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Alternative Medicine Review Volume 13, Number 4 2008
Guest
Editorial
Page 287
Successful Treatment of Schizophrenia Requires Optimal Daily
Doses of Vitamin B3
For over 50 years Dr. Abram Hoffer has been educating clinicians about the need to
correctly (optimally) dose schizophrenics with vitamin B3 (niacin; niacinamide). For the
past 10 years I have, likewise, educated numerous naturopathic and medical doctors about
the very same thing. For some reason, both types of clinicians routinely treat schizophrenic
patients with plenty of vitamins, minerals, and other natural health products, but they
never provide enough vitamin B3. In these authors opinions, schizophrenic patients cannot
get well if not provided with optimal doses of vitamin B3. is prevents the real acceptance
of nutritional treatment since clinicians will not observe favorable results when inadequate
treatment is provided; their schizophrenic patients will continue to suffer needlessly.
To understand the importance of vitamin B3 treatment, some background information
is needed. Schizophrenia is characterized by a combination of perceptual changes (e.g.,
hallucinations) and thought disorders (e.g., delusions).1 ese aberrant mental states, which
can lead to psychotic behavior, cause a tremendous amount of emotional and psychological
suffering. e cause of schizophrenia, the subject of much debate, is considered a
biochemical imbalance, although certain genetic factors most certainly play a role.
e majority of scientists and psychiatrists subscribe to the dopamine excess theory of
schizophrenia; i.e., that too much dopamine is largely responsible for the symptoms of
psychosis. However, since 1952, Hoffer, the founding father of orthomolecular medicine,
has researched, published, and expanded on the adrenochrome theory of schizophrenia.1,2
He and his colleagues, Drs. Osmond and Smythies, arrived at this theory by studying and
researching the effects of substances such as mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),
and amphetamines – all of which can cause a clinical syndrome in normal individuals that
would be clinically indistinguishable from schizophrenia.
Osmond and Smythies noted that mescaline had a similar chemical structure to that of
adrenaline. Hoffer, Osmond, and Smythies concluded that since both can be converted
to indoles in the body, the potential schizophrenic toxin might be an indole derivative
of adrenaline with similar neurochemical properties to that of mescaline or LSD. ey
eventually deduced that the schizophrenic toxin was an oxidized derivative of adrenaline
known as adrenochrome. Since the early 1950s, the adrenochrome theory has been
validated by the following findings:
Copyright © 2008 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
Alternative Medicine Review Volume 13, Number 4 2008
Page 288
Guest Editorial
1. Adrenochrome and its close relatives – dopaminochrome (from dopamine) and
noradrenochrome (from noradrenaline) – are present in the human brain.3-5
2. ese compounds probably induce a combination of neurotoxic and mind-
mood-altering effects.3-5
3. Reducing adrenochrome, dopaminochrome, and noradrenochrome is
therapeutic for the treatment of schizophrenia.6
To reduce the production of adrenochrome, Hoffer and his team decided on the methyl
acceptor vitamin B3. is vitamin, previously used to treat pellagra (a disease clinically
indistinguishable from schizophrenia) had relevant biochemical properties.1,2 Hoffer and
his team researched the metabolism of adrenaline. ey knew that the reaction involving
noradrenaline to adrenaline required the addition of one methyl group. Because vitamin
B3 was known to function as a methyl acceptor, Hoffer’s team theorized that an optimum
dose of niacin might decrease the amount of noradrenaline that would be converted to
adrenaline. Since adrenochrome was thought to be an oxidized derivative of adrenaline,
vitamin B3 could help reduce the quantity of adrenochrome by simply limiting the
production of adrenaline.
Hoffer and his team also discovered an additional biochemical property of vitamin B3 that
would help to explain its therapeutic efficacy. Vitamin B3 is a precursor to nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, which is present in both oxidized (NAD) and reduced (NADH)
forms in the body. In the brain, adrenaline loses one electron to become oxidized adrenaline.
