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Abstract
A common observation about Chinese students in American classrooms is their silence, which has been speculated on by many second-language acquisition researchers as the result of the students' lacking communicative competence compatible to their native-English-speaking counterparts. By focusing on three students from mainland China as part of a larger investigation of Asian students' classroom communication patterns in US universities, this paper explores in depth the complexities of silence, and the cultural interpretations of silence in various social contexts. Multiple functions of silence in terms of linkage, affecting, revelational, judgemental, and activating functions are explored across the three cases. This paper further investigates how Chinese students construct their identities through silence, and how they can reconstruct their identities by negotiating silence in American classrooms and by developing adaptive cultural transformation competence in the target culture.
... Although subjects are not elementary school students, Liu (2002) examines the functions of silence by learners, such as 1) showing respect to teachers and peers, 2) showing agreement and harmonious relations with peers, and 3) avoiding losing face in a classroom. Similarly, Tatar (2005) reveals the functions of silence by learners in classrooms, such as 1) saving face and 2) displaying their respect for teachers and concern for peers. ...
... The results from the above studies show that silence by learners in classrooms is also utilized as a strategy to save their/interlocutors' face and show their polite attitude. It is also reported that silence by learners in language classrooms does not always show their "lack of knowledge or interest" but shows their decision to save their/interlocutors' face and display their respect to others (Kidd, 2016, p, 241, see also Harumi, 2011;Liu, 2002;Murata, 2011;Tatar, 2005). ...
... In this study, some excerpts were selected for analysis. This is because there is little study in which face-saving strategies are employed between teachers and students in a team-taught context (but see, e.g., Liu, 2002;Tatar, 2005 on the use of face-saving strategies by university students for teachers and other students as stated in the section of the literature review). Thus, analyzing these excerpts should be invaluable for understanding what is actually happening in elementary school English classes. ...
This study examines how face is protected for smoothly conducting English classes and building good relationships among class teachers (CTs), native English teachers (NETs), and students in EFL classes in an elementary school in Japan. In this study, interactions among the CTs, the NETs, and the students in English lessons were recorded for about 50 hours in total, and the transcribed data were analyzed partially on the basis of existing research on classroom discourse, conversation, and classroom-based conversation analytic approaches. The results show that the CTs, the NETs, and the students manage an irregular usage of Japanese by the NETs and of English by the CTs and the students in EFL classrooms by protecting interlocutors’ face in various ways, such as indirect repair and silence.
... On the one hand, research studies provide critical insights into how silence may pose hindrance to second language learning success and suggest ways to deal with undesirable silence (Li and Wu, 2010;Ning, 2010;Zhao, 2010;Pang, 2010;Xie, 2011;Xu and Wang, 2011). On the other hand, they deal with silence as a way to support learning and demonstrate learning eagerness (Campbell and Li, 2008;Delios and Makino, 2001;Holmes, 2005;Hu and Fell-Eisenkraft, 2003;Liu, 2002). ...
... Although talk has been increasingly encouraged in the classroom, teachers under the high pressure of looming examinations are compelled to complete the syllabus within a tight allocated timeframe. Frequent interruptions from students and open disagreement with the teacher are not viewed favourably (Wu, 2008;Liu, 2002). As a result, many students feel that it is their responsibility to evaluate their own thoughts in advance before saying them aloud (Zhou et al., 2005) and such cautious attitudes often keep students in quietness rather than in verbal engagement (Jackson, 2003). ...
... Second, silence also stems from the need to process challenging lesson content (Wang, 2009;Xu and Wang, 2011) and the need to monitor thinking before contribution (Zhou et al., 2005). Third, learner silence comes from classroom dynamics including reluctance to interrupt or disagree with the teacher (Wu, 2008;Liu, 2002), dissatisfaction with the teaching style Pang, 2010), which leads to poor engagement (Lu, 2007;Teng, 2009;Qiao, 2010) and low motivation (Liu, 2005;Wang, 2009;Zhao, 2010;Li and Wu, 2010;Pang, 2010). ...
This is a book which addresses the role of silence in language learning and raises the awareness of how silence can contribute positively to language acquisition. Based on research conducted into the nature of learner silence across various contexts, my key argument is that silence does not represent the absence of talk but can be a way of talking and learning. Another key feature of the book is that it makes use of resources beyond the inner circle of English to discuss second language learning, acquisition, and pedagogy. The book stimulates informed reflection on the roles played by learner silence, as well as by proposing a pedagogy which utilizes the potential of silence to facilitate language acquisition, especially in the use of silence for reflection, self-monitoring, and rehearsal of language use.
... The low-level engagement in the classroom activities makes Chinese international students often passive during the course and difficult to make strong connections with what they are learning or to think deeply. In terms of the intensive study about Chinese international students' silence in American classrooms, many researchers tended to consider this phenomenon "as the result of the students' lacking communicative competence" [20]. For instance, the high level of stress of international students from China studying in U.S colleges was particularly linked to the difficulties of expressing their thoughts, participating in discussions, or answering questions fluently in English [18]. ...
... First, "pedagogical differences between the two educational systems" acted as a significant element for Chinese international students' original disfavor of in-class activities and discussions [20]. The student-centered American classroom "values spontaneity and input from every student, not just the professor; students are also expected to contribute to class discussions and all other in-class activities" [21]. ...
... For instance, the Chinese student claimed that she didn't like group discussion in class and didn't understand the purpose of doing so. She further claimed that "I was interested in the instructor's lecture rather than other students' ideas" [20]. In fact, this student's tendency not to participate or not to be interested in the content of her classmates' classroom discussions is the strongest evidence that she is undergoing a "pedagogical culture shock" [20]. ...
Recent years have witnessed a growing mobility of Chinese international students into the U.S higher education institutions, however, many scholars suggested that international Chinese students were inclined to think it was challenging for them to adapt to the college education in the U.S. While pursuing higher education and academic careers in the U.S continuously being an irresistible trend of Chinese society, there have been increasing attentions to the major academic challenges of international Chinese students in the American educational system adjustment and classroom transition. Drawing on what literature exists combined with research addressing Chinese international students’ adjustments with educational system and classroom management, this article examines the five major academic challenges of Chinese students studying in U.S colleges: 1) language barriers; 2) critical thinking skills; 3) in-class participation; 4) teamwork and cooperation; 5) understand new academic expectation and goals. This article focuses on discussing and analyzing the deep reasons of the five academic challenges for Chinese international students, which brought by Chinese traditional culture and the students’ previous learning experiences in China. Through recognizing and understanding about the major difficulties of Chinese students as well as the reasons behind them, U.S institutions of higher learning are able to provide useful strategies and particle policies to assist Chinese international students successfully overcome the challenges and make the adjustment in a new educational environment.
... On the one hand, research studies provide critical insights into how silence may pose hindrance to second language learning success and suggest ways to deal with undesirable silence (Li and Wu, 2010;Ning, 2010;Zhao, 2010;Pang, 2010;Xie, 2011;Xu and Wang, 2011). On the other hand, they deal with silence as a way to support learning and demonstrate learning eagerness (Campbell and Li, 2008;Delios and Makino, 2001;Holmes, 2005;Hu and Fell-Eisenkraft, 2003;Liu, 2002). ...
... Although talk has been increasingly encouraged in the classroom, teachers under the high pressure of looming examinations are compelled to complete the syllabus within a tight allocated timeframe. Frequent interruptions from students and open disagreement with the teacher are not viewed favourably (Wu, 2008;Liu, 2002). As a result, many students feel that it is their responsibility to evaluate their own thoughts in advance before saying them aloud (Zhou et al., 2005) and such cautious attitudes often keep students in quietness rather than in verbal engagement (Jackson, 2003). ...
