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The Literary Circulation of Actors in Seventeenth-Century China
Abstract
Actors were luxury goods traded among the elite in late Ming and early Qing China. Not only individual actors but entire troupes were sold, bestowed upon friends, and bequeathed upon relatives. Their circulation served to create and maintain networks of social exchange, in much the same manner as did gifts of fine ceramic ware, calligraphic scrolls, and ancient bronzes. The cultural prestige of the actor as a luxury good, in turn, was predicated on a highly refined discourse of connoisseurship. For example, the theater aficionado Pan Zhiheng's (1556–1622) disquisitions on the art of acting were collected in a volume entitled Chongding xinshang pian (Recompiled texts on connoisseurship), published between 1600 and 1640 (Clunas 1991, 36). In this essay, I discuss the social significance of the connoisseurship of the actor, examining the exchange of actors and poems among a rarefied stratum of the mid-seventeenth-century elite.
... (Zhou 2003: 15). Ming-Qing romantic literature saliently concerns male homosexuality involving feminised male bodies (Tian 2015), which challenges Confucian precepts of filial piety and chastity (Volpp 2002). The three most prominent late Ming collections of male homoerotic pornography that have survived numerous waves of censorship (Vitiello 1992(Vitiello , 1996 involving exquisite sexuality sported by the elite of equal status, which signifies refinement (Ruan and Tsai 1987, Wu 1995, McMahon 2002. ...
In this paper, I investigate dānměi as a groundbreaking literary genre by means of scrutinising an illustrious male writer pseudonymed Fēitiānyèxiáng, and I propound that his works are exemplary as online writing. As a growing Chinese Internet literature, the female-oriented dānměi genre, aka Boys Love, has attracted legions of heterosexual fangirl producers and consumers as well as a meagre amount of their male counterparts. Among male dānměi writers, who are in an absolute minority, Fēitiānyèxiáng is celebrated for a wide range of innovative themes and magnificent storylines, and his fiction is replete with profound literary and historical allusions and elaborate and meticulous depictions. Furthermore, notwithstanding a non-reversible bipartite dichotomy between seme (top) and uke (bottom) roles, Fēitiānyèxiáng's writing is not featured by feminisation of uke, which is clichéd characterisation in not only the dānměi subculture, but also classical and modern Chinese literature. More significantly, Fēitiānyèxiáng's narratives are reality-oriented, addressing adverse circumstances in a real-world context and hence rendering characters more multi-faceted, and he does not circumvent realistic issues or create over-romanticised representation, analogous to his equivalent pseudonymed Nánkāngbáiqǐ.
... Young singers and actors in traditional China, regardless of sex, had always been vulnerable to associations of sexual servitude (Wu 2006a). Libertine male sexual experimentation during the last century of the Ming dynasty gave rise to a homoerotic vogue among significant segments of the literati elite (Wu 2004), supported by a sensibility of male beauty that found expression in the circulation of songboys (Vitiello 1996;Volpp 2002)-a situation that continued in the Qing dynasty (Wu 2004: 29-56). In the last century and a half of the Qing dynasty this sensibility brought boy actors to the forefront of jingju, creating a star culture focusing on the "flowers" of the stage (Mackerras 1972: 44-48, 150-152;Tian 2000). ...
... Young singers and actors in traditional China, regardless of sex, had always been vulnerable to associations of sexual servitude (Wu 2006a). Libertine male sexual experimentation during the last century of the Ming dynasty gave rise to a homoerotic vogue among significant segments of the literati elite (Wu 2004), supported by a sensibility of male beauty that found expression in the circulation of songboys (Vitiello 1996;Volpp 2002)-a situation that continued in the Qing dynasty (Wu 2004: 29-56). In the last century and a half of the Qing dynasty this sensibility brought boy actors to the forefront of jingju, creating a star culture focusing on the "flowers" of the stage (Mackerras 1972: 44-48, 150-152;Tian 2000). ...
This paper examines the nineteenth-century flourishing of a homoerotic theatre literature paralleling the development of jingju (Beijing opera), theorizing its impact on public culture in the Chinese capital. Popular among literati gentlemen, "flower guides" (huapu) extolling the beauty of boy actors (xiao ling) have left a valuable record of the busy social life that centered upon Beijing's theatres and nearby restaurants and nightclubs. With reference to the writings of Roland Barthes the authors argue that flower guide circulation contributed to the formation of new types of public space and new ways of "performing the self" associated with theatre in early modern China, a space they call "epitheatre."
