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The protein quality of mycoprotein
... Only one study reported a PDCAAS of 100% (measured in ileostomy patients, true ileal digestibility estimated at 86%) which means that this alternative source can potentially be considered as a good quality (complete) protein (Edwards and Cummings 2010). No DIAAS values are so far reported for mycoproteins. ...
... For the age group 6-36 months old, the calculated IVDIAAS ranged from 33% to 42% For older children, the reported IVDIAAS ranged from 39% to 49% (Ariëns et al. 2021). These values were much lower than the PDCAAS value reported previously (Edwards and Cummings 2010) and let the authors question the reliability of the IVDIAAS produced in the ways described above (Ariëns et al. 2021). ...
The current consumption trends, combined with the expected demographic growth in the coming years, call for a protein transition, i.e., the partial substitution of animal protein-rich foods with foods rich in proteins produced in a more sustainable way. Here, we have discussed some of the most common and promising protein sources alternative to animal proteins, namely: legumes, insects, and microorganisms (including microalgae and fungi). The primary objective was to assess their nutritional quality through the collection of digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) values available in the scientific literature. Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) values have been used where DIAAS values were not available. The ecological impact of each protein source, its nutritional quality and the potential applications in traditional foods or novel food concepts like meat analogues are also discussed. The data collected show that DIAAS values for animal proteins are higher than all the other protein sources. Soybean proteins, mycoproteins and proteins of some insects present relatively high DIAAS (or PDCAAS) values and must be considered proteins of good quality. This review also highlights the lack of DIAAS values for many potentially promising protein sources and the variability induced by the way the proteins are processed.
... These are low in sodium content and rich in calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, and vitamin B complex (Derbyshire & Ayoob, 2019;. Further, the biological value of mycoprotein is equivalent to milk proteins and has PDCAAS near to 1.0 (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). The fungal cell is rich in chitin and betaglucans and fiber content range from 25% in dry mycoprotein and 6% in wet mycoprotein (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). ...
... Further, the biological value of mycoprotein is equivalent to milk proteins and has PDCAAS near to 1.0 (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). The fungal cell is rich in chitin and betaglucans and fiber content range from 25% in dry mycoprotein and 6% in wet mycoprotein (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). ...
... However, information on the food protein quality and other health-related benefits has, so far, only been reported for mycoprotein (produced by F. venenatum, Quorn). In vivo studies showed that mycoprotein has a high protein bioavailability (Dunlop et al., 2017), with actual protein digestibility of 86% in humans (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). Typically, the protein content and AA profile of food and feed of microbial origin are reported, but information about the carbohydrates is omitted although they are a component of the microbial cell wall that is not digested in the upper intestine and can therefore be considered as dietary fibre (DF). ...
... Wang et al. (2023) analysed five species of fungi biomass, which showed degree of protein hydrolysis between 43 -62%. In the present work, the protein hydrolysis degree of the Myco-Quorn was 45%, which is closer to the value reported by Colosimo et al. (2020) and to in vivo studies reporting high protein bioavailability of Quorn (Dunlop et al., 2017;Edwards & Cummings, 2010). Compared to Myco-Quorn, the other two fungal samples, Myco-Pekilo and Myco-Rhizopus had even higher digestibility. ...
This study evaluated the nutritional quality of different microbial biomass samples by assessing their
protein digestibility and carbohydrate fermentability in the colon using in vitro methods. Four microbial
samples were produced: one hydrogen-oxidizing bacterial strain (Nocardioides nitrophenolicus KGS-27),
two strains of filamentous fungi (Rhizopus oligosporus and Paecilomyces variotii), and one yeast strain
(Rhodotorula babjevae). The microorganisms were grown in bioreactors, harvested and dried before
analysis. The commercial fungal product Quorn was used as a reference. The protein digestibility of the
microbial samples was analysed using the INFOGEST in vitro model, followed by quantification of N-
terminal amine groups. An in vitro faecal fermentation experiment was also performed to evaluate the
degradation of carbohydrates in microbial biomass samples and formation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA).
The fungal biomass samples had higher protein hydrolysis (60-75%) than the bacterial sample (12%) and
Quorn (45%), while the yeast biomass had the highest protein digestibility (85%). Heat-treatment of the
biomass significantly reduced its protein digestibility. Total dietary fibre (DF) content of fungal biomass was
31 – 43%(DW), mostly insoluble, whereas the bacterial biomass contained mainly soluble DF (total DF:
25.7%, of which 23.5% were soluble and 2.2% insoluble). After 24 h of colonic in vitro fermentation, SCFA production from the biomass of Paecilomyces, Quorn and Rhodotorula was similar to that of wheat bran, while 17% and 32% less SCFA were produced from the biomass of Rhizopus and the bacterial strain, respectively. Further studies are needed to clarify the reasons for the observed differences in protein digestibility and DF fermentability, especially regarding the cell wall structures and role of post-processing.
... The antidiabetes activity might be related to poor digestibility of fiber content in the cell wall, which slows down the absorption process in the intestine and raises the nutrient in the plasma (Warrilow et al., 2019). The PDCAAS of fungi is very close to the maximum score (0.996) and higher than beef and chicken (Edward and Cumming, 2010). Several toxicity testing of mycoprotein on gastrointestinal, oestrogenic, and exposure effects on the eyes and skin have been conducted. ...
... This amount is similar to the protein content in egg, higher than milk and lower than meat. However, it contains all of the EAAs and the PDCAAS is 0.996 which is near to perfect protein (Edward and Cumming, 2010). This score is higher than that achieved by beef or chicken. ...
... Mycoprotein contains high-quality proteins, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals [104]. The protein content in mycoprotein is highly rich in EAA (41% of the total protein) and it has a PDCAAS of 0.996 [106,107]. ...
There is a pressing need to expand the production and consumption of alternative protein sources from plants, fungi, insects, and algae from both nutritional and sustainability perspectives. It is well known that the postprandial rise in plasma amino acid concentrations and subsequent muscle anabolic response is greater after the ingestion of animal-derived protein sources, such as dairy, meat, and eggs, than plant-based proteins. However, emerging evidence shows that a similar muscle anabolic response is observed—despite a lower and slower postprandial aminoacidemia—after the ingestion of alternative protein sources compared with animal-derived protein sources. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of plasma amino acid kinetics after the ingestion of alternative protein sources would play a significant role in recognizing and identifying the anabolic properties of these protein sources, allowing for the implementation of the best nutritional intervention strategies, contributing to more sustainable food production, and developing new medical nutritional products with optimal impacts on muscle mass, strength, and function, both in terms of health and disease. Therefore, this narrative review is focused on postprandial amino acid kinetics (the area under the curve, peak, and time to reach the peak concentration of amino acids) based on experimental randomized controlled trials performed in young and older adults following the ingestion of different novel, sustainable, and alternative protein sources.
... Fungi like Fusarium venenatum and Aspergillus oryzae, which belong to this class, are utilized in mycoprotein production due to their high protein content and efficient substrate utilization [120,121]. Mycoprotein produced from Ascomycetes through fermentation offers high protein quality with a Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of 0.996, as indicated by ileostomy methods [122,123]. Recent research suggests that the structural complexity of fungal cell walls may benefit metabolic health by promoting gut health and enhancing immune responses [124,125]. Figure 6 illustrates the hyphal structure of the cell wall and cell membrane of filamentous fungi from Ascomycetes, forming fibrous bundles that mimic meat texture. ...