... Second, silence also stems from the need to process challenging lesson content (Wang, 2009;Xu and Wang, 2011) and the need to monitor thinking before contribution (Zhou et al., 2005). Third, learner silence comes from classroom dynamics including reluctance to interrupt or disagree with the teacher (Wu, 2008;Liu, 2002), dissatisfaction with the teaching style Pang, 2010), which leads to poor engagement (Lu, 2007;Teng, 2009;Qiao, 2010) and low motivation (Liu, 2005;Wang, 2009;Zhao, 2010;Li and Wu, 2010;Pang, 2010). ...
What is the state of that which is not spoken? This book presents empirical research related to the phenomenon of reticence in the second language classroom, connecting current knowledge and theoretical debates in language learning and acquisition.
Why do language learners remain silent or exhibit reticence? In what ways can silence in the language learning classroom be justified? To what extent should learners employ or modify silence? Do quiet learners work more effectively with quiet or verbal learners? Looking at evidence from Australia, China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, the book presents research data on many internal and external forces that influence the silent mode of learning in contemporary education. This work gives the reader a chance to reflect more profoundly on cultural ways of learning languages.
... Research that identifies learner silence as part of cultural norms has been conducted on: Chinese students in the U.S. (Liu, 2002), Asian international students in Australia (Tani, 2005), Korean students in the U.S. (Lee, 2009;Choi, 2015), Japanese students in Japan and Australia (Nakane, 2006), Chinese students in the in the U.S. (Reid, Trofimovich, 2018), students in China (Wang, 2011), students in Japan (King, 2011), students in Indonesia (Santosa, Mardiana, 2018, and students in Vietnam Nguyen H., 2002;Yates, Trang, 2012). These studies conclude that students who move from one society to another would tend to bring their previously established behaviour with them. ...
... Research in peer dynamics concerning silence and talk has primarily focused on how the classroom climate damages learners' self-esteem, which discourages communication. Examples of such studies are adverse peer reaction (Kurihara, 2006), the challenge of social forces over learner reticence (Kim, 2004), intimidation from teacher authoritativeness (Hwang, Seo, Kim, 2010), intimidation from more eloquent peers (Cheng, 2000), (Jackson, 2003(Jackson, , 2004 (Liu, 2002), (Campbell, Li, 2008), and poor learning efficiency (Hanh, 2020). The finding in this section offers additional nuances to the existing research literature by identifying learners' complex perceptions of the self. ...
Investigating the perspectives of three individual Japanese learners of English from a university in Japan on the nature of their classroom reticence, this project highlights the voices of silent learners who yearn to speak. Unfortunately, silent student perspectives often go unheard in the classroom and are under-reported in research stud- ies. We intended to search out these silent ‘pro-talk’ voices and in- vestigate conditions that might assist these students in (a) moving away from reticence, (b) increasing verbal communication, and (c) de- veloping their verbal English proficiency. Drawn from in-depth inter- view data and to contribute to English language teaching (ELT) ped- agogy, the following article outlines strategic ways of assisting the learning of quiet students who do not wish to be silent anymore. Al- though, in their ideology, these students yearn for a verbally proac- tive classroom process, they often experience verbal limitations in the everyday classroom.
... Research that identifies learner silence as part of cultural norms has been conducted on: Chinese students in the U.S. (Liu, 2002), Asian international students in Australia (Tani, 2005), Korean students in the U.S. (Lee, 2009;Choi, 2015), Japanese students in Japan and Australia (Nakane, 2006), Chinese students in the in the U.S. (Reid, Trofimovich, 2018), students in China (Wang, 2011), students in Japan (King, 2011), students in Indonesia (Santosa, Mardiana, 2018, and students in Vietnam Nguyen H., 2002;Yates, Trang, 2012). These studies conclude that students who move from one society to another would tend to bring their previously established behaviour with them. ...
... Research in peer dynamics concerning silence and talk has primarily focused on how the classroom climate damages learners' self-esteem, which discourages communication. Examples of such studies are adverse peer reaction (Kurihara, 2006), the challenge of social forces over learner reticence (Kim, 2004), intimidation from teacher authoritativeness (Hwang, Seo, Kim, 2010), intimidation from more eloquent peers (Cheng, 2000;Jackson, 2003Jackson, , 2004Liu, 2002;Campbell, Li, 2008), and poor learning efficiency (Hanh, 2020). The finding in this section offers additional nuances to the existing research literature by identifying learners' complex perceptions of the self. ...
Investigating the perspectives of three individual Japanese learners of English from a university in Japan on the nature of their classroom reticence, this project highlights the voices of silent learners who yearn to speak. Unfortunately, silent student perspectives often go unheard in the classroom and are under-reported in research studies. We intended to search out these silent ‘pro-talk’ voices and investigate conditions that might assist these students in (a) moving away from reticence, (b) increasing verbal communication, and (c) developing their verbal English proficiency. Drawn from in-depth interview data and to contribute to English language teaching (ELT) pedagogy, the following article outlines strategic ways of assisting the learning of quiet students who do not wish to be silent anymore. Although, in their ideology, these students yearn for a verbally proactive classroom process, they often experience verbal limitations in the everyday classroom. While on the outside, these students seem to be peacefully quiet, within each, there is an accumulation of feelings and thoughts that cause internal tension and, at times, intense disappointment. For this study, we have labelled these silent students as ‘pro-verbalisation learners’. Speaking entirely in Japanese, the three pro-verbalisation learners in this study shared critical views toward undesirable classroom processes and offered possible solutions to improve limitations in existing classroom methods. According to these students, ideal conditions for verbal change can only occur if the teacher is willing to modify their pedagogy to establish new participation rules, ease classroom tension, nurture peer cohesiveness, and build verbally supportive elements into the learning process.
... The study highlights the significance of understanding and addressing in-class silence to enhance classroom appropriateness and promote more active student engagement in learning. Liu (2002) investigates how Chinese students negotiate silence in American classrooms. Key findings include the cultural differences in communication styles and expectations between Chinese students and the American classroom setting. ...
... The researchers highlight insufficient exploration of the nuanced meanings of silence as a form of participation among Japanese students in academic contexts (Kato, 2010). There is a strong need for further investigation into the cultural adaptations and challenges faced by Chinese learners in navigating silence in American classrooms (Liu, 2002). This is due to inadequate investigation of the cultural factors influencing class silence in Chinese educational settings and the development of culturally responsive teaching strategies to mitigate this silence (Wu, 2008). ...
In the context of a foreign language classroom, oral participation is essential. The process will not be fully complete until students are willing to express their ideas and speak up to demonstrate their understanding. Students tend to stay silent more than participate in class discussions. This behavior is also known as silence. Therefore, if students do not participate in the teaching and learning process, they cannot effectively master English. This research aims to investigate the underlying factors contributing to the lack of verbal participation within the English as a Foreign Language course at the university level and analyze which difficulties students find most influential in their silence in EFL classrooms. This research used qualitative methods, the participants in this study were students of Speaking in Professional Context class, consisting of 5 students, 3 female students, and 2 male students. The selected participants were students who tended to be silent and did not participate in class during the observation activities. Observations were conducted to find out directly the situation during the class and interviews were conducted to collect data for analysis. The research results showed that student silence in speaking classes was caused by eight factors, divided into two categories: lecturer factors and student factors. Lecturers who have an assertive personality can create an intimidating atmosphere, while unsupportive or overly critical assessments can lead to student fear. From the students' side, fear of making mistakes, especially in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary usage, can be a major factor. Lack of vocabulary can hinder students' ability to convey ideas effectively. Not understanding the learning material can also discourage students from participating. Low self-confidence and introverted personalities can also affect the level of engagement in class. This is an open access article under the CC-BY-SA license.