This article focusses on the male dan (旦), a type of male actor who performs female roles in Chinese theatre. I argue that the practice’s development from the latter half of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) onwards was not simply due to dramatic progress in artistic proficiency, but also a result of the wider dissemination of homoeroticism in Chinese society, particularly among the scholar-elite. Besides theatrical performance, male dan were also forced to offer escort services to the scholar-elite and well-off patrons. Gender dislocation reflected status vulnerability in these types of homoerotic interactions. Those of means and privilege played the dominant role, while male dan were schooled in feminine attributes in order to cater to the desires of their patrons. The article concludes that such relationships were tolerated in society on condition of the fulfilment of familial duties and constituted a liminal space within and projection of the predominant Confucian family structure, where femininity led to subsidiary social status.
The Cambridge History of Gay and Lesbian Literature presents a global history of the field and is an unprecedented summation of critical knowledge on gay and lesbian literature that also addresses the impact of gay and lesbian literature on cognate fields such as comparative literature and postcolonial studies. Covering subjects from Sappho and the Greeks to queer modernism, diasporic literatures, and responses to the AIDS crisis, this volume is grounded in current scholarship. It presents new critical approaches to gay and lesbian literature that will serve the needs of students and specialists alike. Written by leading scholars in the field, The Cambridge History of Gay and Lesbian Literature will not only engage readers in contemporary debates but also serve as a definitive reference for gay and lesbian literature for years to come.
Changing contexts. From late Ming to early Qing. There is no easy consensus on what demarcates the beginning of the late Ming period. The conventional date, as followed in this volume, is the year 1573, the beginning of the Wanli reign. Literary historians eager to synchronize changes in literary trends with the “radicalization” of Wang Yangming’s (1472–1529) philosophy of introspection and intuitive awakening, however, tend to push the beginning of the late Ming to about the mid-sixteenth century. A certain amount of flexibility is built into any attempt at periodization, but how and where to apply the label of “late Ming” is particularly slippery and problematic. From the 1920s on, efforts have been made to trace the genealogy of the “new literature” or of different versions of modernity back to late Ming oppositional stances and the “romantic” and “individualist” concerns of its literary culture. From that perspective, dynastic decline promised new beginnings. In contrast, in the aftermath of the Manchu conquest, retrospection on the late Ming often yielded negative judgments that tended to conjoin political decline with cultural decadence, and the chief concern lay with pinpointing when that decline became inevitable.. The authors discussed in the previous chapter did not think of themselves as “late Ming writers.” There was generally no sense of an ending. Despite forebodings of a deepening crisis, the collapse of the Ming in 1644 caught many by surprise. In any case, dynastic decline did not seem to have undermined the cultural confidence of this period, which was an extraordinarily creative one. The label “late Ming” (Ming ji, Ming mo, or wan Ming) was a Qing invention that was sometimes accompanied by castigations of heterodoxy, frivolity, and excess. At the same time, early Qing literature was profoundly concerned with the Ming–Qing dynastic transition and the implications of the late Ming legacy.
This essay explores some of the ways people conceived of the relationship between sexed bodies and gendered roles during the slow transition from the Ming (1368-1644) to the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). This was a period of increasing commercialization and significant challenges to traditional Confucian thought, one reflected in the work of the prolific author and cultural entrepreneur Li Yu (1611-80). Given his imbrication in both traditional networks of elite men and in the increasingly important realm of the market economy, Li Yu provides a useful entry point into the analysis of transgender representations in early modern China. Li Yu’s works demonstrate that the representation and performance of ambiguous or trans genders was linked to elite male consumption: that is, transgressive gender presentations were a prime form of entertainment, in fiction as in theater. However, his representation of nonnormative gender presentation also evidences a significant reconfiguring of conceptions of the body, the self, and the family in a world in which money was increasingly able to purchase anything. The author shows that during this tumultuous period, in which men and women grappled with questions of allegiance to the fallen Ming or the foreign Qing, the intersection between fungible currency and the gendered body emerged as a primary locus of elite male experimentation, in life and in literature, with the seemingly boundless possibilities of novelty and the purchasing power of silver.