Mycoprotein is a nutritious food product derived from fungi that boasts a high protein content, low fat, and substantial fiber, mimicking the texture of meat. It contains essential amino acids (EAA), vitamins, and minerals. Traditionally, it is produced through the fermentation of glucose derived from starch in controlled bioreactors, where pH, temperature, and oxygen levels are optimized to enhance fungal biomass production. Advances in biotechnology have highlighted lignocellulosic biomass waste, such as agricultural residues, forestry waste, and other plant materials, as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative feedstock. This type of biomass, which includes cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, can be pretreated and enzymatically broken down to release fermentable sugars, promoting a circular economy by turning waste into valuable bioproducts. This review explores the feasibility of lignocellulosic biomass for producing mycoprotein through advanced pretreatment and fermentation techniques. Techniques like steam explosion and acid hydrolysis effectively break down complex lignocellulosic structures, enhancing the availability of fermentable sugars necessary for efficient mycoprotein synthesis. Furthermore, using lignocellulosic biomass facilitates waste management and supports sustainable agricultural practices. Moreover, this review discusses fungi choices suitable for mycoprotein production, such as Fusarium venenatum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pleurotus sp., Neurospora sp., and Aspergillus sp.. These findings highlight the potential of mycoprotein production from lignocellulosic biomass waste to enhance food sustainability and resource efficiency.
Graphical Abstract
... Protein quality is often assessed using the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) index. F. venenatum mycoprotein had a PDCAAS of 0.996 (Edwards & Cummings, 2010) highlighting that F. venenatum mycoprotein is a remarkable source of high-quality protein. Furthermore, in a study involving healthy men, F. venenatum mycoprotein (dissolved in a drink, not the Quorn products) demonstrated an equivalent postprandial availability of plasma total, essential, nonessential, and branched-chain amino acids compared to those of milk protein (Dunlop et al., 2017). ...
Filamentous fungal mycoproteins have gained increasing attention as sustainable alternatives to animal and plant‐based proteins. This comprehensive review summarizes the nutritional characteristics, toxicological aspects, and health‐promoting effects of mycoproteins, focusing on those derived from filamentous fungi, notably Fusarium venenatum. Mycoproteins are characterized by their high protein content, and they have a superior essential amino acid profile compared to soybeans indicating excellent protein quality and benefits for human nutrition. Additionally, mycoproteins offer enhanced digestibility, further highlighting their suitability as a protein source. Furthermore, mycoproteins are rich in dietary fibers, which have been associated with health benefits, including protection against metabolic diseases. Moreover, their fatty acids profile, with significant proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids and absence of cholesterol, distinguishes them from animal‐derived proteins. In conclusion, the future of mycoproteins as a health‐promoting protein alternative and the development of functional foods relies on several key aspects. These include improving the acceptance of mycoproteins, conducting further research into their mechanisms of action, addressing consumer preferences and perceptions, and ensuring safety and regulatory compliance. To fully unlock the potential of mycoproteins and meet the evolving needs of a health‐conscious society, continuous interdisciplinary research, collaboration among stakeholders, and proactive engagement with consumers will be vital.
... The morphological and biochemical properties of these fungi can be tuned by fermentation bioprocesses, with know-how that has already been optimized for large scale fermentation vessels 26,27 . Mycoprotein contains all essential amino acids and has a protein digestibilitycorrected amino acid score of 0.996, making it a complete protein source with bioavailability similar to that of dairy milk and better than wheat-based or soy-based protein [28][29][30] . Therefore, edible filamentous fungi are an ideal, sustainable biomaterial for cultivated meat microcarriers. ...
Cultivated meat production requires bioprocess optimization to achieve cell densities that are multiple orders of magnitude higher compared to conventional cell culture techniques. These processes must maximize resource efficiency and cost-effectiveness by attaining high cell growth productivity per unit of medium. Microcarriers, or carriers, are compatible with large-scale bioreactor use, and offer a large surface-area-to-volume ratio for the adhesion and proliferation of anchorage-dependent animal cells. An ongoing challenge persists in the efficient retrieval of cells from the carriers, with conflicting reports on the effectiveness of trypsinization and the need for additional optimization measures such as carrier sieving. To surmount this issue, edible carriers have been proposed, offering the advantage of integration into the final food product while providing opportunities for texture, flavor, and nutritional incorporation. Recently, a proof of concept (POC) utilizing inactivated mycelium biomass derived from edible filamentous fungus demonstrated its potential as a support structure for myoblasts. However, this POC relied on a model mammalian cell line combination with a single mycelium species, limiting realistic applicability to cultivated meat production. This study aims to advance the POC. We found that the species of fungi composing the carriers impacts C2C12 myoblast cell attachment—with carriers derived from Aspergillus oryzae promoting the best proliferation. C2C12 myoblasts effectively differentiated on mycelium carriers when induced in myogenic differentiation media. Mycelium carriers also supported proliferation and differentiation of bovine satellite cells. These findings demonstrate the potential of edible mycelium carrier technology to be readily adapted in product development within the cultivated meat industry.
... Among the EAAs, lysine cannot be synthesized in the human body and must be supplied ex vivo, which is particularly important for infants and adolescents during their growth. The amino acid score after fungal protein digestibility correction is 0.996, which is close to milk, indicating that fungal proteins are high-quality proteins [49]. In addition, the composition and bioavailability of amino acids for fungal proteins might make them a potential source of protein to support protein metabolism in skeletal muscle [50]. ...
From the preparation of bread, cheese, beer, and condiments to vegetarian meat products, fungi play a leading role in the food fermentation industry. With the shortage of global protein resources and the decrease in cultivated land, fungal protein has received much attention for its sustainability. Fungi are high in protein, rich in amino acids, low in fat, and almost cholesterol-free. These properties mean they could be used as a promising supplement for animal and plant proteins. The selection of strains and the fermentation process dominate the flavor and quality of fungal-protein-based products. In terms of function, fungal proteins exhibit better digestive properties, can regulate blood lipid and cholesterol levels, improve immunity, and promote gut health. However, consumer acceptance of fungal proteins is low due to their flavor and safety. Thus, this review puts forward prospects in terms of these issues.
... The ideal protein bioavailability-assessed amino acid level is 0.996, indicating that the protein was produced using the best ileostomy techniques and is of high quality. 31 Mycoprotein contains 6 g of ber per 100 g, which implies that it is "rich in ber," according to European Commission requirements. 32 The natural dietary ber of mycoprotein comprises 12% soluble and 88% insoluble bres, with a minor amount of chitin and predominant glucan (creating a "brous chitin-glucan matrix" in the small intestine region). ...
To feed the increasing world population, finding sustainable sources of meat substitutes has become necessary. Mycoprotein, derived from filamentous fungi, is a good meat alternative as it provides nutrition and has some additional health benefits over conventional meat. It can act as a prebiotic, antioxidant, blood cholesterol level regulator, and blood glucose level regulator. It also plays a significant role in muscle protein development. Mycoprotein production is carried out by submerged fermentation, solid-state fermentation, or surface culture method. The yield of the mycoprotein depends on the type of microorganism or substrate used for the production. Different research studies have proved that mycoprotein produced by submerged fermentation has a higher yield and more nutritional benefits. The Food and Drug Administration gave certain fungal species the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status. Some of the species include Monascus purpureus, Aspergillus oryzae, Paradendryphiella salina, Neurospora intermedia, Rhizopus oryzae and Fusarium venenatum. This fungal product has less environmental impact than conventional meat protein. The carbon footprint of mycoprotein is 10 and 4 times less than that of beef and chicken, respectively. Although some limitations are there, i.e., less protein, nausea, vomiting, sub-chronic toxicity, and allergic reactions, mycoprotein may be widely accepted by the vegetarian population in the future as a meat replacer.