... For instance, as noted by McCroskey and Richmond (1991), interpersonal communication is highly valued in the North American culture to the extent that how much one communicates is related to how positively one is evaluated. This is different from some cultures where silence sometimes is valued as a ritual and respect for others (Liu, 2002). Hence, McCroskey and Richmond (1991) pointed out that an individual's willingness to communicate is highly related to the culture where they reside. ...
... This cultural perspective can find echoes in the literature that documented cultural influences on interpersonal communication and in perceptions of learning. For instance, it was reported that Chinese people value the trait of being modest instead of assertive, and out of concerns for face, silence may be adopted as a face-saving strategy (Liu, 2002). In educational contexts, particularly within the Chinese culture of learning, being disciplined and attentive is often prioritized over being talkative. ...
This Element offers a review of advancements in willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) over the past twenty-five years. It begins with the origin of the concept of WTC in first language (L1) communication research and the seminal and novel conceptualizations of WTC in the L2 context. This Element then categorizes six key perspectives that have informed WTC research: social psychological, cultural, dynamic, ecological, multimodal, and digital. By analyzing representative studies, it elucidates insights gained from these perspectives. The Element then discusses key factors associated with WTC, including individual attributes, situational factors, and outcome factors. This is followed by an overview of and critical commentary on methodological approaches in WTC research. Implications for enhancing L2 learners' WTC in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts are discussed. The Element concludes by proposing important venues for future WTC research. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
... In some contexts, such as Thai and Pakistani, for instance, English is used as a second language parallel to their mother tongue so that people tend to use the language more often than in areas it is used as a foreign language (Rao, 1996). On the other hand, where English is used as a foreign language in, for instance, the Chinese and Korean contexts (Liu, 2002) including Ethiopia, and limited to only academic settings, the language is used much less frequently and as a result people tend to exhibit less interest or desire to communicate in the language. ...
... In addition, the Ethiopian culture of classroom teaching-learning situations favors more of teacher-centeredness and emphasizes high attention to mental activity rather than verbal participation or activities of the students. The Western classroom contexts however tend to be student-centered and communication-oriented (Rao, 1996) and accentuates not only the academic achievement but also the social communicative competence as well (Liu, 2002). This may, therefore, be one of the potential reasons for the inconsistency of the finding of the current study with some of the previous studies. ...
Communication, particularly verbal communication, is central to the development of a desired competence in a second or foreign language. Approaches such as communicative language teaching (CLT) in second language acquisition emphasize practical use of the target language for effective learning/acquisition. However, despite the necessity of using a target language to learn it, it has been a common phenomenon to observe most learners exhibiting passiveness, reticence, and unwillingness to participate in oral communicative opportunities in English as a foreign language (EFL) classes. This study therefore explored EFL students’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in oral communicative English classes together with the factors underlying with it in the Ethiopian higher education context. To this end, primary quantitative data were collected from a randomly selected sample of 450 EFL students taking oral communicative English courses followed by qualitative data from a sample of fifteen students selected again randomly to triangulate the results from the quantitative data. The results revealed that the target students had in general a low level of WTC in oral communicative English classes, and their WTC was affected by both psychological and contextual factors such as self-confidence, motivation, personality, language learning orientation and classroom environments. The findings indicate that EFL students’ WTC is a crucial component to increase students’ participation in oral communicative English classes by raising their self-confidence, motivation and awareness of language learning orientations, coupled with facilitating the language learning environment. It is therefore suggested that WTC needs to be given special consideration while designing and preparing ELT materials, and during instructions as well.
... The most important goal for most Chinese high school students is to achieve high grades in the GaoKao, a standardized achievement test used to rank students to enter universities from high school [56,57]. This exam and the resulting university education are considered to be the determining factors in Chinese students' future careers and even roles in society [58]. ...
... This process does not involve student participation. Consequently, less attention is paid to soft skills such as collaboration, creative expression, and critical thinking during the formative high school years [56,59,60]. ...
One demand imposed by the global market is the possession of adequate soft skills, a challenge commonly faced by STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) graduates. This challenge is particularly prominent in China, which produces millions of STEM graduates annually. Consequently, there is a pressing need to develop and research programs facilitating the acquisition of soft skills, with a specific focus on teamwork, among Chinese engineers. To this end, we created a team-based project as part of a semester-long scientific English communication course at a Sino–foreign STEM university in China. The project aimed at fostering valuable soft skills through active learning, including teamwork, communication, and collaboration. In this report, we examine written reflections by students, aiming to assess their perceptions of soft skill development and overall experience resulting from their participation in the team-based project. Our results show the self-reflected soft skills development was considerable, and, unexpectedly, a noteworthy outcome of the project was the significant development of interpersonal connections, resulting in a positive experience and friendship development. Consequently, the findings of this study shed light on how teamwork can foster soft skills and friendship development, the latter often referred to as relationship development, another soft skill in the 21st century.
... Bresnahan y Zhu (2018) realizan una investigación que se enmarca alrededor de dos características controvertidas del estudiante internacional chino coincidentes con las tesis de diversos autores (Hwang, Ang y Francesco, 2002;Liu, 2002;Wen y Clément, 2003;Zhu, 2014) y a partir de estas, analizan la percepción de los estudiantes americanos partiendo de cinco hipótesis clave (Bresnahan y Zhu, 2018). Entre las características mencionadas, se encuentra, por un lado, la discreción en el aula o la tendencia al silencio y, por el otro, cómo afecta el concepto de «mianzi» a esta supuesta discreción o reticencia. ...
... Este es un concepto de gran importancia en la cultura china, ligado a la idea del respeto, del honor y de lo que coloquialmente llamaríamos «el quedar bien»; dar buena impresión de uno mismo e incluso ceder, para mostrar respeto o evitar que los demás «pierdan la cara». En el ámbito académico, «diumianzi» (perder la cara) se puede extrapolar al hecho de que el alumno no participe, ya sea por miedo a equivocarse, hacer el ridículo y ser rechazado por sus compañeros; para prevenir que el alumno local «pierda la cara» o para mostrar respeto al profesor; o de lo contrario, puede hacer que el alumno participe para dar buena imagen, dar «mianzi», al colectivo de alumnos chinos (Liu, 2002). ...
Las universidades españolas y europeas tienen una larga tradición recibiendo a estudiantes y profesores extranjeros. En los últimos años el número de intercambios y de estudiantes internacionales ha aumentado considerablemente. Este hecho ha creado situaciones difíciles y abrumadoras a causa de la falta de conocimiento de la cultura de los estudiantes y de la cultura de la comunidad que los recibe.
Este artículo muestra un estudio preliminar llevado a cabo en el marco del proyecto europeo Inclusión social y éxito académico de los estudiantes chinos en la educación superior de la Unión Europea. El estudio pretende ser una aproximación a la percepción que tienen los estudiantes locales respecto a los estudiantes chinos procedentes de la República Popular China en un contexto universitario español. Para ello, se ha elaborado un cuestionario difundido por e-mail a una muestra de 30 estudiantes.