This book investigates the issue of conceptual originality in art criticism of the seventeenth century, a period in which China dynamically reinvented itself. In art criticism, the term which was called upon to indicate conceptual originality more than any other was “qi” ?, literally, “different”; but secondarily, “odd,” like a number and by extension, “the novel,” and “extraordinary.” This work finds that originality, expressed through visual difference, was a paradigmatic concern of both artists and critics. Burnett speculates on why many have dismissed originality as a possible “traditional Chinese” value, and the ramifications this has had on art historical understanding. She further demonstrates that a study of individual key terms can reveal social and cultural values and provides a linear history of the increase in critical use of “qi” as “originality” from the fifth through the seventeenth centuries, exploring what originality looks like in artworks by members of the gentry elite and commoner classes, and explains how the value lost its luster at the end of the seventeenth century. © The Chinese University of Hong Kong 2013. All rights reserved.
Introduction: the late Ming and the history of the book. Over the course of these two volumes, the percentage of written material usually called literature steadily decreases in proportion to the body of extant writing as a whole. Earlier chapters deal with virtually all surviving written material from their respective periods. In this chapter, this percentage plummets, as most of what was written, read, and printed in the late Ming dynasty lies outside the purview of literary history.. For generations, scholars have intuited that the way in which commerce and culture mixed in the late Ming was radically different from preceding periods. Recent scholarly work has been able to quantify some of the enormous changes that printing and books – and consequently literature – experienced at this time, when the commercial print industry began to undergo explosive growth. Everywhere we look, we find evidence of an urban reading public, consuming texts at a prodigious rate. Recent studies have shown that only in the beginning of the sixteenth century did printing become the primary mode of textual circulation, so we might even date the beginning of print culture’s dominance over manuscripts to this moment. (Nevertheless, manuscript culture remained vital throughout the late Ming, and a number of the important literary texts of this period and later were circulated first in manuscript form.). Even though commercial printing, which had existed for centuries, did not make any major technological advances in the late Ming, it underwent dramatic and sudden growth during this period. Compare the forty-seven years of the Wanli period (1573–1620) with the fifty-one years of the two preceding reigns, the Jiajing and Longqing periods (1521–1572). Two hundred twenty-five imprints that date from those earlier realms survive from Nanjing and Jianyang, the two primary centers of commercial publishing; from the Wanli reign we have a staggering 1,185 commercial imprints.
This book argues that modernity first arrived in late nineteenth-century Shanghai via a new spatial configuration. This city's colonial capitalist development ruptured the traditional configuration of self-contained households, towns, and natural landscapes in a continuous spread, producing a new set of fragmented as well as fluid spaces. In this process, Chinese sojourners actively appropriated new concepts and technology rather than passively responding to Western influences. Liang maps the spatial and material existence of these transient people and reconstructs a cultural geography that spreads from the interior to the neighbourhood and public spaces. In this book the author: discusses the courtesan house as a surrogate home and analyzes its business, gender, and material configurations; examines a new type of residential neighbourhood and shows how its innovative spatial arrangements transformed the traditional social order and hierarchy; surveys a range of public spaces and highlights the mythic perceptions of industrial marvels, the adaptations of colonial spatial types, the emergence of an urban public, and the spatial fluidity between elites and masses. Through reading contemporaneous literary and visual sources, the book charts a hybrid modern development that stands in contrast to the positivist conception of modern progress. As such it will be a provocative read for scholars of Chinese cultural and architectural history.
Revolutions, droughts, famines, invasions, wars, regicides - the calamities of the mid-seventeenth century were not only unprecedented, they were agonisingly widespread. A global crisis extended from England to Japan, and from the Russian Empire to sub-Saharan Africa. North and South America, too, suffered turbulence. The distinguished historian Geoffrey Parker examines first-hand accounts of men and women throughout the world describing what they saw and suffered during a sequence of political, economic and social crises that stretched from 1618 to the 1680s. Parker also deploys scientific evidence concerning climate conditions of the period, and his use of 'natural' as well as 'human' archives transforms our understanding of the World Crisis. Changes in the prevailing weather patterns during the 1640s and 1650s - longer and harsher winters, and cooler and wetter summers - disrupted growing seasons, causing dearth, malnutrition, and disease, along with more deaths and fewer births. Some contemporaries estimated that one-third of the world died, and much of the surviving historical evidence supports their pessimism. Parker's demonstration of the link between climate change and worldwide catastrophe 350 years ago stands as an extraordinary historical achievement. And the contemporary implications of his study are equally important: are we at all prepared today for the catastrophes that climate change could bring tomorrow?.