If enough NAD and NADH are available then the oxidized adrenaline is reconverted to
adrenaline. ese back and forth processes continue to occur in the presence of sufficient
vitamin B3 coenzymes. However, in the absence of sufficient NAD and NADH, the
oxidized adrenaline loses an additional electron and becomes adrenochrome. is last
reaction is irreversible, and presumably occurs in much greater concentrations in the
schizophrenic brain.
at being said, where is the proof? Can vitamin B3 help in the treatment of acute
and chronic schizophrenia? e first report on the therapeutic use of vitamin B3 for
schizophrenia was presented in 1952 at the Saskatchewan Committee on Schizophrenia.
At this meeting, eight cases were presented, each demonstrating favorable effects from
giving 1-10 g vitamin B3, and, in the majority of cases, equal amounts of vitamin C.1 After
a more involved pilot study demonstrated excellent therapeutic responses to vitamin B3,1
the first North American double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment was undertaken
to assess whether or not this vitamin was effective for schizophrenia. e study, which
began in 1952 but was not published until 1957, involved 30 acute schizophrenic patients
who were each randomized to placebo, niacinamide, or niacin.1,2 ey were given 1 g three
times daily for 30 days, and then followed for one year. After one year, the patients given
vitamin B3 with the standard treatments at that time had more than double the recovery
rate (80%) compared to patients in the placebo group (33%).7
Copyright © 2008 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
Alternative Medicine Review Volume 13, Number 4 2008
Guest Editorial
Page 289
In their second double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment, Hoffer and his team used
only niacin and placebo.1,8 e study lasted 33 days and involved 82 patients (43 in the
placebo group and 39 in the niacin group). Vitamin B3 once again contributed significantly
to the recovery of acute schizophrenic patients. In the niacin group, 79.5 percent improved
compared to 41.9 percent in the placebo group. Other parameters evaluated by Hoffer
and his team included the number of patients readmitted, the number of readmissions,
the number of well or much improved patients, and the number of patients who were
considered cured. is data involved the following groups of patients: (1) those who
only took vitamin B3 in the hospital and not in the community; (2) patients who did
not take vitamin B3 in the hospital but did take the vitamin when in the community; (3)
patients who took vitamin B3 in the hospital and community; and (4) patients who never
took vitamin B3. e results demonstrated that patients in the community who were
taking niacin (groups 2 and 3) had more community years that were free of readmissions
compared to patients not taking vitamin B3 (groups 1 and 4) – 91 percent versus 62
percent of the community years free of readmissions. e entire niacin group (group 3)
was readmitted 38 times for 67 readmissions (average 64 days per patient); whereas, the
placebo/non-niacin group (group 4) was readmitted 36 times for 81 readmissions (average
147 days per patient). Once all the data was combined, the results revealed that the most
five-year cures and best treatment responses were among the patients who took vitamin B3
in the hospital and in the community.
Hoffer followed patients from 1953 to 1960, publishing a total of six double-blind,
randomized controlled clinical trials. All trials confirmed the positive effects that vitamin
B3 had on the recovery of acute schizophrenic patients, and that the use of this vitamin
substantially reduced patients’ reliance on the health care system.2
In terms of treating chronic schizophrenic patients, Hoffer’s early studies did not show a
favorable response among chronic schizophrenic patients who were ill longer than one year.
When Hoffer reviewed this problem more thoroughly, however, he discovered that the
treatment duration was not long enough to have produced adequate results. Chronic patients
required vitamin B3 treatment for five or more years in order to derive observable benefits.1,9
In one study involving 32 chronic patients, no patient responded to vitamin B3 after two
years of use.1 Nineteen patients discontinued the vitamin, while the remaining 13 patients
continued with the vitamin treatment. Data was obtained for the years, 1956-1964. Of the
patients not on niacin, the mean number of days spent in hospital was 691 compared to 79
in the niacin group. e proportion of time spent in the hospital was substantially less for
the chronic patients who remained on the vitamin.