Los resultados indican que los estudiantes locales aceptan sin problemas tener estudiantes chinos en el aula, a pesar de que en su imaginario tienen ya algunos estereotipos que influyen en su manera de interactuar con ellos. La formación intercultural de los estudiantes locales y chinos podría ayudar a mejorar su convivencia y a tener un mejor conocimiento de los compañeros de aula.
... For this reason, teachers continue to struggle with, and often do not know how to react to, silence and silent students (Svaricek, 2024), being unable to decide whether silence "is part of communication, mental processing, or low engagement" (Bao, 2023: 3). The uncertainty surrounding silence, whether it signifies thoughtfulness, or lack of engagement, (dis)interest, or even (dis) respect (Liu, 2002), perpetuates a cycle of tension within foreign language classrooms, thereby complicating the teaching and learning process. ...
Historically marginalized and often misunderstood, silence has predominantly been viewed as a barrier to effective communication and engagement in educational settings. This paper argues for a re-evaluation of silence, viewing it not as an absence of speech, but as a potent tool for fostering deep learning, introspection, and emotional intelligence. By integrating social-emotional learning (SEL) principles, it is posited that silence can enhance, and is an essential element of, affective communicative competence (Pentón Herrera & Darragh, 2024), aiding the development of empathy, self-regulation, and a more profound connection to the language learning process. This conceptual paper explores the nuanced role of silence within the context of foreign language classrooms through a SEL lens. Traditional perceptions of silence are critically examined, a shift towards an asset-based view through SEL is proposed, and practical strategies for educators to incorporate silence meaningfully into their pedagogy are suggested. To conclude, perspectives on utilizing silence as a transformative element in SEL-driven language education are offered, aiming for a harmonious integration that enriches the teaching and learning experience.
... In addition, the practice of students asking questions during the class can be regarded as showing a lack of understanding or respect for their teacher (J. Liu, 2002;Nguyen-Phuong-Mai, et al., 2012). The teaching style is, therefore, still based on what would be considered a traditional or teacher-centred approach (Harman & Nguyen, 2010;T. ...
This thesis was conducted in response to the ongoing issues in education reform with the increasing use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for the development of active learning in Vietnamese higher education. This study aims to explore the ways that active learning can be adopted by Vietnamese University students who are studying within an ICT-enhanced blended learning environment in Australia, a developed Western country with a long history of providing ICT-supported learning opportunities for students in higher education. This study undertook a qualitative case study approach, drawing on the development of hybrid active learning practices among Vietnamese international students in an ICT-enhanced blended learning environment at an Australian University. Berry’s models of acculturation processes (Berry, 2005) were employed as an organising theoretical framework for exploring Vietnamese students’ cross-cultural learning experiences. The potential for active learning amongst Vietnamese international students in the Australian learning environment was analysed using theories on active learning and a constructivist approach. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews with nine Vietnamese international students and a review of their course documents. The results of this study show that there is a potential for active learning among Vietnamese students studying in an ICT-enhanced blended learning environment in Australia. This study has found, and subsequently argues, that active or passive learning is influenced by educational context, rather than being determined by students’ personal characteristics or their cultural heritage. However, it did not claim that the students who were educated in Confucian cultural contexts can adopt the new culture and become active learners immediately. The study has demonstrated the difficulties that the participants experienced while becoming more active in their learning in the new ICT based setting. It has also confirmed that in order to develop active learning characteristics, students need to be facilitated and supported by an educational environment in which knowledge content, learning environment, teaching approaches and assessments are carefully designed with a thoughtful integration of ICT to engage students in more effective study
... In comparison, a number of studies have emerged, showcasing the benefits of silence in an educational setting. Liu (2002) describes this phenomenon as a means of exhibiting respect towards both educators and classmates. Meanwhile, Meyer (2009) refers to this approach as an alternative form of communication. ...
Educators place a high value on the interaction between students and teachers. The amount of verbal interaction in the classroom is often highly valued, while silence is viewed as evidence of inactivity. In spite of the growing attention given to silence in the classroom by educators and scholars, little research has been conducted on how Vietnamese students respond to silence. This study surveyed 132 engineering students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology to explore the reasons behind low levels of oral participation. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted to gain an understanding of students' towards classroom silence and suggest several implications for improving students’ participation. Preliminary findings suggest that students commonly use silence to gain more thinking time and avoid embarrassment. These insights could inform strategies to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes.
... In relation to the broader social setting, research has shown that the students' cultural background can affect their level of FLCA. For example, Woodrow (2006) found that European and Vietnamese students of English in Australia tended to be less anxious than Japanese, Korean and Chinese students probably due to the Confucian values of "face" and value being placed on "silence" (Liu, 2002). Additionally, and more directly related to our present study, research carried out in Sweden (Sundqvist, 2009) has shown that even within a specific geographic location, adolescents who spent more time in extramural English activities reported feeling less anxious about speaking English than those who spent less time on such activities. ...
Based on the assumption that individual learner factors are context-dependent, this exploratory study examined whether differences in two learning environments (Denmark and Spain) have a differential influence on a set of learner factors that have together been previously identified as important in second language (L2) research, specifically, foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), English competence beliefs (ECB), motivation (ideal L2 self) and attitudes towards English language learning. The study also examined whether the L2 learning environment and learner factors had a differential influence on the proficiency of two groups of adolescent learners, as measured by a more instruction-related test (grammaticality judgment test) and a more out-of-school-exposure-related test (listening comprehension test). The results showed that learning environment had a differential influence on FLCA and that gender had an impact on FLCA and ECB. Furthermore, the study showed a differential impact on the L2 English proficiency of the two learner groups of four different factors (i.e., FLCA, ECB, learners’ ideal L2 self, learners’ attitudes towards the presence of English in the academic context, and ECB interacting with FLCA). These findings point to a crucial role of the learning environment in L2 learning and provide empirical support for a context-dependent view of the expression of learners’ individual characteristics in relation to L2 learning.
... Chinese L2 learners have traditionally been viewed as passive and shy participants who often show reluctance and unwillingness to participate in L2 communication in the classroom (Holmes, 2004;Liu, 2002;Wang, 2014;Tao, 2021). In addition, Chinese EFL students' passive oral engagement in classroom activities is frequently reported and discussed in prior studies (Hu, 2002;Lv et al., 2015;Peng, 2014;Wang, 2014;Yu, 2001). ...
... As can be seen from the studies, Chinese students were unwilling to be involved in learning activities, and they seldom volunteered answers. (Jackson, 2002;Liu, 2002). MacIntyre et al. (1998) proposed the theory of willingness to communicate, which contains two major factors: 1) social and psychological factors; 2) personality and linguistics. ...
The learner’s willingness to communicate is one of the essential elements in learning and implementing foreign languages effectively. The researchers are eager to develop a new intercultural instruction model to enhance non-English major college students’ intercultural communicative willingness in English classrooms in China. A mixed methodology approach that combined qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis was utilized to analyze data from a questionnaire, the new intercultural teaching model, in-depth interviews, and productive tasks such as speaking tasks and writing tasks. There were 98 Chinese students participating in this research in the academic year 2019–2020. The results revealed that after the development and implementation of the new intercultural teaching model, the students showed progress in their willingness to communicate, their satisfaction with the results of the in-depth interviews, and their high performance in those productive tasks. On this basis, this research presents how to develop and implement an instructional model effectively to enhance the students’ intercultural communicative willingness and productive performance.
... In societies where silence is valued, it is considered equally significant to speaking as it provides space for reflection on the communicated word [33] . It also indicates respect, harmony, 'attentive listening and active thinking' [34] . In many cases, silence even functions as a form of talk. ...