Homoerotic play was central to the recreational culture of theatergoing from the mid-Qing to the beginning of the twentieth century, especially in Beijing. Theatergoing literati in particular played an important role in the production and reproduction of an elite, theater-based, homoerotic sub-culture, heavily investing themselves in the pursuit of social distinction. While it is important not to underestimate the importance of lower-status audiences in the popularisation of Peking opera, the literati doubtlessly considered themselves the aesthetic vanguard in terms of both the judgment of staged drama and the literary promotion of romances between themselves and the boy-actors offstage. Unlike "flower-guides" (Huapu) that circulated between friends, diaries from the period record private thoughts on the scene that would not, and could not, be expressed in public. Drawing on the diary of the influential late-Qing scholar-official Li Ciming (1830-94), I focus on the question of how an understanding of public participation entered Li's diaries, as well as examining what his self-representations have to say about Qing literati ownership of homoerotic sensibilities and spaces, which is to say, how he saw himself as presenting to others and how that self-presentation is (re-)presented in his writing.
From feminist philosophy to genetic science, scholarship in recent years has succeeded in challenging many entrenched assumptions about the material and biological status of human bodies. Likewise in the study of Chinese cultures, accelerating globalization and the resultant hybridity have called into question previous assumptions about the boundaries of Chinese national and ethnic identity. The problem of identifying a single or definitive referent for the "Chinese body" is thornier than ever. By facilitating fresh dialogue between fields as diverse as the history of science, literary studies, diaspora studies, cultural anthropology, and contemporary Chinese film and cultural studies, Embodied Modernities addresses contemporary Chinese embodiments as they are represented textually and as part of everyday life practices. The book is divided into two sections, each with a dedicated introduction by the editors. The first examines "Thresholds of Modernity" in chapters on Chinese body cultures in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries-a period of intensive cultural, political, and social modernization that led to a series of radical transformations in how bodies were understood and represented.The second section on "Contemporary Embodiments" explores body representations across the People's Republic of China,Taiwan, and Hong Kong today.
In this colorful and detailed history, Joshua Goldstein describes the formation of the Peking opera in late Qing and its subsequent rise and re-creation as the epitome of the Chinese national culture in Republican era China. Providing a fascinating look into the lives of some of the opera's key actors, he explores their methods for earning a living; their status in an ever-changing society; the methods by which theaters functioned; the nature and content of performances; audience make-up; and the larger relationship between Peking opera and Chinese nationalism. Propelled by a synergy of the commercial and the political patronage from the Qing court in Beijing to modern theaters in Shanghai and Tianjin, Peking opera rose to national prominence. The genre's star actors, particularly male cross-dressing performers led by the exquisite Mei Lanfang and the "Four Great Female Impersonators" became media celebrities, models of modern fashion and world travel. Ironically, as it became increasingly entrenched in modern commercial networks, Peking opera was increasingly framed in post-May fourth discourses as profoundly traditional. Drama Kings demonstrates that the process of reforming and marketing Peking opera as a national genre was integrally involved with process of colonial modernity, shifting gender roles, the rise of capitalist visual culture, and new technologies of public discipline that became increasingly prevalent in urban China in the Republican era.
This article examines the confluence of homoerotic desire with career ambition in Wu Jingzi’s (ca. 1701–1754) novel Rulin waishi (ca. 1750), specifically through its allusions to the author’s cousin Wu Qing (1696–1750), owner of the famed portrait by Chen Hu of the actor Xu Ziyun (1644–1675). The study argues that Wu Qing’s inscription on this portrait is subtly reflected in Wu Jingzi’s representation of male-male eroticism as complementary and even instrumental to the literati’s pursuit of social mobility through the examination system. It also compares this juxtaposition of libidinous and career desires to antecedents in earlier fiction, and concludes with a discussion of a second portrait of Xu Ziyun and his lover Chen Weisong (1625–1682) as well as the impact of this artistic and literary legacy on Chen Sen’s Pinhua baojian (1849).
