starch-lipid interactions and starch-based microencapsulation. Part four covers starch as a functional food, investigating the impact of starch on physical and mental performance, detecting nutritional starch fractions and analysing starch digestion. Starch in food is a standard reference book for those working in the food industry. Reviews starch structure and functionality. Extensive coverage of the growing range of starch ingredients. Examines how starch ingredients are used to improve the nutritional and sensory quality of food. © 2004 Woodhead Publishing Limited Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Accumulating data indicate that a diet characterized by low Glycaemic Index (GI) foods not only improves certain metabolic ramifications of insulin resistance, but also reduces insulin resistance per se, suggesting an important role in the treatment and prevention of the metabolic syndrome. The potential role of low vs. high GI foods in relation to satiety and weight maintenance is less clear, and experimental data are contradictory. However, correlations regarding postprandial satiety for a range of carbohydrate foods indicate that low GI starchy foods are generally perceived as more satiating. The mechanism remains to be identified, and it appears unlikely that merely blood glucose or insulin level is involved. Possibly, the gastro-intestinal mechanism for the low GI features may be of importance, and/or that the slow digestive phase induces satiety signals through release of gastrointestinal hormones. One long-term study is at hand, demonstrating that a low GI/low energy diet is more effective than a corresponding high GI diet to induce weight loss in obese women. Moreover, the weight loss was accompanied by lowered fasting insulin levels, suggesting an interesting role of low GI foods also in the combat of obesity and related metabolic disturbances.
The aim of the present paper is to review the authors' studies on the influence of yogurt and yogurt bacteria on immune responses in man and animals. Lactic acid bacteria present in yogurt play a role in modulating the translocation of the Gram-negative bacteria present in the gut, increase the survival of mice challenged with Salmonella typhimurium and stimulate local immune responses at the level of Peyer's patches. In man, yogurt modulates gamma-interferon production in vitro and in vivo. The presence of membrane receptors for LAB on human lymphocytes probably represents a potent stimulus for lymphoid-cell activation.
The term 'dietary fiber' comprises a heterogeneous range of materials and both epidemiology and animal studies indicate that some dietary fibers protect against colorectal cancer, whereas others probably do not. Recently, it has also been suggested that the different types of starches that are resistant to digestion in the small intestine ('resistant starches' or RS) protect against colorectal cancer. If true, it will be desirable to increase the amounts of resistant starches in the diet; this can be achieved more easily than comparable increases in the amounts of dietary fiber. One way that resistant starches may protect is by being degraded and fermented in the colon to yield short chain fatty acids, including butyric acid which in vitro slows the proliferation and stimulates the differentiation of colon cancer cells. Support for this hypothesis comes from in vitro studies using human fetal inocula that showed that starch was fermented to give high yields of butyrate. However, two recently published sets of animal experiments found that resistant starches did not protect against colon cancer induced by the carcinogen, dimethylhydrazine. We suggest that further research is needed on the possible protective effects of resistant starches. In the meantime, we believe that a cautious approach should be taken in the introduction onto the market place of foods that contain increased amounts of resistant starches.
In this chapter I outline a basis for the usage of the term dietary fiber and discuss the implications of this basis for the analysis of dietary fiber and for studies of its mechanism of action.
For more than two decades, this work has remained the leading advanced textbook and easy-to-use reference on food chemistry and technology. Its fourth edition has been extensively re-written and enlarged, now also covering topics such as BSE detection or acrylamide. Food allergies, alcoholic drinks, or phystosterols are now treated more extensively. Proven features of the prior editions are maintained: Contains more than 600 tables, almost 500 figures, and about 1100 structural formulae of food components - Logically organized according to food constituents and commodities - Comprehensive subject index. These features provide students and researchers in food science, food technology, agricultural chemistry and nutrition with in-depth insight into food chemistry and technology. They also make the book a valuable on-the-job reference for chemists, food chemists, food technologists, engineers, biochemists, nutritionists, and analytical chemists in food and agricultural research, food industry, nutrition, food control, and service laboratories. From reviews of the first edition "Few books on food chemistry treat the subject as exhaustively-researchers will find it to be a useful source of information. It is easy to read and the material is systematically presented." JACS.