... Similarly, the protein digestibility of all alternative protein sources, except for mycoproteins Coelho et al., 2020), was lower compared to chicken and cultured meat. According to different studies (Coelho et al., 2020;Edwards & Cummings, 2010;Finnigan, 2011;Pojić et al., 2018), the PDCAAS of mycoproteins could reach up to 99.6%. The protein digestibility of pulses was the lowest of all the protein sources, as its PDCAAS ranged from 46 to 73% (Nosworthy et al., 2017;Devi et al., 2018). ...
Global crises affecting food security have kept increasing for four years in a row, with almost 350 million people expected to suffer from food insecurity in 2023, more than double the number compared to 2020. This draws attention to the importance of finding food capable to feed a population under such conditions. In this research criteria were developed to gain comparative insights into crises suitability of food system’s food security. Four principal criteria – production characteristics, intrinsic attributes, supply chain efficiency, and feasibility of conversion – were identified to encompass this crises suitability, and translated into measurable indicators tailored to protein foods. A multi criteria analysis (MCA) was developed which enabled the assessment of different alternative protein sources – insects, cultured meat, mycoproteins, algae, and plant proteins – on the basis of equal importance of the crises suitability criteria. Chicken meat, being currently the most efficient protein source in times of crisis, was used as a reference protein source. Based on the suitability criteria, insects and cultured meat resulted from the comparative study convincingly as the most suitable to replace chicken meat. Although the systems of the other alternative protein sources did not emerge as suitable options to replace chicken meat in a crisis, algae, mycoproteins, and plant proteins could support chicken meat as complementary sources of proteins if embedded in the food supply. When adopting these criteria, the type of crisis needs to be taken into account to judge the relative importance of the criteria, as a basis for decision making on the crisis suitability of food stuff’s systems. The methodology applied allowed to identify a clear distinction between crises suitability of alternative proteins systems, and has therefore potential for application to other food systems. Then, the indicators for the criteria need to be tailored towards the nature of the specific food system.
... If only examined from a nutrient density viewpoint, an edible insect like the mopane caterpillar (Imbrasia belina) which is reported to contain 4,090 kcal/kg and 352 g of protein/kg may be of interest to food production stakeholders (Payne et al., 2016). An additional consideration would be protein digestibility which mycoprotein has been reported to have higher rating (99.6%) for human consumption when compared with beef or chicken (92 and 95.2%, respectively) (Edwards and Cummings, 2010;Hughes et al., 2011;Boye et al., 2012). While outside the scope of this TEA, techno-economic modeling of industrialized insect protein production would be necessary for a direct comparison of an insect protein source and mycoprotein. ...
Predicted famines due to population increase created an interest in the development of protein alternatives during the 1950s. Currently, a renewed interest in protein alternatives has developed as a potential strategy to decrease the environmental impact of protein production and meet the global demand for protein as the population increases. Fusarium venenatum A3/5/3, the organism used for mycoprotein production has been commercially available since the 1980s, however new fungal protein companies are currently interested in scaling up production. To aid guide efforts in this domain, we created an economic model with over 340 inputs that examines the continuous production of mycoprotein utilizing airlift bioreactors. Utilizing a sensitivity analysis, we identified critical processing inputs and then developed a user-friendly Excel model that allows for the exploration of customized production scenarios for interested stakeholders. Our findings indicate that mycoprotein can be cost competitive with beef on a price per protein basis. The findings also indicate that mycoprotein may not be an economically competitive alternative for other types of commodity meats (chicken) or for inexpensive meat-derived products (pet food) that utilize offal or meat byproducts not traditionally consumed in the modern western diet.
... From a nutritional standpoint, mycoprotein can be considered a rich protein source, since it has a protein digestibility adjusted amino acid score of 0.996 and provides nine non-dispensable amino acids, indicative of high protein quality (26). According to the European Commission, mycoprotein is also high in fiber content, providing 6g of fiber per 100g (27). ...
Rapidly increasing global warming and world population calls for exploring untapped elements of biodiversity in a much broader sense. Though there exists much evidence on the importance of livestock and animal-derived protein, escalating challenges related to sustainability have led to finding alternatives to animal-derived proteins. Mycoprotein is an eco-friendly sustainable product. This fungal-derived protein is high in fiber and protein content. For this particular review paper, literature was searched for human trials using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library. Fifteen trials, totaling 952 participants were included- 5 solely reported on cholesterol response, 3 for glycemic response and 2 for serum uric acid concentrations, while 4 studies reported the combined effect of health markers such as cholesterol, glycemic response, and uric acid concentrations and 1 study on gut health. The Jadad scale was used to assess the quality of studies. Five trails were identified to be of good quality scoring 3 or more. The results showed cholesterol lowering percentage to be ranging between 4.3 to 13%. Similarly, a significant increase of (+0.02) (P< 0.05) was observed in Lactobacillus spp from the baseline value following mycoprotein consumption. Results however were inconclusive for glucose and insulin response. Overall given the growing increase in sustainable proteins, this area should be explored further from a public health perspective.
... From a nutritional perspective, mycoprotein has a low energy density, is low in total and saturated fat and contains negligible amounts of cholesterol (11) . It provides the nine main essential amino acids (AAs) and has a protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score of 0⋅996, indicating that it is a high-quality protein (12) . It also meets the UK and European Commission (13,14) nutrition claims requirements to be classed as 'high in fibre' due to it providing at least 6 g of fibre per 100 g. ...
Mycoprotein is a well-established and sustainably produced, protein-rich, high-fibre, whole food source derived from the fermentation of fungus. The present publication is based on a symposium held during the Nutrition Society Summer Conference 2022 in Sheffield that explored ‘ Food for our Future: The Science Behind Sustainable Fungal Proteins ’. A growing body of science links mycoprotein consumption with muscle/myofibrillar protein synthesis and improved cardiometabolic (principally lipid) markers. As described at this event, given the accumulating health and sustainability credentials of mycoprotein, there is great scope for fungal-derived mycoprotein to sit more prominently within future, updated food-based dietary guidelines.
... The optimal protein bioavailability-assessed amino level is 0.996, suggesting that it is a good quality protein obtained by employing gold-standard ileostomy practices. [18] Fiber According to European Commission guidelines, mycoprotein is "rich in fibre," suggesting it comprises 6 g of fiber/100 g (EU, 2008). Mycoprotein contains natural dietary fiber, with one-third chitin and two-thirds glucan (resulting in a "fibrous chitin-glucan matrix" in the small intestine), 12% is soluble, and 88% is insoluble fiber. ...
Malnutrition is increasing across the globe owing to urbanization, poverty, and climatic changes. In the current circumstances, alternative and unexplored sources of food and nutrients are getting attention. The current sources of food cannot meet the ever-increasing population demand. The demand for animal-source protein is estimated be double due to a projected 50% rise in the world population by the year 2050. Moreover, global animal protein supply chains are not only vulnerable to natural disasters but also a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Mycoprotein is considered an excellent alternative to animal protein due to its amino acid profile and cost-effectiveness. Mycoprotein is produced by Fusarium venenatum, a naturally occurring fungus that can be used as a substitute for conventional animal protein sources. Mycoprotein is high in protein and fiber while low in cholesterol, fat, sugar, and salt. Mycoprotein offers excellent functional and therapeutic potential in mitigating various health disorders. Furthermore, it helps maintain muscle synthesis and optimal plasma and cholesterol levels, regulating insulin, glucose, and satiety. This review is focused on the mycoprotein’s origin and production, with a particular emphasis on its nutritional, health, and economic opportunities and challenges.
... The optimal protein bioavailability-assessed amino level is 0.996, suggesting that it is a good quality protein obtained by employing gold-standard ileostomy practices. [18] Fiber According to European Commission guidelines, mycoprotein is "rich in fibre," suggesting it comprises 6 g of fiber/100 g (EU, 2008). Mycoprotein contains natural dietary fiber, with one-third chitin and two-thirds glucan (resulting in a "fibrous chitin-glucan matrix" in the small intestine), 12% is soluble, and 88% is insoluble fiber. ...