Drawing on research-based discourse, this article provides an updated overview of what silence means in social psychology. Such meanings can be viewed from an interpersonal dimension and an intrapersonal dimension. That is, silence can be externally or internally generated. The external process sees silence as a response to the social environment, while the internal process views silence as an individual choice. The article argues that silence has a sociological nature. When a silent person sends out a silent message to the public (such as showing resistance or alienation), this person not only expresses their personal view but also acts on behalf of others. The article rests on the ideal of sociological imagination to argue that an individual’s issue of concern or trouble, seemingly a limited social experience, may not be a single case but can represent the concern of a group or a society. This means that the lives of individuals can signify the status and reaction of their community. By presenting silence from various individual perspectives, the article showcases the richness of what silence means and what it does in social contexts.
... Further, the language and cultural barriers are easy to misinterpret in some circumstances. The silent culture is repeatedly illustrated in current research on Chinese international students (Liu, 2002;Xiang, 2017;Zhou et al., 2005). However, Cheng (2000) notes that it is dangerous to over-generalize about East-Asian students' reticence and passivity, while evaluating their engagement or general participation on campus. ...
International students, especially Chinese international students, are underrepresented in leadership roles in Canadian universities. A review of the related literature indicates that low language proficiency, lack of belongingness, and cultural difference inhibited Chinese international students’ leadership opportunities. This study adopted semi-structured, one-on-one interviews to investigate the benefits that five Chinese international student participants perceived, based on leadership roles in which they participated. The results suggest that taking student leadership roles facilitated participants’ language development at one Canadian university and enhanced their belongingness to the university. However, their participation in student leadership roles did not contribute to their belongingness to Canadian society.
... Because the role of students in the classroom setting appears to be strongly related to the perspective of the traditional culture of a particular educational context, the topic of the cultural impact on EFL students' reticence and silence in EFL educational contexts has gained greater attention from scholars in recent years. The ideology and culture of Confucianism, for example, have been considered for their influence on EFL students in the Chinese university context (Liu, 2002;Wang, 2019), and the sensitivity of Japanese cultural norms that influence Japanese EFL students' classroom silence (Banks, 2016;Harumi, 2011;King, 2013). In the Thailand context, there has been a survey-based study on the types of social and cultural influences on university students' silence in English classrooms (Intakaew, 2012). ...
The subject of psychological and sociocultural factors influencing English language learning has attracted a great deal of pedagogy researchers' attention. The purpose of this experimental research was to investigate Thai EFL students' silence in the classroom during the pre-and-post implementation of the communicative language teaching approach in an English-medium instruction program in a Thai university context, and to explore the underlying reasons behind this phenomenon. A purposive sampling technique was used to recruit 53 first-year students at an autonomous public university where English is employed as a medium of instruction. A mixed-methods approach to the collection and analysis of data was employed. The findings suggest that the level of silence shown by the students in the classroom environment after the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach had been implemented, was lower than the level of silence experienced in the class prior to the CLT approach being implemented. The significant reasons regarding the students, the teacher, and the Thai cultural concept behind this decrease in students' silence, and the pedagogical implications of that result, are discussed.
... Such research attributes learners' reticence to a shared set of Confucianminded notions including submissiveness in learning and other-directedness in communication (Wen & Clément, 2003). These notions manifest through the pursuit of conformity to unity and a positive public image in harmony with one's relational network, and result in a dedication to accuracy, low tolerance of ambiguity, a fear of risktaking and an orientation towards face-saving acts, including non-confrontation (Gao, 1998), communication reduction (Liu, 2001) and reticence (Liu, 2002). Put simply, when one has a Confucian mindset, it seems risky to stand out from the crowd and diverge from the norm as both these actions symbolise 'a step outside of usual practice and the comfort of the mainstream' (Edwards, 2006, p.100). ...
Cumulative research has explored willingness to communicate (WTC) in English as a second language and English as a foreign language contexts, but few have looked at the interface between WTC and learner talk from a Chinese learning perspective. This study investigates how six multilingual and multicultural students’ WTC translates into talk in a Chinese as a foreign language classroom in a highly internationalised Scottish University. Specifically, it examines what factors play a part in translating WTC into talk and how such factors enable or impede the process. It adopts a qualitative multiple-case study approach comprising high-density monthly triangulations of classroom observations, learner journals, video-stimulated recall interviews and semi-structured interviews conducted over one academic year. Findings revealed 13 learner-internal and learner-external factors which engage with one another to form various interactional patterns. Adapting to such interactional patterns, the six students’ WTC was found to self-organise into and out of attractor states in which the students were either pro-talk or against-talk. This empirically attests that the WTC-talk realisation exhibits dynamism, non-linearity, self-organisation, co-adaptability, and dependence on initial states and context. Recurring interactional patterns were identified as characterising each student’s successes or failures in realising talk. Pedagogical implications are also provided in light of the findings.
... Such a pursuit of a positive public image in harmony with its relational network tends to generate a fear of risk-taking and an orientation towards face protection. Whenever learners perceive threats to their face, they may resort to face-saving strategies including communication reduction (Liu 2001) and reticence (Liu 2002). Yashima (2002) also found international posturea Japanese-specific WTC enhancing factor which refers to Japanese learners' favourable attitudes towards what English symbolises. ...
A large body of research has investigated the factors which underlie willingness to communicate (WTC). However, scant scholarly attention has been paid to WTC vis-à-vis learner talk, i.e., how intentions to talk translates into talk. Drawing on Dörnyei’s retrodictive qualitative modelling template, this research comprises a qualitative multiple-case study of three South Korean students who were learning English in a low-proficiency EAP classroom in the UK study-abroad context. Specifically, the study examined what factors facilitated or hindered their WTC-talk realisation. Methodological triangulation was achieved by means of classroom observations, audio-stimulated recall interviews and semi-structured interviews. Findings revealed five individual factors and four contextual factors which formed various interactional patterns and interdependently influenced the three students’ WTC-talk realisation. Such interactional patterns showcase how individual and contextual factors interact and contribute to WTC and individual differences in communication frequency in the EAP classroom. The study provides novel empirical evidence for the influence of the Korean Confucian-based culture of learning and communication on students’ L2 practice. Informed by the complex dynamic systems theory, the study concludes with pedagogical implications that aim to inspire EAP practitioners to cultivate WTC-friendly classes that optimise the realisation of learner talk.
... Although individuals often focus on what is seen or spoken when thinking about cultural differences, culture is also expressed through silence; silence has different meanings in different cultures. Researchers have looked at the meaning of silence among students from diverse backgrounds, including Native American and Chinese students and its implications in educational settings (e.g., Covarrubias & Windchief, 2009;Liu, 2002). The difference in meanings and interpretations of silence has important implications for teaching and learning. ...
Considering the increase in the number of online courses and programs across the globe, preparing educators for creating inclusive online environments for learners to thrive is imperative. The worldwide pandemic of 2020, in a sense, only accelerated the already rising trends of online course offerings in higher education and further expanded it to other sections of education and geographical locations. Reviewing the existing literature and building on the authors’ experiences, this chapter uses a cultural and ethical lens to examine issues related to community and language to contribute to the design of equitable and inclusive online learning environments. Although these issues impact all segments of the educational enterprise, given the authors’ experiences with adult learning, the focus in this chapter will be on adults as learners.