Prebiotics stimulate growth and/or activity of some presumably beneficial colonic bacteria and thereby have the potential to improve health, possibly through the actions of fermentation end products including butyrate. Some ingested oligosaccharides and resistant starches elevate levels of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, and decrease bacteroides, enterobacteria and clostridia. Rodent studies have shown that prebiotic consumption can protect against pathogens, reduce the risk of colon cancer, enhance mineral absorption and influence lipogenesis. However confirmation of effects in humans is needed in clinical studies. With this wide range of potential applications, prebiotics need to be broadly classified based on microbiological and physiological function. Studies investigating mechanisms of action and the combined effects of prebiotics and probiotics are sparse. Resistant starch also functions as a culture protagonist because it provides enhanced bacterial survival when combined with probiotics. With the availability ora variety of prebiotics and probiotics, the potential exists for providing combinations targeted for specific health related benefits.
Male Zucker rats either genetically obese (fa/fa) or lean (Fa/-) were fed a semi-purified diet containing either cornstarch or amylomaize starch (Eurylon 7R) rich in amylose (70%). Obese rats were hyperlipidemic (cholesterol, 3.27±0.18; triglycerides, 2.11±0.12g/liter), when compared with lean rats (cholesterol, 1.13±0.03; triglycerides, 0.75±0.05g/liter). The amylomaize diet did not reduce the body weight of the Zucker rats. However, it decreased weight, esterified cholesterol, and triglyceride content of the liver in both lean and obese rats. The amylomaize diet decreased plasma cholesterol levels of obese rats (-42%) and lean rats (-30%), while plasma triglyceride levels were significantly decreased only in the lean rats (-43%). The cholesterol content of chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL1 (1.006-1.040), and LDL2 (1.040-1.063, which contains apo E-rich HDL) was reduced by 40 to 50%, while that of HDL was reduced by only 20% (lean) or 23% (obese). Diet containing amylose-rich starch therefore constitutes a promising new way of nutritional control of hyperlipidemias.
Starch was isolated and purified from a barley selection with 42.3% amylose in the starch. The white- and brown-layer starch fractions differed in chemical composition and endothermic properties; amylose was higher in the starch of the brown layer (49.3%) than in the starch of the white layer (43.5%). After being autoclaved for 1 hr at 121 C, the starches were reacted during cooling from 100 C to ambient temperature with sodium stearoyl lactylate, distilled monoglycerides, diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono-diglycerides (DATEM), and ethoxylated monoglycerides. Formation of amylose-lipid complexes was indicated by peaks in differential scanning calorimetry thermograms at temperatures from 100 to 112 C. Endothermic transitions from 154 to 162 C (mean, 158 C) reflected the presence of crystallized amylose. Yields of enzyme-resistant starch (RS) from a single autoclaving-cooling cycle were 7.1 and 4.0% for the white- and brown-layer starches, respectively. Those yields decreased to 0.7-5.3 and 0.7-2.1%, respectively, when RS was prepared after the starches were complexed with the various emulsifiers. Complexes between distilled monoglycerides, DATEM, and ethoxylated monoglycerides and amylose from the brown starch layer attained relatively higher values of melting enthalpies than those from the white layer. It is postulated that amylose crystallization (as measured by enthalpies of the 158 C endotherm) that is involved in the formation of RS is competitively affected by the complexation of amylose with lipids. The effects of complexation on yields and enthalpy of RS from high-amylose maize and barley starches differed widely.
Satiety is notoriously difficult to assess because of the considerable overlap between physiological and cognitive factors in its development. Short-term studies of satiety are typically based on a variation of the classic preload paradigm while medium-term studies involve observations of food intake, where some or all of the foods may be covertly manipulated. However, both short- and medium-term studies have generated highly variable outcomes, depending on the exact methodology used. Methodological issues that need to be considered when designing and interpreting satiety studies include 1) the use of free-living or laboratory studies, 2) the sensitivity and statistical power of the study, 3) subject selection, 4) antecedent diet of the subjects, 5) the formulation of the preload, 6) the use of subjective ratings of satiety, 7) the time interval between preload and subsequent test meal(s), 8) the formulation of the test meal(s) and 9) use of ad libitum vs fixed diet regimens in medium-term studies.