... Similarly, the in vitro digestibility of seaweed protein (Latunde-Dada et al., 2016) ranges from 56% to 90%. Protein digestibility of mycoprotein, spirulina and chlorella was found to be 15, 25 and 30% lower than that of milk casein, respectively Edwards and Cummings, 2010;Mišurcová et al., 2010. Resistant cell walls together with the presence of specific compounds (see Supplementary Discussion) might limit the digestibility of both seaweed and microalgae, but efficient and non-costly celldisruption techniques (for example, heat and mechanical treatments or enzymatic lysis) provide options for making algal proteins more digestible (Kose et al., 2017;Maehre et al., 2016). ...
... Nutritionally, legume proteins (i.e., from pea, lentil, chickpea and mung-bean) have a PDCAAS between 0.40 and 0.70, as they are low in methionine and with lower digestibility compared to, e.g., soy [155,160]. Most recently, an edible fungi and micro-algae have been used as a protein source in these formulations [161], which have a very favorable PDCAAS of 1.0 [155,162,163]. While animal derived proteins contain each of the nine essential amino acids, with an excellent digestibility, meat analogue products are usually produced with a combination of various plant proteins to match meat protein attributes, both for nutritional and functional purposes [160,163,164]. ...
Meat manufacturers are nowadays in a very unenviable position. Both meat and meat products require the utilization of various additives due to their chemical composition. On the other hand, consumers demand fresh, additive-free, and high-quality products with extended shelf-life, which might be considered as healthier, even functional food. These facts push manufacturers and researchers in pursuit of modern technologies and supplements to meet these high demands. Since a high daily intake of sodium and fat might cause severe health issues, reducing these ingredients in meat products is the first task towards healthier food. Sodium can be reduced by ultrasound, high-pressure processing, pulsed electric field, and replacement of NaCl with KCl, calcium gluconate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, and monosodium glutamate. The reduction of the fat content can be achieved through a decrease in the amount of fatty tissue in the inital mixture and/or replacement with non-lipid components, or by partial fatty tissue replacement with oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Utilization of plant proteins (soy, wheat gluten, pea, chickpea, lentil, potato, barley, oat, rice, etc.), mycoproteins or micro-algae proteins, plant fats (palm and coconut fat, canola, sunflower, soy and corn oil, etc.), and polysaccharides (starches, fibers), accompanied by a meat-like fibrous structure, resulted in delicious “meat” products, which are considered a healthier alternative to real meat. Growing interest in the replacement of potentially adverse synthetic meat additives favors the use of plant (herb, fruit and vegetable) extracts, as an endless source of bioactive substances with strong antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. These extracts can be used either in raw meat or meat products, as well as in the fodder. Reformulation strategies strengthen and ensure the willingness of consumers to pay a higher price for their own demands regarding the naturalness of synthetic, clean-labeled, additive-free meat products. After a gradual alignment with strategic national/international recommendations and legal/sub-legal frameworks, the added value of such meat products opens wide the door to new segments/entire markets.
... However, the effect was dependent on the seaweed species, and those with a harder texture (indicating intact cells and tissues) did not show any increase in available amino acids after boiling. A fungus-based mycoprotein (produced by Fusarium venenatum) known as the brand Quorn was shown to have a true protein digestibility of ~86% in humans regardless of whether it was steamed, fried, baked, or microwaved (Edwards and Cummings, 2010). The inherent structure of the mycoprotein is porous, so proteases can diffuse through the cell walls during the small intestinal phase of digestion (Colosimo et al., 2020). ...
Background
Sustainable plant-, algal-, and fungal-based alternative foods are required to feed the growing human population. The quality of such alternative foods depends not only on the nutrient content, but also on the amino acid composition and protein digestibility. The assessment of protein digestibility is typically considered at the level of ingredients, but these are blended and processed to formulate palatable foods.
Scope and approach
This review highlights the importance of nutritional quality in alternative foods by focusing on protein digestibility at the level of blends and formulated products. We consider the effects of processing on protein digestibility and the important role of the food matrix. Finally, we consider the colonic fermentation of undigested protein and the role of fiber in alternative foods.
Key findings and conclusions
Few studies have investigated protein digestibility after the blending and processing of ingredients derived from alternative protein sources or compared protein digestibility between animal-based and alternative food products. We find that processing can increase or decrease the in vitro protein digestibility of alternative foods, or in some cases has no effect. The architecture of the food matrix after processing requires further investigation as a determinant of protein digestibility-related food quality. Furthermore, the mastication of food has a significant impact on its protein digestibility, but most in vitro models do not include this step. To promote the production of beneficial metabolites during colonic fermentation, undigested protein should be accompanied by dietary fiber, even if this partially compromises the digestibility of the protein.
... 60,258 Despite representing a whole food, dried mycoprotein is protein (45% of total mass) and essential amino acid (46% of total protein) rich (Figures 1 and 4), and scores a PDCAAS of 0.99 (DIAAS unknown) (Table l). 60,198 In addition, mycoprotein can be described as a "balanced" protein source, since it meets FAO/WHO/UNO recommendations for all individual essential amino acids; its branched-chain amino acid content (19.8% of total protein) is comparable with that of dairy protein (20.1%), and higher than that of most meat (18.3%), fish (18.5%), and plant-derived protein foods (13.3%-18.0%) ( Figure 5, see Table S2 in the Supporting Information online). ...
To mitigate the age-related decline in skeletal muscle quantity and quality, and the associated negative health outcomes, it has been proposed that dietary protein recommendations for older adults should be increased alongside an active lifestyle and/or structured exercise training. Concomitantly, there are growing environmental concerns associated with the production of animal-based dietary protein sources. The question therefore arises as to where this dietary protein required for meeting the protein demands of the rapidly aging global population should (or could) be obtained. Various non-animal–derived protein sources possess favorable sustainability credentials, though much less is known (compared with animal-derived proteins) about their ability to influence muscle anabolism. It is also likely that the anabolic potential of various alternative protein sources varies markedly, with the majority of options remaining to be investigated. The purpose of this review was to thoroughly assess the current evidence base for the utility of alternative protein sources (plants, fungi, insects, algae, and lab-grown “meat”) to support muscle anabolism in (active) older adults. The solid existing data portfolio requires considerable expansion to encompass the strategic evaluation of the various types of dietary protein sources. Such data will ultimately be necessary to support desirable alterations and refinements in nutritional guidelines to support healthy and active aging, while concomitantly securing a sustainable food future.
... From a nutritional stance mycoprotein provides a range of nutrients of value across the lifespan. It provides the nine main essential amino acids and has a protein digestibilitycorrected amino acid score of 0.996 indicating that it is a high-quality protein [11,23]. According to European Commission standards mycoprotein can be classified as being 'high in fibre 'due to it providing at least 6g of fibre per 100 g [24,25]. ...
Mycoprotein is a filamentous fungal protein that was first identified in the 1960s. A growing number of publications have investigated inter-relationships between mycoprotein intakes and aspects of human health. A narrative review was undertaken focusing on evidence from randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, intervention, and observational studies. Fifteen key publications were identified and undertaken in early/young adulthood, adulthood (mid-life) or older/advanced age. Main findings showed that fungal mycoprotein could contribute to an array of health benefits across the lifespan including improved lipid profiles, glycaemic markers, dietary fibre intakes, satiety effects and muscle/myofibrillar protein synthesis. Continued research is needed which would be worthwhile at both ends of the lifespan spectrum and specific population sub-groups.