... According to Jackson (2002), Chinese students have fewer opportunities to speak in class and are used to passive rather than active learning. Foreign scholars are not the only ones who think this way; local Chinese scholars such as Liu (2002) and Wu (2015) also believe that Chinese students" silence in the classroom is due to habit. However, in Tang et al."s (2020) study, it was shown that students who remain silent in class often choose to do so because they fear negative feedback such as embarrassment, fear or humiliation. ...
In order to make students adapt to democratic life, educators have a responsibility and obligation to bring controversial topics into the classroom. A safe space is needed for the discussion of controversial topics in the classroom without any intrusion. However, the author of this article found that the concept of safe space is rarely mentioned in China. Therefore, this essay critically analyses five national and regional studies on safe spaces to suggest how safe spaces could be achieved in Chinese classrooms for teachers and students.
... They said that Chinese EFL learners are portrayed as reticent and quiet in class. They are reluctant to participate in classroom activities; they hardly volunteer answers, let alone initiate questions; they seldom speak up about their opinions even if they have one; and they hold back from expressing their views (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996;Jackson, 2002;Liu, 2002). ...
This study aims to investigate how the students are willing to communicate in an ESP class. This in-depth study employed students’ TOEIC scores as a reference to select the subjects of the study. An in-depth interview was used as the main research procedure together with the primary data. The in‐depth interview allowed the us to develop deeply into social and personal matters that the students have experienced in communicating in English. For the sake of an effective interview, a set of questions related to the WTC was prepared prior to the implementation of the interview. This study found that students’ willingness to communicate in L2 is not solely due to proficiency. Yet, other factors such as interlocutors, classroom activities, topics, tasks, classroom contracts, and teaching media are the factors that also influence students ’WTC in ESP classrooms. It is expected that this study can provide recommendations in order to improve communication. This study was conducted at a State Polytechnic based in Malang, Indonesia.
... Peng (2014) stated that Asian classrooms are teacher-centred, and silence in class is considered an indicator of respect for the teacher, who is the sole authority in the class (J. Liu, 2002). Furthermore, being talkative in class may contribute to "showing off" (Peng & Woodrow, 2010). ...
The main goal of modern second language (L2) pedagogy is to engender effective communication among its learners. Willingness to Communicate (WTC) has emerged as the most vibrant topic in L2 pedagogy, especially in the last two decades. A plethora of research on students’ views about their WTC has been conducted in a variety of contexts. However, research on teachers’ views about their students’ WTC in English is still in its infancy. Thus, this study investigated ESL teachers’ views about their undergraduates’ WTC in English inside the classroom. The cluster sampling technique was used to collect data from 80 ESL teachers from eight universities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The results revealed that the teachers viewed the undergraduates’ level of WTC as high in most classroom situations, such as during groups, during activities with the same and opposite gender, when given preparation time, seated in the middle of the class, and in front of the whole class. However, students showed a moderate level of WTC in situations such as sitting in front of the class and at the back of the class. A one-way ANOVA was performed to examine the differences between different classroom situations. The results showed significant differences in the teachers’ views about their students’ WTC in most classroom situations. Thus, the current study affirms that WTC is a dynamic variable that changes from situation to situation.
... And when you think about it, for a lot of these learners, in that kind of situation, silences is the sensible option" (28:11). In multiple studies, the fear of making mistakes has been noted as a factor contributing to anxiety in the classroom (Liu, 2002;Liu, 2007;Woodrow, 2006;Dewaele, 2018). For some students, it is safer to remain silent than risk embarrassment. ...
The following paper highlights a podcast narrative that emerged through a series of interviews for the podcast series "Lost in Citations". The thread that connects each guest is the topic of silence in 2nd-language university classrooms in Japan. Much like academics read, cite, and then publish responses, throughout this podcast narrative, leading scholars in the field of silence in university classrooms were able to listen in "real time" to their colleagues and subsequently respond and forward the ongoing conversation to future guests in the series. After reviewing 5 interviews that focused on publications regarding silence in university language classrooms, the following themes emerged: ways of conceptualizing silence, silence and culture, approaching research, problematizing and coping with unwanted silence, and categorizing meaningful/productive silence. Where appropriate, we situated these commentaries within the wider discourse of silence literature.
... Language learners through agency use silence to actively negotiate their level of participation and interest in language learning. Silence, therefore, can be a way children handle power disparities by demonstrating their agency (King & Harumi, 2020;Liu, 2002). ...
Traditionally, early years education is a voice-dominated discipline
where scholars pay little attention to children’s natural non-verbal
communication in second language acquisition (SLA) (Spyrou, 2016). In
many cases, children silence is often perceived as a problem and is
captured as selective mutism (see, for example, Bligh, 2014). This article
looks at a case of child silence as positive communication rather than
negative mutism, a topic which is rare in the research discourse of early
childhood education. If the discourse does not refer to child silence as
mutism, it would then focus on the customary notion of ‘the silent period’
(Roberts, 2014) rather than on cases of micro silence within naturally
occurring social interactions. This is a gap in research on silence in
children language learning that this work will address. Since little
research has allied this topic with teacher education (Bao 2014), the
authors hope to provide implications for teacher practice drawn from data
on children’s non-verbal interactions during Mandarin learning.
... Some students construct their identity in L2 or EFL learning differently. Liu's (2002) study, for example, showed how Chinese students constructed their L2 identities through silence in the language classroom. These students were concerned with losing face if they gave incorrect answers to teachers' questions, so they listened attentively instead of orally participating, and this was part of their identity as L2 learners. ...
... Some students construct their identity in L2 or EFL learning differently. Liu's (2002) study, for example, showed how Chinese students constructed their L2 identities through silence in the language classroom. These students were concerned with losing face if they gave incorrect answers to teachers' questions, so they listened attentively instead of orally participating, and this was part of their identity as L2 learners. ...
While studies on English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ identity construction and classroom participation in English language learning have been widely explored, there is a paucity of research addressing how EFL students with physical disabilities develop their identities within classroom participation. To fill this lacuna, the present narrative study looks into how an Indonesian female English student with a physical disability developed her identity through classroom participation and how her identity changed over time. The data were garnered through in-depth interviews and analyzed following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis. The present study revealed that the participant negotiated her identity gradually in a complex classroom atmosphere through multiple stages: the orientation, the rising state, the shock, the adjustment, and identity development. In addition, the study also portrayed that the participant enacted continued and sustained identity changes for her self-survival amid imperfection into the escalation of competence geared from her site of struggle in the community of practice. Implications from the study’s findings are discussed at the end of this paper.
... Much research has been devoted to the interrelationship between the concept of silence, culture, teaching and learning techniques, and the roles of teachers and students, in a wide range of classroom contexts; for instance, the factors affecting Japanese students' silence in English classroom (Banks, 2016); perspectives of a Nepalese graduate student regarding silence in teaching and learning (Bista, 2012); the silence of Iranian EFL students (Ghavamnia & Ketabi, 2015); Chinese learners' silence in Australian classrooms (Ha & Li, 2014); the voices of Japanese EFL learners toward classroom silence (Harumi, 2011); silence in second language classrooms in Japanese university contexts (King, 2013b); Chinese students' negotiating silence in American classrooms (Liu, 2002); Chinese elementary students' stories about how and why they keep silent in the classroom (Tang, Wang, & Wong, 2020); the classroom participation experiences of Turkish graduate students in an American university context (Tatar, 2005); and the effect of the Confucian tradition on classroom silence in Chinese universities (Wang, 2019). This extensive cited literature indicates that both internal and external variables including the role of teacher and student, classroom context, teaching techniques, learning styles, and a particular culture and tradition have significantly influenced students' silence in classroom contexts. ...