The potential physiological benefits of resistant starch, along with its functional properties, provide a means to increase total; dietary fibre in the diet through popular foods. In applications studies described bere, resistant starch increased the TDF content of various foods from 3% to 8%, while enhancing textural and sensory characteristics. By formulating foods with resistant starch, product developers and nutritionists can encourage consumers to increase their fibre intake with a variety of palatable, high qualitV foods that are healthy as well.
The in vitro and in vivo resistant-starch (measured in growing rats) levels were low in five raw rice cultivars differing in apparent amylose content, and the values were correlated positively with amylose content. Cooked and cooked parboiled rices generally had higher resistant-starch contents than raw rices, particularly those with intermediate gelatinization temperature starches, but waxy rice had very low values. Values for undigestible energy, which is mainly in the form of unfermented energy and undigestible protein, were similar in raw rices, but increased with processing, particularly in the higher-amylose rices. In vivo resistant starch was not correlated significantly with undigestible energy and undigestible protein, but undigestible energy and protein were correlated with each other. Parboiling was calculated to increase the resistant-starch content of cooked rice by not more than 1%. Thus, cultivar differences in cooked-starch digestibility were reflected less in levels of resistant starch than in the rate of starch digestion as indicated by glycaemic and insulin response.
The term ‘resistant starch’ was originally used to designate a starch fraction that resisted pancreatic amylase/pullulanase degradation in vitro after dispersion in boiling water; following solubilization with potassium hydroxide or dimethylsulphoxide this fraction could be hydrolysed by amyloglucosidase. A similar starch fraction, which consists of retrograded amylose, is included in ‘dietary fibre’ as determined by methods that do not employ these solubilizing agents. Recently, the resistant starch conceptr was extended to include all starch and starch degradation products not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy individuals; according to this physiological definition, raw B-type starch granules and physically inaccessible starch, for example, in addition to retrograded amylose, are identified as forms of resistant starch. The measurement of resistant starch presents analytical problems, and no in vitro procedure has yet been documented to recover all forms of starch that are inaccessible in vivo. Animal models and in vitro methods that simulate conditions in vivo as closely as possible are needed. Such work as well as evaluation of the physiological effects of resistant starch are the topics of a European collaboration within the FLAIR programme of the Commission of the European Communities.
Resistant starch decreases the concentration of secondary bile acids in the feces and the proliferation rate of colonic mucosal cells in healthy volunteers. This may reduce the risk of colon cancer. We investigated 23 patients with recently removed colonic adenoma(s) in a controlled parallel trial. They consumed 45 g of maltodextrin per day as placebo for four weeks and were randomly assigned to either 45 g of native amylomaize starch, containing 28 g of resistant starch type II or 45 g of maltodextrin for another four weeks. No effect on colorectal cell proliferation, fecal wet and dry weights, pH, and short-chain fatty acid excretion was seen. The bile acid concentration in fecal water decreased by 15% (P = 0.048) and the percentage secondary bile acids decreased by 14% (P = 0.002) on resistant starch relative to placebo. Whether this has a substantial role in colon cancer prevention in these patients remains to be established.
The aim of this work was to study the structural factors of pasta products that are responsible for their low glucose and insulin responses and incomplete intestinal absorption of starch in healthy subjects. Native starch extracted from durum wheat in the laboratory was used as reference. Starch granules in pasta of different sizes, cooked for different time periods, were completely gelatinized, as proved by differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction. Compared to native starch, susceptibility to α-amylase hydrolysis was always increased by cooking. Complete solubilization into oligosaccharides was obtained in 24 h for enzyme concentrations higher than 600 nkat/ml with 17 mg starch per ml. Smaller pasta size and increased cooking time led to higher susceptibility. When pasta structure was destroyed by grinding, starch was solubilized completely in less than 30 min by α-amylase hydrolysis. Limited swelling of starch granules during cooking and encapsulation by the protein network were partly responsible for the slow amylolysis kinetics. An estimation of the susceptibility towards α-amylase of gelatinized starchy products is proposed, based on the minimal concentration of α-amylase necessary to obtain the solubilization of the easily degradable fraction.