... F. venenatum dry biomass can reach 43-45% protein content (w/w), with relatively low concentrations of sulphur-containing amino acids, but concentrations of essential amino acids comparable to those found in eggs (Wiebe, 2002). Indeed, volunteer studies have shown that the proteins are of high quality having a biological value similar to that of milk protein, whilst the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score was found to be close to 1.0 (Edwards & Cummings, 2010). The fungal wall is rich in fibre, mostly insoluble, such as chitin and β-glucans, with dry mycoprotein containing 25 g of fibre/100 g, and wet mycoprotein (used as food ingredient) containing 6 g fibre/100g (Derbyshire & Ayoob, 2019). ...
Background
The drive to reduce the negative impact of the global food system on the environment and human health, and to feed a growing global population, has led to the rapid development of meat alternatives, including plant-based and mycoprotein-based products such as burgers, cured meat and nuggets. These are generally food items manufactured with highly refined ingredients, so health professionals interested in promoting plant-based diets, or a reduction in meat consumption, need a deeper understanding about the potential health effects of these products in order to present them to the public in an objective and helpful manner.
Scope and approaches
In this narrative review, a search of the current available scientific literature was performed with the aim of exploring all these foods by delving into the way they are manufactured, their nutritional characteristics, their impact on health, as well as trying to understand their place in modern, diets.
Key findings and conclusion
Processed meat alternatives, despite being highly refined products, can be a good source of healthy food groups and nutrients often underrepresented in omnivores diets such as grains, legumes, plant protein and fibre, although attention must be paid to their salt and saturated fat content. For people wanting to move away from a meat-heavy diet, the consumption of these items can represent a stepping stone towards the adoption of more healthful dietary patterns centred on whole plant-foods. In addition, they might help to increase compliance with the new lifestyle as they tend to replicate some of the organoleptic properties of meat.
... Mycoprotein is microbial biomass with meat-like texture and high protein content 4,6 . The protein quality of mycoprotein, measured by essential amino acid content and digestibility, is equivalent to ruminant meat 6,24 . Moreover, mycoprotein has been generally recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration since 2002 (refs. ...
Ruminant meat provides valuable protein to humans, but livestock production has many negative environmental impacts, especially in terms of deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, water use and eutrophication1. In addition to a dietary shift towards plant-based diets2, imitation products, including plant-based meat, cultured meat and fermentation-derived microbial protein (MP), have been proposed as means to reduce the externalities of livestock production3–7. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have estimated substantial environmental benefits of MP, produced in bioreactors using sugar as feedstock, especially compared to ruminant meat3,7. Here we present an analysis of MP as substitute for ruminant meat in forward-looking global land-use scenarios towards 2050. Our study complements LCA studies by estimating the environmental benefits of MP within a future socio-economic pathway. Our model projections show that substituting 20% of per-capita ruminant meat consumption with MP globally by 2050 (on a protein basis) offsets future increases in global pasture area, cutting annual deforestation and related CO2 emissions roughly in half, while also lowering methane emissions. However, further upscaling of MP, under the assumption of given consumer acceptance, results in a non-linear saturation effect on reduced deforestation and related CO2 emissions—an effect that cannot be captured with the method of static LCA. Replacing 20% of per-capita ruminant consumption with microbial protein can offset future increases in global pasture area, cut annual deforestation and related CO2 emissions in half, and lower methane emissions.
... Mycoprotein is regarded as a "complete protein" due to it providing all nine essential amino acids and having a protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score of 0.996 (derived using gold-standard ileostomy methods) [54]. Previously, a series of five trials concluded that mycoprotein was a bioavailable protein that could stimulate muscle protein synthesis rates [55]. ...
Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) lack uniformity globally, with the integration of protein food sources being highly variable. Protein guidance tends to be dichotomous, e.g., animal versus plant with other categories such as fungal proteins being overlooked. In 2019 the EAT Lancet Food in the Anthropocene report was a chief driver questioning the need to supply healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Some countries are developing FBDG that integrate these aspects, but these are quite often protracted, too subtle or misaligned with other countries, diluting the effects of meaningful global change. Protein quality metrics also underpin the dissemination of dietary guidance. However, for protein, these remain based on a food’s essential amino acid profile and digestibility scores, thus are nutritionally and physiologically centric. It has been proposed that this definition is becoming increasingly myopic from a wider societal perspective. Updated indices should include contemporary issues such as protein diversity and environmental outcomes. Taken together, there is opportunity for renewed thinking about both FBDG and protein quality definitions, with scope to include both health and environmental outcomes and need to move towards the concept of protein diversification.
... Another definition for mycoprotein is protein-rich foods from the fungal biomass, which is consumed as a meat alternative . Mycoproteins have a protein content similar to eggs (Sadler, 2003;USDA, 2021) and a similar digestibility to beef (Edward and Cumming, 2010;van Vliet et al., 2015). However, it contains a fat content four times lower than that of beef. ...
Human activities generate enormous amounts of organic wastes and residues. Filamentous fungi (FF) are able to grow on a broad range of substrates and survive over a wide spectrum of growth conditions. These characteristics enable FF to be exploited in biorefineries for various waste streams. Valorization of food industry byproducts into biomass and various arrays of value-added products using FF creates promising pathways toward a sustainable circular economy. This approach might also contribute to reaching the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations, particularly for zero hunger as well as affordable and clean energy. This paper presents the application of filamentous fungi in food, feeds, fuels, biochemicals, and biopolymers. The nutritional values, health benefits, and safety of foods derived from byproducts of food industries are also addressed. The technoeconomical feasibilities, sustainability aspects and challenges and future perspectives for biorefineries using filamentous fungi are discussed.
... Mycoprotein has high protein up to 45% of its dry matter [24]. The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) very close to the maximum score (0.996) and higher than beef and chicken [83]. The fat content of mycoprotein is four times lower than meat, while the essential polyunsaturated fatty acid content of mycoprotein is eight times higher than meat [24]. ...
The growing population and the climate changes put a pressure on food production globally, therefore a fundamental transformation of food production is required. One approach to accelerate food production is application of modern biotechnology such as cell culture, marker assisted selection, and genetic engineering. Cell culture technology reduces the usage of arable land, while marker-assisted selection increases the genetic gain of crop breeding and genetic engineering enable to introduce a desired traits to crop. The cell culture technology has resulted in development of cultured meat, fungal biomass food (mycoprotein), and bioactive compounds from plant cell culture. Except cultured meat which recently begin to penetrate the market, the other products have been in the market for years. The marker-assisted selection and genetic engineering have contributed significantly to increase the resiliency against emerging pests and abiotic stresses. This review addresses diverse techniques of cell culture technology as well as advanced genetic engineering technology CRISPR Cas-9 and its application for crop improvement. The pros and cons of different techniques as well as the challenges and future perspective of application of modern biotechnology for strengthening food security are also discussed.
... The digestibility results obtained with MP were not considered suitable to derive a reliable IVDIAAS value. We like to refer to several in vitro and in vivo studies that concluded a high digestibility of mycoprotein (Udall et al., 1984, Edwards & Cummings, 2010, Dunlop et al., 2017, Monteyne et al., 2020a, Monteyne et al., 2020b although from none of these studies a DIAAS value could be concluded. ...