This paper examines a range of texts from the early Qing period in which husbands pay tribute to their wives, looking closely at three contrasting pairs of cases: works written by An Zhiyuan (1628-1701) and Pu Songling (1640-1715), who enjoyed long and happy marriages, by Chen Gongyin (1631-1700) and Xu Fang (1619-71), associated with the Ming loyalist cause, and by Chen Weisong (1626-82) and Chen Que (1604-77), stricken by guilt over their wives’ untimely deaths. Particular areas of attention include the relationship between an author’s choice of literary form and the effect achieved, and the implications of these texts for an understanding of gender relations in seventeenth-century China.
This review article gives an overview of work by Western scholars in English on Chinese classical theatre genres from the perspective of a Chinese scholar.
Homoerotic Sensibilities in Late Imperial China is the richest exploration to date of late imperial Chinese literati interest in male love. Employing primary sources such as miscellanies, poetry, fiction and 'flower guides', Wu Cuncun argues that male homoeroticism played a central role in the cultural life of late imperial Chinese literati elites. Countering recent arguments that homosexuality was marginal and disparaged during this period, the book also seeks to trace the relationship of homoeroticism to status and power.
In addition to historical portraits and analysis, the book also advances the concept of 'sensibilities' as a method for interpreting the complex range of homoerotic texts produced in late imperial China.
Towards the end of his life, Lord Ling of Wei (r. 534-493 BCE) effectively abdicated in favor of his wife, Lady Nanzi. Such a transfer of power seems to have been unique in Zhou dynasty China, and these events were discussed at some length in ancient historical and philosophical texts. Throughout the imperial era scholars and commentators continued to study Lord Ling and Lady Nanzi, producing a considerable body of research which reflects changing attitudes to the nature of ruler's rights and authority, and which also documents responses to the couple's apparent rejection of accepted social and gender roles. Although their actions were often portrayed positively in early Chinese texts, the overwhelming majority of scholars who studied their biographies in the imperial era were hostile to the concept of a woman taking control of the government of a state. The tension between the accounts found in ancient texts and subsequent scholarship is the subject of this paper.
Centred on two Republican-era Chinese sexologists, Zhang Jingsheng (1888–1970) and Pan Guangdan (1899–1967), this article explores the intellectual context in which the western category of ‘homosexuality’ was introduced to Chinese culture, thereby highlighting its production of a key epistemological rearrangement in the social significance of same-sex desire in modern China. The article proposes and develops the analytic rubric of ‘epistemic modernity’ to illuminate the pertinent discursive apparatus of cultural translation and negotiation, on the basis of which explicit claims of (sexual) knowledge-making were imbricated with implicit claims about cultural indicators of traditionality, authenticity and modernity.
This is the most serious study to date on the topic of male same-sex relations in China during the early twentieth century, illuminating male same-sex relations in many sites: language, translated sexological writings, literary works, tabloid newspapers, and opera. Documenting how nationalism and colonial modernity reconfigured Chinese discourses on sex between men in the early twentieth century, Wenqing Kang has amassed a wealth of material previously overlooked by scholars, such as the entertainment news and opinion pieces related to same-sex relations published in the tabloid press. © 2009 by Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All Rights Reserved.
This study examines the dual strategies of auto/biographical production in the immensely rich corpus of writings by the nineteenth-century woman literata Shen Shanbao recently rediscovered by the author in rare book collections in China. The focus of the analysis is on the conditions of production of self-writing, including the processes of textual organization, genre manipulation, and self-editing. The study demonstrates an exemplary instance of gendered intervention in late imperial China that attempts to change the terms of writing practices and generic conventions to accommodate the desire to write the gendered self and gendered subjects into history.
Gender transformations in Pinhua baojian reveal a much broader examination of gender and sexuality than allowed for by discussions of the work as a homosexual novel. This paper examines some of the complexities of the gendered representations of boy actors in the novel, seen in their marriage unions, in cross-dressing episodes, and particularly in parallels with female prostitutes of other nineteenth-century courtesan fiction. The coerced adoption of a feminine gender identity and homosexual sexual role by the boy actors, together with their gradual remasculination during the course of the novel, expose masculinity and femininity as highly socialized constructions and act as comment on the wider nineteenth-century marriage economy.
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Ch'ing in Chinese Literature
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Turning Point: Politics, Art and Intellectual Life during the Boxue Hongci Examination
- Bai Qianshen
- Forthcoming
The Price of Autonomy: Intellectuals in Ming and Ch'ing Politics
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