The aim of this work was to study the influence of three different drying temperatures on starch digestibility in spaghetti. Completeness of starch digestion and glycaemic response to three types of spaghetti dried at 50, 80 and 90 ·C were evaluated using the breath H2 and the glycaemic index techniques in six healthy volunteers. Samples of spaghetti were analysed for starch susceptibility to α-amylolysis in vitro.
No differences were found either in glycaemic response or degree of carbohydrate malabsorption among samples. In vitro results revealed a small but significant decrease in starch digestibility for the higher drying temperature. We conclude that even though heat treatment induced modification in starch digestibility, possibly by affecting starch availability to α-amylase, these differences did not seem to influence significantly the physiological processes of digestion in vivo.
The digestibility of starch in white wheat bread was studied. Raw wheat starch and raw wheat flour were used as reference materials. The extent of digestion and absorption in vivo was evaluated through balance experiments in rats given test diets with and without addition of the antibiotic, Nebacitin, to reduce the fermentation in the hind-gut. As judged from a high faecal recovery of dietary fibre constituents in rats fed a wheat flour diet with Nebacitin, this drug significantly reduced the microbial activity in the hind-gut. Only minute amounts of starch could be detected in faeces of rats whether Nebacitin was present or not, indicating that pure wheat starch as well as starch in wheat bread and raw wheat flour was almost completely digested and absorbed in the rat small intestine. However, during baking, a fraction of the starch (0·6%–0·9%, dry basis) was rendered resistant to enzyme digestion in vitro unless solubilised in KOH. This modified starch fraction also remained undigested in vivo, but was readily metabolised by the hind-gut microorganisms, thus having physiological properties similar to those of dietary fibre. It is therefore recommended that resistant starch formed during baking (i.e. that rendered resistant to enzymic digestion as measured in vitro) should be regarded as dietary fibre rather than as dietary starch.
Starch granules of 11 starchy feedstuffs were isolated. An isolation procedure is presented. The procedure did not damage the starch granules, as could be proven by scanning electron microscopy. The starch granules were nearly completely defatted by the procedure and only about 0.5% of the original protein remained in the starch, except for rice starch. The content of apparent and real amylose was measured in the isolated starch granules. Degradability of raw materials and isolated starch granules was determined with α-amylase and rumen fluid. Starch of tapioca and rice was relatively easy to degrade by α-amylase and rumen fluid, while potato starch was relatively difficult to degrade by α-amylase. Starches containing a low amount of amylose were found to degrade faster than starches containing a high amount of amylose.
Einige Eigenschaften und die Abbaubarkeit von isolierten Stärkekörnern.
Es wird ein Verfahren vorgestellt, mit dem Stärkekörner von 11 stärkehaltigen Futtermitteln isoliert wurden. Die Stärkekörner wurden nicht beschädigt während der Isolierungsprozedur. Dies wurde mittels Raster-Elektronen-Mikroskopie nachgewiesen. Durch das Isolierungsverfahren wurde fast das gesamte Fett aus den Stärkekörnern entfernt. Nur etwa 0,5% des ursprünglich anwesenden Eiweißes konnte nicht entfernt werden. Reis bildet hierbei eine Ausnahme. Der Gehalt an scheinbarer und wirklicher Amylose wurde in den isolierten Stärkekörnern gemessen. Der Abbau von Stärke in den Rohstoffen und den isolierten Stärkekörnern wurde mit α-Amylase und Pansensaft bestimmt. Stärke von Tapioka und Reis wurden relativ schnell abgebaut durch α-Amylasen und Pansensaft, während Kartoffelstärke durch α-Amylasen langsam abgebaut wurde. Stärke mit niedrigem Amylosegehalt wurde schneller abgebaut als Stärke mit höherem Amylosegehalt.
The in vivo digestibility of the following chemically modified potato starch derivatives was evaluated in rats; distarch phosphate (DSP), acetyl di-starch phosphate (ADSP) and hydroxypropyl di-starch phosphate (HPDSP). Unmodified potato starch was used as reference. The starches were studied raw and after gelatinization by drum-drying. The extent of in vivo digestion was evaluated through balance experiments in normal rats (apparent digestibility) and in rats treated with an antibiotic drug to suppress hind-gut fermentation (true digestibility). Starch digestibility was calculated from direct measurement of starch in feed and faeces. Three different methods for starch analysis were compared.