We studied several sustainable alternative protein concentrates and a whey protein concentrate as reference, to determine their protein composition, digestibility and quality using the harmonized INFOGEST static protocol. The proteins concentrates were analyzed to determine their conversion factor, degree of hydrolysis, true ileal digestibility, in vitro digestible indispensable amino acid score (IVDIAAS) and total absorbable amino acids and total essential amino acids. The results revealed that whey, blood plasma concentrate and yeast protein concentrate have a high mean true ileal indispensable amino acid in vitro digestibility (91.1–85.8%), closely followed by corn, pea, potato and proteins derived from lesser meal worms (ranging between 82.5 and 77.9%). Mycoprotein gave a much lower score in the mass balance, so that its other results could not be interpreted as being reliable. Whey, potato, blood plasma and yeast protein concentrates ranked highest in IVDIAAS (between 119 and 97.2), followed by lesser meal worm and pea (between 73.8 and 57.8) with corn protein concentrate having the lowest IVDIAAS due to underrepresentation of lysine. The method and data presented in this paper can form a start for further applying the INFOGEST in vitro digestion protocol to evaluate protein quality.
... Mycoprotein is produced from separate member of the fungi family (ascomycetes) and is grown by fermentation (Derbyshire, 2020a). Its overall protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score is 0.996 which has been derived using gold-standard ileostomy methods, demonstrating that it is a high quality protein (Edwards and Cummings, 2010). The filamentous nature of the hyphal creates fibrous bundles that emulate the texture of meat (Figure 1). ...
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich fungal-derived sustainable food source that was first discovered in the early 1960's. Since then, a sizeable body of research has investigated the health benefits of mycelium protein. Given this, the present publication aims to systematically review the effects of mycoprotein on human health. A literature search of human studies was conducted using PubMed Central, ClinicalTrials.Gov , Google Scholar and a manual search. Sixteen controlled trials, totaling 432 participants were included – of these 5 studies reported total cholesterol, 5 reported on energy intake, 7 on insulin levels, 8 on glucose levels and 4 studied protein response. Risk of bias showed that 7 studies were good quality although heterogeneity was apparent between studies. Results showed that acute mycoprotein ingestion was associated with reduced total cholesterol levels, particularly amongst those with hyperlipidemia. Evidence was less conclusive for effects on blood glucose and insulin levels. Mycoprotein also appears to be a promising bioavailable source of essential amino acids that could induce muscle protein synthesis. Overall, given growing interest in sustainable proteins and accruing health evidence for mycoprotein, firmer embedment with food-based dietary guidelines is now worthy of consideration.
... As a percentage of total protein, its EAA composition is 41%-similar to spirulina, making this higher than most other commonly consumed plant-based protein [55]. The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) ratio for mycoprotein has been shown to be 0.996 where measures of digestibility were characterised with human ileostomy patients [73]. The bioavailability of the protein in mycoprotein has been characterised where the effect of mycoprotein ingestion (a test drink providing a mass-matched 20 g, 40 g, 60 g or 80 g bolus of mycoprotein or 20 g milk protein) on EAA concentrations was studied in a single-blind, randomised, crossover study conducted on 12 healthy young males [74]. ...
In the 21st century, we face a troubling trilemma of expanding populations, planetary and public wellbeing. Given this, shifts from animal to plant food protein are gaining momentum and are an important part of reducing carbon emissions and consumptive water use. However, as this fast-pace of change sets in and begins to firmly embed itself within food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) and food policies we must raise an important question—is now an opportunistic time to include other novel, nutritious and sustainable proteins within FBGD? The current paper describes how food proteins are typically categorised within FBDG and discusses how these could further evolve. Presently, food proteins tend to fall under the umbrella of being ‘animal-derived’ or ‘plant-based’ whilst other valuable proteins i.e., fungal-derived appear to be comparatively overlooked. A PubMed search of systematic reviews and meta-analytical studies published over the last 5 years shows an established body of evidence for animal-derived proteins (although some findings were less favourable), plant-based proteins and an expanding body of science for mycelium/fungal-derived proteins. Given this, along with elevated demands for alternative proteins there appears to be scope to introduce a ‘third’ protein category when compiling FBDG. This could fall under the potential heading of ‘fungal’ protein, with scope to include mycelium such as mycoprotein within this, for which the evidence-base is accruing.
... The lower value was justified by the presence of poorly digestible cell walls, and the digestibility was comparable to other microbially-derived foods (Kharatyan, 1978). More recently, the protein quality has been measured by protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) using ileostomy volunteers and resulted in a score of 0.996 (Edwards & Cummings, 2010), which is very close to the maximum score of 1.0 achieved by milk and eggs, and significantly higher than beef and chicken. In addition, a recent study from Dunlop (2017) has demonstrated that the protein from mycoprotein is as bioavailable and insulinotropic as milk protein. ...
... Various fermentation and processing techniques are involved with the creation of mycoprotein, and many studies have investigated the use of mycoprotein in various food applications [43]. Nutritionally speaking, mycoprotein is comparable to animal-derived sources of protein with a protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS) of 1.00 [3,29,44]. From a functional standpoint, mycoprotein is generally combined with other ingredients, most commonly egg albumin, to improve processing characteristics [38]. ...
Meat analogues, or plant-based products that simulate the properties of traditional meat products, have secured a position in the conversation of protein foods. Rapid growth of the meat analogue industry is occurring in the global food marketplace in both the retail and food service sectors. The purpose of this review was to investigate the ingredients used in the formulation of modern meat analogues, evaluate the nutrient specifications of modern meat analogue products, and then form a comparison with traditional meat products. Based on this investigation, it was determined – firstly, the ingredients used in the formulation of modern meat analogue products make these products fit under the classification of ultra-processed foods; and secondly, the nutrient specifications of popular meat analogue products can effectively simulate the nutrient specifications of the meat products they are attempting to simulate. Therefore, based on these findings, modern meat analogue products can offer roughly the same composition of nutrients as traditional meat products, albeit with many different ingredients and a high level of further processing. Keywords: Plant-based meat, Simulated meat, Meat alternatives, Processed foods, Protein foods
... Микопротеин -белок, получаемый из биомассы одноклеточного грибка Fusarium venenatum, богатого протеином. Он имеет достаточно широкое распространение и высокую потребительскую оценку [8][9][10][11]. Однако в России технология производства микопротеина не получила широкого распространения. Производство и потребление грибного белка традиционно основано на использовании высших грибов и продуктов их переработки из лесных и культивируемых грибов, в том числе из вешенки обыкновенной (Pleurotus ostreatus). ...
... Similarly, the in vitro digestibility of seaweed protein 39 ranges from 56% to 90%. Protein digestibility of mycoprotein, spirulina and chlorella was found to be 15, 25 and 30% lower than that of milk casein, respectively 40,41 . Resistant cell walls together with the presence of specific compounds (see Supplementary Discussion) might limit the digestibility of both seaweed and microalgae, but efficient and non-costly cell-disruption techniques (for example, heat and mechanical treatments or enzymatic lysis) provide options for making algal proteins more digestible 42,43 . ...
Free access to the article here: https://rdcu.be/bdq1i
Altering diets is increasingly acknowledged as an important solution to feed the world’s growing population within the planetary
boundaries. In our search for a planet-friendly diet, the main focus has been on eating more plant-source foods, and eating
no or less animal-source foods, while the potential of future foods, such as insects, seaweed or cultured meat has been underexplored.
Here we show that compared to current animal-source foods, future foods have major environmental benefits while
safeguarding the intake of essential micronutrients. The complete array of essential nutrients in the mixture of future foods
makes them good-quality alternatives for current animal-source foods compared to plant-source foods. Moreover, future foods
are land-efficient alternatives for animal-source foods, and if produced with renewable energy, they also offer greenhouse gas
benefits. Further research on nutrient bioavailability and digestibility, food safety, production costs and consumer acceptance
will determine their role as main food sources in future diets.