In a more recent analysis of 27 chronic schizophrenic patients who had been under
treatment for at least 10 years, consistent treatment with vitamin B3 produced the
following results: 11 patients were able to work; two patients were able to marry and look
after their families and homes; two patients were single mothers able to care for their
children; and three patients were able to manage their own businesses.9 ese results are
remarkable when one considers the state of these patients prior to receiving optimal doses
Copyright © 2008 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
Alternative Medicine Review Volume 13, Number 4 2008
Page 290
Guest Editorial
of vitamin B3. e average age of these patients was 40, the majority of them were ill for
seven years before they sought treatment from Hoffer, and all had been unresponsive to
previous treatments.
e starting dose of niacin for adults is 1,000 mg three times daily. In our opinion, the
daily dose should be slowly increased to 4,500-18,000 mg to achieve the best possible
outcome. Patients must be educated about the flushing, heat, itchiness, pruritis, redness,
and tingling that they will transiently experience. ese benign cutaneous reactions usually
begin 15 minutes after taking niacin for the first time, and are first noticed around the
forehead, then descend to the thorax, and sometimes to the feet. ese reactions typically
abate 1-2 hours following the ingestion of niacin. Niacin causes such cutaneous reactions
by inducing the production of prostaglandin D2 in the skin, leading to vasodilation and
a marked increase of its metabolite (9α, 11β-PGF2) in the plasma.10 Niacin is its own
anti-flushing agent because taking it regularly depletes the skin of prostaglandin D2 and
prevents subsequent cutaneous reactions. At 3,000 mg daily, the flush and other symptoms
will cease to be an issue following the first 2-3 days of treatment, and will practically
disappear thereafter. If patients are not consistently taking these optimal doses throughout
the day, they will continually re-experience cutaneous reactions and possibly discontinue
treatment.
e concern over liver toxicity is very minor if immediate-release niacin preparations are
used.11,12 Timed-release preparations can cause liver toxicity and are not recommended
for schizophrenic patients unless under very close supervision.13 In Prousky’s
clinical experience, niacin is more effective and better tolerated than niacinamide for
schizophrenia. Some patients prefer niacinamide since it does not cause flushing or other
cutaneous reactions. Nausea and dry mouth are much more common with the use of
niacinamide than with niacin. e daily dosages of niacinamide should not exceed 6,000
mg since the likelihood of nausea accompanied with vomiting is much greater.14
e prognosis for the majority of schizophrenic patients is bleak, especially if they only
receive contemporary medical treatments. About 90 percent will remain unwell and
nonfunctional for the rest of their lives despite receiving the most advanced drugs and
social services currently available.15 Estimates of first episode schizophrenics are a little
more optimistic and indicate that of five recently diagnosed patients, one will recover
sufficiently to live an almost normal life without medication or with very low doses of
medication.16 e economic costs of schizophrenia to society are enormous, amounting
to approximately two million dollars for each schizophrenic patient over a 40-year course
of the illness.17 In a recent publication examining the economic burden of schizophrenia
in Canada, the direct and indirect health care costs associated with this disease were
estimated to be 2.02 billion Canadian dollars in 2004.18 In addition, when these figures
were added to the high unemployment rate with additional productivity, morbidity,
and mortality losses, the estimate reached 4.83 billion Canadian dollars, for a total cost
estimate of 6.85 billion Canadian dollars in 2004. e authors of this report arrived
at the following conclusion: “Despite significant improvements in the past decade in
pharmacotherapy, programs, and services available for patients with schizophrenia, the
economic burden of schizophrenia in Canada remains high.”
Copyright © 2008 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
Alternative Medicine Review Volume 13, Number 4 2008
Guest Editorial
Page 291
As clinicians we need to offer restorative care to patients who suffer with schizophrenia,
a severe and usually chronic mental illness. e only reasonable conclusion to be made
from this data is that all schizophrenic patients, including both acute and chronic patients,
need to be treated with vitamin B3 as quickly as possible and for the duration of their lives.