In a collectivistic society such as Thailand, quiet students are considered as demonstrating negative academic performance in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. This phenomenological study attempted to provide insights relating to the silence of Thai EFL students in a university context where English is the primary medium of instruction. In-depth interviews and self-reflection of 35 first-year students were carried out at an autonomous public university, situated in the north of Thailand, where this is the case. Given this context, students were quiet in the classroom for several reasons such as personality traits, learned behaviors, situational factors, the role of the teacher, and the teaching approach. Additionally, cultural factors were identified as a significant reason for this behavior in English intensive courses. The pedagogical implication for the EFL context is also discussed.
... Speaking was not reported as much a challenge as listening, probably because students can avoid class participation if they felt they had language difficulty to do so (Liu, 2002), but they had to listen to understand lectures, so poor listening seemed to have seriously affected their learning experience. ...
International students undergo both language and academic culture shocks in their study in destination countries such as the UK, the US and Australia. However, most of the research on international students tends to adopt a deficit discourse when portraying this group of students. This research is a response to the call of researchers in the field for a paradigm shift that focuses on international students’ agency and asset. Using the agency theory and Community Cultural Wealth (CCW) model as the framework, this study reports findings from a qualitative study of 22 Chinese students on 2 + 2 joint programs between an Australian university and four Chinese higher education institutions. While the in-depth interview findings support past studies about the language and academic culture shocks that international students experience, more importantly this study reveals that Chinese international students exercised agency by leveraging mainly four forms of CCW—navigational capital, linguistic capital, social capital and inspirational capital to overcome language and academic culture shocks. Chinese students’ agentic exercise reveals temporal and social nature of their agency: It is not only informed by their habitus, directed and guided by the emerging demands and future goals, but also embedded in social engagement. Implications and policy advice for program managers on both sides of the joint programs as well as for host university teaching staff are discussed.
... Research also tries to understand the phenomenon by looking into the national condition of East Asian countries, especially Mainland China (e.g., Liu, 2010;Li & Li, 2021). For a country of China's population, the average class size there can be more than 50. ...
East Asian ESL students in the United States are frequently perceived as reticent, timid, and unsociable in class activities and discussions. The article reports a literature review investigating the possible causes of the actual condition of East Asian students’ participative performance and finds out feasible accommodations to provide to them. Cultural background, foreign language anxiety, classroom norms, and gender/age are discussed as factors influencing students’ willingness to speak in class. Accommodations regarding the issue include the use of written communication and online learning tools. Gaps and implications for future research are formulated in the end.
... This broad-brush approach ignores diversity within different Chinese cultural groups and societies and fails to distinguish students from areas of China that may have different educational norms, for example, Hong Kong, which is more familiar with the British educational system, compared to mainland China. There have been a number of cross-cultural studies in recent years that have considered the sociocultural impact of learning upon international students' learning practices and beliefs (Durkin, 2011;Edwards et al., 2007;Gu et al., 2010;Ryan, 2011;Tian & Lowe, 2013) and much of the research specifically concerned with the social integration of Chinese students has focussed on their academic life, in particular their participation in class (Hodkinson & Poropat, 2014;Liu, 2002), styles of learning (Lixian Jin & Cortazzi, 2006) and levels of academic attainment in relation to their peers (Crawford & Wang, 2015). However, there have been fewer studies specifically looking at the integration of Chinese students into a cohort from the Chinese students' perspective. ...
This study reports the barriers faced by Transnational Education (TNE)-students when completing practical work in the UK, having transferred to the UK for their final year of study as part of a chemistry degree. Self-identified barriers these students faced included the following: recall of information, difficulties writing the technical reports required for assessment, different educational cultural norms between China and the UK, especially in relation to health and safety, and a lack confidence using English, in particular with the technical language. It was noticed by both participants and researchers that there was minimal interaction with the domestic students and prevalent use of Chinese within the TNE-students’ social group, which may have created a ‘cultural enclave’. The results from this study have been used to derive a number of recommendations for practice for TNE-programmes that contain a significant practical element.
This Journal (Q1-2) special issue draws together diverse perspectives on silence, speech, and resources in language education from many international contexts, including Australian, British, Japanese, German, and Polish educational settings. These three themes intertwine in language education.
Silence among many students is a conscious choice rather than a passive behaviour.
Recognising the value of silence in English as a Foreign Language classes, this study aims to extend critical discussion to similar issues in Myanmar classrooms. We explored how verbally active Myanmar EFL students interpreted classroom silence. A qualitative case study was used to interview three self-perceived EFL ‘verbal learners’. Data analysed thematically using Jaworski's (1993) silence categories and Kurzon's (1995) model of intentionality revealed that participants acknowledged the benefits of silence, yet complained about unintended and pointless silences. The study highlights the usefulness of silence in in-class group learning and the need to explore silence holistically for diverse learning styles.
The concept of willingness to communicate (WTC) is pivotal in understanding student engagement in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. As a dynamic and multifaceted construct, WTC is subject to continual fluctuations throughout the communication process, often changing situationally. Traditionally, learner silence in class or during second language (L2) conversations is perceived negatively, as it can signal a lack of motivation to speak, thereby impeding optimal language acquisition. However, silence can also function as a communicative strategy or reflect learners’ essential feelings and emotions. This study explored the relationship between Japanese EFL learners’ situational WTC and their instances of silence during L2 (English) conversations. Participants were recruited for the study and were asked to deliver short speeches and engage in conversations with a researcher, during which their periods of silence were observed and recorded. All participant utterances were meticulously transcribed and analysed. Additionally, participants self-assessed their WTC for each utterance, and a stimulated recall interview was conducted to gather in-depth qualitative data. The results generally indicated that participants’ WTC was somewhat decreased when silence occurred between and during utterances. However, the findings also revealed the intricate and multifaceted nature of silence in relation to WTC, underscoring the need for a deeper understanding and nuanced consideration of learners’ silence. This study highlights the complexity of the interplay between WTC and silence, suggesting that silence should not be solely viewed as a negative phenomenon but rather as an integral part of the communicative process that warrants careful analysis and understanding.
What seems to be overlooked in current higher education research is the perspective of individual doctoral students in applied linguistics and how they comprehend the academic training culture within U.S. neoliberal universities. Through an autoethnographic (AE) approach, this study investigated how I as a Chinese doctoral student experienced different stages of identity negotiation in my doctoral program. The findings, which integrated theories of academic identity, the third space, and neoliberalism, were primarily derived from my self-reflection data throughout the pandemic. The arguments center around the coexistence of multiple identities and an asynchronous process of identity construction, which were influenced and shaped by study-work balance, laissez-faire supervision, the digital third space, and the pressures from neoliberal norms. The study brings insights into theoretical models from an AE perspective and recommends that higher education stakeholders adopt a flexible approach to doctoral supervision and academic publishing. Autoethnography offered a first-person perspective for in-depth meaning-making, facilitating a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of one’s academic journey of becoming.
This entry intends to draw together research on classroom interaction to inform TESOL teachers' pedagogical practices. It starts by framing the issue to the dual goals (i.e., pedagogical and natural), followed by a summary of theoretical frameworks such as the initiation‐response‐feedback model and the output hypothesis. It then pinpoints two central inquiries of classroom interaction research as whether and how classroom interaction facilitates student learning. After critically examining key variables of teachers, students, classroom environment, and larger sociocultural issues, it proposes four pedagogical principles, respectively addressing issues of classroom environment, students' sociocultural competence and language preparation, and teacher awareness, in the hope that teachers will maximize the effectiveness of classroom interaction by utilizing them in their practice.