... The amino acid, lysine, is most typically the limiting amino acid in plant proteins (WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation, 2007). Mycoprotein is a highly complete protein source with a protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) score of 0.99 (higher than that of 0.92 for beef) (Edwards and Cummings, 2010), and has a complete amino acid profile-including that of lysine with 8.3 g per 100 g protein (Finnigan et al., 2016). Mycoprotein has a low total and saturated fat content; it also contains no cholesterol (Finnigan et al., 2016). ...
The global food system contributes approximately one-quarter of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with these dominated by the livestock sector. The projected increase in livestock demand is likely to undermine efforts to keep global average warming below a 2°C target. A carbon tax is often proposed as the preferred demand-side mechanism for reduced meat consumption. Previous studies, however, suggest that while this could prove successful in reducing net global emissions, it may worsen nutritional standards in lowest-income nations. An alternative market mechanism which may simultaneously reduce GHG emissions and improve health at all income levels is a reduction in the price of meat substitute products (meat-free proteins with particular nutritional and aesthetic similarities to meat). Using a combined ecological and health modeling approach, we project the associated GHG savings and health benefits associated with a stepwise reduction in the price of meat substitute products. Utilizing food demand elasticities, we quantify the substitution of meat commodities across a range of social acceptability scenarios. Our results show that meat substitute products—integrated within a “flexitarian” approach (primarily vegetarian but occasionally eating meat and fish)—have a large potential for reducing GHG emissions (up to 583 MtCO2e per year) and improving nutritional outcomes (up to 52,700 premature deaths avoided per year). However, this capacity is strongly dependent on a combination of price reductions and improved social acceptability of this product group; therefore both will be essential.
... It is possible that, although of different structure and properties, mycoprotein β-glucan presents common characteristics and acts in a similar way. Although there have been few studies that have investigated the digestion of mycoprotein in the GI tract (40,41) , its effects on appetite regulation remain to be explored. It would be interesting to extract digested mycoprotein from the GI tract of animals and analyse its composition at regular time intervals following oral ingestion. ...
Dietary mycoprotein decreases energy intake in lean individuals. The effects in overweight individuals are unclear, and the mechanisms remain to be elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the effect of mycoprotein on energy intake, appetite regulation, and the metabolic phenotype in overweight and obese volunteers. In two randomised-controlled trials, fifty-five volunteers (age: 31 (95 % CI 27, 35) years), BMI: 28·0 (95 % CI 27·3, 28·7) kg/m
2
) consumed a test meal containing low (44 g), medium (88 g) or high (132 g) mycoprotein or isoenergetic chicken meals. Visual analogue scales and blood samples were collected to measure appetite, glucose, insulin, peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1).
Ad libitum
energy intake was assessed after 3 h in part A (
n
36). Gastric emptying by the paracetamol method, resting energy expenditure and substrate oxidation were recorded in part B (
n
14). Metabonomics was used to compare plasma and urine samples in response to the test meals. Mycoprotein reduced energy intake by 10 % (280 kJ (67 kcal)) compared with chicken at the high content (
P
=0·009). All mycoprotein meals reduced insulin concentrations compared with chicken (incremental AUC
low
(IAUC
low
): −8 %, IAUC
medium
: −12 %, IAUC
high
: −21 %,
P
=0·004). There was no significant difference in glucose, PYY, GLP-1, gastric emptying rate and energy expenditure. Following chicken intake, paracetamol-glucuronide was positively associated with fullness. After mycoprotein, creatinine and the deamination product of isoleucine,
α
-keto-
β
-methyl-
N
-valerate, were inversely related to fullness, whereas the ketone body,
β
-hydroxybutyrate, was positively associated. In conclusion, mycoprotein reduces energy intake and insulin release in overweight volunteers. The mechanism does not involve changes in PYY and GLP-1. The metabonomics analysis may bring new understanding to the appetite regulatory properties of food.
... The quality of the protein found in mycoprotein (i.e. digestibility and spectrum of amino acids) is superior to that found in meat according to the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score – a recognised standard of measurement (Edwards and Cummings, 2009, in press). The fibre found in mycoprotein cell walls is beta glucan (both 1,3 and 1,6) and chitin (Denny et al., 2008). ...
Purpose
Research has shown that mycoprotein, a vegetable protein ingredient, can lower blood cholesterol. This paper aims to test this in a consumer setting.
Design/methodology/approach
In total, 21 healthy, free‐living adults, who were not usually mycoprotein consumers, were asked to eat mycoprotein, as Quorn™ products, daily for six weeks. Ten control group participants followed their habitual diets. Fasting lipids, blood pressure, blood glucose, weight, body mass index and waist circumference were measured at baseline and after six weeks.
Findings
A significant reducing effect of the intervention on total cholesterol levels was found among those participants with higher baseline blood cholesterol level. No significant differences were seen between the intervention and control groups for the sample as a whole, although there were compliance issues in the control group that may have reduced its validity. Good compliance with the mycoprotein‐rich diet also appeared to have a significant lowering effect on total blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol. The findings confirm that mycoprotein may be a useful food ingredient for helping to manage blood cholesterol levels.
Research limitations/implications
There was no randomisation or blinding, which may have influenced compliance with a habitual diet in the control group. The sample size was small and so further work in a larger population is warranted, particularly to determine optimal mycoprotein intakes and likely mechanisms of action.
Originality/value
The paper focuses on a trial that used commercially available products in a free‐living sample.
Alternative proteins have gained popularity as consumers look for foods that are healthy, nutritious, and sustainable. Plant proteins, precision fermentation-derived proteins, cell-cultured proteins, algal proteins, and mycoproteins are the major types of alternative proteins that have emerged in recent years. This review addresses the major alternative-protein categories and reviews their definitions, current market statuses, production methods, and regulations in different countries, safety assessments, nutrition statuses, functionalities and applications, and, finally, sensory properties and consumer perception. Knowledge relative to traditional dairy proteins is also addressed. Opportunities and challenges associated with these proteins are also discussed. Future research directions are proposed to better understand these technologies and to develop consumer-acceptable final products.
The global food production system has, until now, been absolutely dependent on photosynthesis. Using microbial biomass as a source of food rather than plant- or animal-derived biomass circumvents many of the biophysical constraints and vulnerabilities of the global food system. Microbial foods in the form of either bulk cellular biomass or recombinant food proteins (typically of animal origin) can be produced in the absence of sunlight, soil, favorable climate conditions, and in some cases without freshwater. This Review looks at some of the most recent developments in the field of microbial foods and discusses some of the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead for this technology.
Enzymatic, acidic, and alkaline treatments were applied to extract insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) from mycoprotein. The structural properties of IDFs were elucidated using scanning electron microscopy, molecular weight analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and monosaccharide composition analysis. The results indicated that all three treatment methods led to IDFs with higher water holding capacity and oil holding capacity compared to untreated mycoprotein. Moreover, the alkali and enzymatic treated IDFs displayed more loose and porous structures, resulting in higher water holding capacity, oil holding capacity, and emulsifying activity compared to citric acid treated IDFs. The findings of this study can help for better understanding of the application of mycoprotein IDFs and optimizing the IDFs extraction from filamentous fungi.
Trendbericht zur Abschätzung der Umweltwirkungen von pflanzlichen Fleischersatzprodukten, essbaren Insekten und In-vitro-Fleisch
Fleisch ist in den letzten Jahren zunehmend in die Kritik geraten. Fleischersatzprodukte werden in Deutschland immer beliebter und könnten eine Alternative sein. Das UBA hat in einer Studie „Fleisch der Zukunft“ nun untersucht, welche Auswirkungen die drei aufkommenden Fleischalternativen pflanzlicher Fleischersatz, essbare Insekten und Invitro-Fleisch auf Umwelt und Gesundheit haben und, welche Rolle sie zukünftig in der Ernährung spielen könnten.