Vitamin B3 treatment offers significant hope of a reasonable quality of life among patients
who would otherwise remain incapacitated and in and out of hospitals for the remainder
of their lives. Some might improve so much that they achieve clinical remission. Since not
enough clinicians utilize optimal doses of vitamin B3 with their schizophrenic patients,
we hope that the information presented here persuades other clinicians to adopt this very
effective and safe treatment.
Respectfully,
Abram Hoffer, MD (retired), PhD
Jonathan Prousky, ND
Abram Hoffer, PhD, MD, FRCP(C), ROHP – President, Orthomolecular Vitamins Information Centre; professor psychiatry, 1955-1967;
Director Psychiatric Research, Department Health, Saskatchewan, 1950-1967; President Emeritus, International Schizophrenia
Foundation; Editor, Journal Orthomolecular Medicine; 2007 winner of Dr Rogers Prize; pain in the neck to orthodox psychiatry.
Correspondence address: 2727 Quadra Street, Suite 3A, V ictoria BC, V8T 4E5
Jonathan E. Prousky, BPHE, BSc, MSc, ND – Chief Naturopathic Medical Officer and professor of clinical nutrition, Canadian College of
Naturopathic Medicine.
References
Hoffer A. 1. Vitamin B-3 & Schizophrenia. Discovery, Recovery, Controversy. Kingston, ON: Quarry Press, Inc;
1998:28-76.
Hoffer A. 2. Adventures in Psychiatry. e Scientific Memoirs of Dr. Abram Hoffer. Caledon, ON: KOS Publishing Inc;
2005:50-99.
Smythies J. Endogenous neurotoxins relevant to schizophrenia. 3. J R Soc Med 1996;89:679-680.
Smythies JR. Oxidative reactions and schizophrenia: a review-discussion. 4. Schizophr Res 1997;24:357-364.
Smythies J. e adrenochrome hypothesis of schizophrenia revisited. 5. Neurotox Res 2002;4:147-150.
Hoffer A. e adrenochrome hypothesis and psychiatry. 6. J Orthomol Med 1999;14:49-62.
Hoffer A, Osmond H, Callbeck MJ, Kahan I. Treatment of schizophrenia with nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. 7. J
Clin Exp Psychopathol 1957;18:131-158.
Hoffer A. 8. Niacin erapy In Psychiatry. Springfield, IL: Charles C. omas; 1962;35-71.
Hoffer A. Chronic schizophrenic patients treated ten years or more. 9. J Orthomol Med 1994;9:7-37.
Morrow JD, Parsons WG 3rd, Roberts LJ 2nd. Release of markedly increased quantities of prostaglandin D10. 2 in vivo
in humans following the administration of nicotinic acid. Prostaglandins 1989;38:263-274.
Hoffer A. Vitamin B-3 and schizophrenia. 11. Townsend Lett Doctors Patients 2001;213:20-23.
Paterson ET. Vitamin B12. 3 and liver toxicity. Townsend Lett Doctors Patients 2001;207:23.
Mullin GE, Greenson JK, Mitchell MC. Fulminant hepatic failure after ingestion of sustained-release nicotinic acid. 13.
Ann Intern Med 1989;111:253-255.
Hoffer A. Vitamin B-3: niacin and its amide. 14. Townsend Lett Doctors Patients 1995;147:30-39.
Hoffer A. 15. Healing Schizophrenia. Toronto, ON: CCNM Press Inc; 2004:7-21.
Horrobin D. 16. e Madness of Adam and Eve. London, England: Corgi Books; 2001:149-151.
Hoffer A. Treating chronic schizophrenic patients. 17. J Orthomol Med 2002;17:25-41.
Goeree R, Farahati F, Burke N, et al. e economic burden of schizophrenia in Canada in 2004. 18. Curr Med Res Opin
2005;21:2017-2028.
Copyright © 2008 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