Education systems across the world are increasingly employing dialogic education to equip students with 21st-century skills. Dialogic education seems to hold promise for promoting students’ collaborative, critical and creative thinking. A growing body of research has, therefore, focused on the implementation of dialogic education approaches in different contexts. However, dialogic education in China is a new research area where more research is needed. Science education in China aims to promote students’ scientific literacy and employs group work to enhance students’ learning outcomes; therefore, science classes provide a natural setting for implementing more dialogic approaches. Science education in China is a relatively newly established curriculum; hence, there is great interest in how to improve the effectiveness of the teaching and learning of science. My study, therefore, focuses on the contextualisation of implementing dialogic education in science classes in Chinese primary schools. Design-based research (DBR) was employed to conduct this study by incorporating an exploratory study and two iterations as part of the iterative design process. A classroom intervention was devised underpinned by design principles based on dialogic education. These principles were derived from a literature review and the findings of the exploratory study. A coding scheme for analysing dialogues in Chinese science classes was developed by employing a Grounded Theory approach based on the classroom observations and interviews conducted during the first iteration. The exploratory phase involved interviews with Chinese science academics, classroom observations and semi-structured interviews conducted in collaboration with the teachers and students of four Chinese primary schools. Interviews with Chinese science academics were carried out to gain a basic understanding of current Chinese science education. Classroom observations and semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed to develop the prototype of the intervention. In Iteration One, seven teachers participated in the process, and six of them carried out three reflective teaching cycles to promote their classroom dialogues. The Teacher Scheme for Educational Dialogue Analysis (T-SEDA) scheme was used to measure the effectiveness of their classrooms, and the results revealed improvements in their classroom dialogues. It was also argued that silence, a phenomenon that is often seen in Chinese classrooms, should be carefully considered in understanding Chinese dialogic education. For a more contextualised analysis, a new coding scheme was developed based on the data collected in the first iteration. In Iteration Two, data were collected from another Chinese city, and six teachers from the same school participated in the intervention and carried out another three reflective teaching cycles. The data were analysed using the newly developed coding scheme which showed gradual improvement in the effectiveness of the teachers’ classroom dialogues. The contributions of my study can be summarised from theoretical and practical perspectives. Theoretically, the study demonstrates that constructive silence should be considered as a form of dialogic engagement, especially in the context of education in China. To make the silence constructive, teachers need to employ techniques that help students to make their thinking heard or seen. Further, I argue that introducing scientific terminologies can be vital for widening and deepening dialogic space as it can help with setting the foundation of dialogic space. In terms of practical contributions, the tested design principles for implementing dialogic education in Chinese classrooms can be a guide for future research. In addition, the newly developed coding scheme for analysing classroom dialogues in Chinese science classes can contribute to contextualising dialogic education in the Chinese context. It can be used as a reference for assessing what Chinese science teachers can do to improve the quality of their classroom interactions.
Silence in language learning is commonly viewed negatively, with language teachers often struggling to interpret learner silence and identify whether it is part of communication, mental processing, or low engagement. This book addresses silence in language pedagogy from a positive perspective, translating research into practice in order to inform teaching and to advocate greater use of positive silence in the classroom. The first half of the book examines the existing research into silence, and the second half provides research-informed practical strategies and classroom tasks. It offers applicable principles for task design that utilises rich resources, which include visual arts, mental representation, poetry, music, and other innovative tools, to allow both silence and speech to express their respective and interrelated roles in learning. Comprehensive yet accessible, it is essential reading for academic researchers and students in applied linguistics, TESOL, and language teaching, as well as for language teachers and educators.
This study explores how transnational higher education partnerships in China influence Chinese students’ intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and their motivation to study abroad. There is a growing trend for Chinese students to experience cultural diversity. However, not much research has been conducted to understand how transnational higher education (TNHE) partnerships play a role in preparing students for motivation and cultural skills. The current research is a qualitative case study of the University of Nottingham Ningbo China, a university exemplifying TNHE partnerships in China. Byram’s model of ICC, published in 2009, was adopted as the basis for deductive thematic analysis. Research findings show that Chinese students purposively choose to study at a TNHE university for its English teaching and learning environment. This research found that TNHE partnerships in China positively affect students’ ICC development, and that ICC plays an important role in their intention to study abroad.
Foreign language anxiety (FLA) is an under-addressed concern for non-native English speaking (L2) counseling trainees in U.S. counselor training programs. We review the literature on FLA, discuss its negative impact on counselor self-efficacy (CSE), and detail a peer-led support group grounded in Relational Cultural Theory (RCT) to address L2 counseling trainees’ FLA.
Teachers sometimes comment on East Asian students' reluctance to adopt active speech roles in classrooms. In two large-scale surveys conducted at the University of Hong Kong, however, students gave no evidence of such reluctance. They expressed a liking for communicative work at school and a preference for university classes in which students do most of the talking. What is the cause, then, of the reticence that some teachers have observed? The surveys indicate that most students have enjoyed inadequate speaking opportunities at school, where “listening to teacher” has been their most frequent classroom experience. Many have low confidence in their ability to speak without prior planning. Although most see no conflict between speaking English and their Chinese identity, many feel unease when speaking it. This unease is often reinforced by students' anxiety to speak well and some teachers' error treatment techniques. Schoolteachers need to provide more and better contexts for students to develop oral English skills and use these skills in active learning roles in the classroom. Tertiary teachers need to develop strategies for encouraging students to step into the active learning roles which both sides seem to want. These practical implications will be explored further in the paper.
Western research on interpersonal behavior patterns and rules of exchange needs to move beyond the assumption of isolated individuals socialized to make rational decisions on the basis of self-interest. A review of recent research shows that Chinese society and other similar societies follow rules that deviate from those of the West. In such societies, norms of reciprocity (bao) are intense, but these norms are heavily shaped by the hierarchically structured network of social relations (guanxi) in which people are embedded, by the public nature of obligations, and by the long time period over which obligations are incurred through a self-conscious manipulation of face and related symbols. These special cultural symbols, as well as the historical monopoly of valuable resources by powerful leaders, help explain he origin of these patterns. There are several forces leading to change but also some sources of continuity, which help maintain these patterns regardless of political and economic context.
Analyzes the function silence performs in personal, social, and political communication, citing numerous examples. (RB)
After reviewing Brown and Levinson's face-saving model of politeness in light of Goffman's original discussion of face, and tracing the origin of this concept back to Chinese, the essay analyzes in detail the Chinese concept of face (that is, miánzi and liǎn), pointing out its interactional differences from Brown and Levinson's negative and positive face. The essay further examines an intrinsic link between face and politeness (lǐmáo) in Chinese, and draws upon studies of Japanese interaction and its underlying concept of face. The essay argues that Brown and Levinson's claim to provide a universally valid model of face is empirically inadequate; the dynamics of Chinese face call for an alternative, and more flexible framework. It is therefore suggested that a relative face orientation construct be posited to address cultural variations in notions of face and to identify two competing forces shaping our interactional behaviors: the ideal social identity and the ideal individual autonomy. The essay finally analyzes two Chinese discourse activities—a pre-dinner invitation and a post-dinner offer—focusing on the complexity of Chinese face, and discussing its persistent, mutually shared, orientation toward an ideal social identity.
Communicative styles of Japanese and Americans: Images and RealitiesTo give up on words': Silence in Western Apache culture
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On Communicative Competence
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