Pflanzlicher Fleischersatz schneidet laut der Studie aus Umweltsicht am besten ab. Im Vergleich zu Rindfleisch entstehen bei der Produktion mehr als 90% weniger Treibhausgase und ein Vielfaches geringerer Wasserverbrauch und Flächenverbrauch. Etwas schlechter schneidet Fleischersatz auf Insektenbasis ab. Die Umwelt- und Gesundheitswirkungen von In-Vitro-Fleisch sind bislang schwer abzuschätzen. Hier ist weitere Forschung nötig, um wirklich ein "clean meat" für den Massenmarkt produzieren zu können.
Future food security for healthy populations requires the development of safe, sustainably-produced protein foods to complement traditional dietary protein sources. To meet this need, a broad range of non-traditional protein foods are under active investigation. The aim of this review was to evaluate their potential effects on human health and to identify knowledge gaps, potential risks, and research opportunities. Non-traditional protein sources included are algae, cereals/grains, fresh fruit and vegetables, insects, mycoprotein, nuts, oil seeds, and legumes. Human, animal, and in vitro data suggest that non-traditional protein foods have compelling beneficial effects on human health, complementing traditional proteins (meat/poultry, soy, eggs, dairy). Improvements in cardiovascular health, lipid metabolism, muscle synthesis, and glycaemic control were the most frequently reported improvements in health-related endpoints. The mechanisms of benefit may arise from their diverse range of minerals, macro- and micronutrients, dietary fibre, and bioactive factors. Many were also reported to have anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and antioxidant activity. Across all protein sources examined, there is a strong need for quality human data from randomized controlled intervention studies. Opportunity lies in further understanding the potential effects of non-traditional proteins on the gut microbiome, immunity, inflammatory conditions, DNA damage, cognition, and cellular ageing. Safety, sustainability, and evidence-based health research will be vital to the development of high-quality complementary protein foods that enhance human health at all life stages.
Mycoprotein was first discovered in the 1960s, yet today, its consumption and applications within the food industry continue to grow. This protein is derived from the soil-dwelling fungus Fusarium venenatum A3/5 and is used to produce mycoprotein found in Quorn—the leading fungal-derived protein source that is commercially available for consumption of human globally. Consumers are seeking alternative proteins—a shift driven by expanding global populations and mounting concerns about animal welfare, human and environmental health. The evidence-base for mycoprotein and its roles in promoting benefits to human health are well-established. It is a complete protein that is both bioavailable and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis post-exercise. Its consumption has been further linked to improved lipoprotein profiles, energy intake, and satiety levels, as well as potential benefits for glucose and insulin regulation. Increasingly, consumers are paying more attention to the environmental impacts of the foods they choose. Mycoprotein performs particularly well from this perspective, using significantly less land and water for production than animal-derived protein sources, contributing to its lower carbon footprint. Commercial mycoprotein production is also forecast to be net positive by 2030, thus putting more back into society, the global environment, and the economy than is taken out.
In the foreseeable future, mycoprotein consumption is projected to grow. It is envisioned to be consumed more frequently by reducetarians and flexitarians, the vegan market, generation alpha, the aged, and the environmentally aware. Given rising awareness of fungal biotechnology as a natural means of tackling contemporary problems, it is hoped that fungal protein will become increasingly recognized within food-based dietary guidelines. Given accruing science it is also likely that mycoprotein will be consumed for “functional health” and as part of future preventative health care. For example, its consumption could help to regulate appetite, satiety and subsequent body weight, blood lipid, and metabolic profiles, and prevent frailty/sarcopenia. This chapter explains how mycoprotein came about, how it is produced, and describes its ongoing roles from a futuristic perspective.
The article describes the relevance of finding new protein sources with high nutritional and biological value. For solving this problem, several methods of protein quality and digestibility analysis (PDCAAS, DIAAS etc.) in world practice are considered. The experimental researches included analysis of protein content and ratio of molecular masses of polypeptides depending on doses of ionizing radiation (3 kGy, 6 kGy and 9 kGy) of fresh and heat-treated oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) samples. It is defined that the protein content in heat-treated oyster mushrooms is significantly higher than in fresh mushrooms, so ionizing radiation can increase the biological value of mushroom free proteins and affect at molecular structure of product, its structural and mechanical properties through the destruction of proteins and their decomposition into amino acids. Ionizing radiation is also an instrument for mushroom products shelf life prolongation up to 21 days, which prevents microorganism vital activity and growth.
Mycoprotein is a foodstuff produced from the RNA-depleted mycelium of the ascomycete fungus Fusarium venenatum by Quorn Foods. It is used to make a range of meat-free foods with various dietary and environmental benefits. The development of the industrial biotechnology process and the product has been ongoing since the 1960s, yet it was only in 1985 that the first Quorn product appeared on supermarket shelves, in the UK. The production process has required innovative approaches, driving development of airlift fermentation technologies to achieve microbial fermentations on a grand scale as well as the assembly of fibre-gel composites that exploit the filamentous nature of the mycelium and create authentic meat-like textures. In this chapter, we aim to describe the path of development that mycoprotein has taken since the initiation of the venture. The importance of mycoprotein will be placed in historical context of the wider single-cell protein (SCP) landscape, with comparative processes mentioned in brief. A description of the modern biotechnological industrial production process is then made, alongside a discussion of its strengths and weaknesses highlighting issues such as impact of carbon source, nucleic acid treatment, morphological variants, and mycotoxin production. Finally, future biotechnological research challenges are discussed.
Edible microbial biomass derived from bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi or microalgae is a promising alternative to conventional sources of food and feed. Microorganisms are a good source of protein, vitamins and, in some cases, also contain beneficial lipids. The ability of microorganisms to use simple organic substrates for growth permits industrial-scale cultivation of edible microbial biomass in geographical locations that would not compete with agricultural production. Only a handful of microbial products are currently available for human consumption. The use of microbial biomass for animal feed is limited by access to low-cost growth substrates and competition from conventional feed sources such as soy and fishmeal. At a time when the global food production system is threatened by the effects of climate change, the production of edible microorganisms has the potential to circumvent many of the current environmental boundaries of food production as well as reducing its environmental impact. Photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and microalgae can be cultivated for food and feed independently of arable land. In addition, recent technological developments in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) capture, extraction and catalytic conversion into simple organic compounds can be used for cultivation of edible microbial biomass for food and feed in a manner that is wholly independent of photosynthesis. The future possibilities, challenges and risks of scaled-up production of edible microbial biomass in relation to the global food system and the environment are discussed.
The tolerance of human subjects to two microfungal food products was studied in separate double-blind cross-over studies. As an addition to the subject's usual diets, cookies with and without 20 g of a product from Fusarium graminearium were fed to a group of 100 individuals daily. In a second study, cupcakes with and without 10 g of Paecilomyces variotii were given daily to 50 individuals. Mild rashes possibly related to one of the microfungal food products occurred in two individuals fed P variotii. Except for a decrease in serum cholesterol during the F graminearium study, no significant changes were noted in 17 serum constituents. During nutritive value studies, digestibility, biological value, and net protein utilization were calculated for the two microfungal proteins and for milk. The values for milk were 95, 85, and 80%, respectively. The values for F graminearium were 78, 84, and 65%, respectively. For P variotii corresponding figures were 81, 67, and 54%. On the basis of these results both microfungal foods may be deemed safe for human consumption at the levels tested.
- D G Edwards
Edwards DG (1993) Int J Food Sci Nutr 44 (Suppl. 1), 537-543.
Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition
WHO (2007) Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation, Geneva. World Health
Organisation (Technical Report Series No. 935).