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globalfuels MAGAZINE
22 globalfuelsMAGAZINE February 2008
Dr Armen Avagyan President, Research and Industry Center of Photosynthesising Organisms (RICPO), Armenia
Global prospects for microalgae production for
biofuels and for the preservation of nature
With the global demand for energy increasing at a phenomenal rate, the world energy mix needs
new fuel sources to emerge as credible, more environmentally-benign alternatives. One such ‘new
kid on the block’ is biofuels. Traditional production of biofuels involves harvesting crops such as
rapeseed and soybeans, but many object to the negative e ect this has had on food prices. With
the debate raging, microalgae may o er a solution to this conundrum; creating enormous reserves
of biofuels while boosting food production.
In an e ort to make energy widely accessible to a large
number of people, many developing countries use
subsidies to keep their energy prices down. Prices for
energy consumers in the eight countries China, India,
Indonesia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, South Africa and
Venezuela are 20% below world market prices, ranging
from South Africa with 6.4% to Iran with a huge 80%.
However, such subsidies can hinder economic growth
and damage the environment. If energy price subsidies
are eliminated in these countries, primary energy con-
sumption would decrease by 14% and CO2 emissions
would decrease by 17%.
People will continue to be dependent on fossil fuels
unless alternative fuel sources are located, which now
is more important than ever. e current and emerging
political climate regarding energy e ciency and climate
change considerations presents a useful opportunity
to engage governments
and leverage support
for the use of a wider
array of alternative fuel
sources.
Although the US
President and Congressional Democrats are
on record as favouring ‘energy independence,’
there are still fundamental disagreements on
how to achieve this goal. Supply side measures,
such as opening up new areas for drilling, are
a consideration in the US Congress. Some
new support for researching and subsiding
biofuels, propelled in part by the potent farm
lobby, is more likely.1
International e orts to reduce environmental pollu-
tion, global warming and increase energy e ciency are
having a major impact on energy planning and policies
in most countries around the globe.2 With industrial
energy consumption one of the key sectors targeted for
important changes, many companies are reviewing their
energy policies and strategies to comply with increas-
ingly tougher government regulations while seeking
to improve energy e ciency and switch to more cost
competitive energy sources. Recent record oil prices
have caused oil-dependent industries to review their
energy policies with many looking to convert to less
risky non-oil alternatives. With governments keen to
develop renewable and alternative energy to meet Kyoto
Protocol targets, a number of companies are planning to
incorporate renewable energy into their fuel portfolio
while looking at biofuels to reduce pollution emission
and cut transport costs.
EU energy policy targets include devel-
oping renewable sources to provide 20% of
all energy by 2020 and for biofuel to grow
to become 10% of fuel use. At present six
main alternative fuels have been identi ed;
used or scrap tyres, spent solvent, used oil,
wood biomass, agricultural biomass and
municipal solid waste. e interest in the use of biomass
as a fuel or energy source has been increasing as a result
of climate change and energy e ciency policy and is-
sues.
Sewage sludge has, unsurprisingly, proved a prob-
lematic substance for environmental law and policy.
e issue of how best to dispose of it, or still better make
some bene cial use of it, remains a matter of debate.
Before 1998, sludge was mainly disposed of at sea, to
agricultural land as fertiliser, incinerated or land lled.
In 1998, disposal at sea was banned, and carefully regu-
lated agricultural use became the principal method of
disposal. As land lling is clearly becoming a less accept-
able waste management solution, the co-processing of
waste will become even more attractive in the future.
R
ig
ht and below: Coal, oil
an
d
natura
l
gas sti
ll
d
omi-
nate t
h
e wor
ld
’s energ
y
mi
x
e EU Land ll Directive has forced waste manage-
ment policies across the EU member states to reduce
the amount of waste sent for disposal in land ll. e
directive requires that progressively increasing quanti-
ties of biologically active waste are diverted away from
land ll.
It is the ful llment of the criteria of the Land ll
Directive that are the main drivers for the production
of alternative fuels, and not the demands of the energy
market. Traditionally, incineration is considered to be
the next alternative for disposal. However, this approach
has encountered high levels of resistance in many coun-
tries at the planning and permitting stage. is has
opened the possibility of alternative approaches.3
e other global problem is the increasing price of
crops caused by the use of their components in biofuel
production. Many reports also indicate that the capacity
of grain-based biofuels to replace fossil fuels, particu-
larly for transport, is extremely limited. If the country
wants to gradually shi to biofuels, which is what the
law wants, then it must develop a strong agriculture
sector for support; the type of agriculture that is both
productive and environment-friendly. ere is no point
in developing a biofuel programme if the country has
to import expensive chemical fertiliser to increase feed-
stock production.
e situation in Japan is a case in point. Seasoning
maker Ajinomoto Co said that its scal 2006 earnings
were weighed down by a spike in sugar cane prices,
re ecting the growing popularity of bioethanol as an al-
ternative fuel. Japan should raise its food self-su ciency
rate as the global balance of food supply and demand is
expected to get tighter in line with increases in produc-
tion of biofuels, announced in a Japanese government
white paper on agriculture. e balance is also likely to
tighten due to increases in the world population which
will boost grain consumption, according to the white
paper for the scal year 2006, which was approved by
the Japanese Cabinet. Japan may face rising food prices
and di culties in securing su cient amounts of foods,
the white paper warned.
Demand for corn has been increasing rapidly, ac-
cording to the paper. In the US, more plants have been
built for the production of bioethanol, a type of renew-
able fuel distilled from crops such as sugar cane, corn
and wheat, leading to higher prices for food and animal
feed. Demand for corn for biofuel production is ex-
pected to rise to 31% of the overall US demand for corn
in 10 years, from 18% in 2006, making the amount for
export inevitably lower, which will a ect food importers
such as Japan.
e world’s population will continue to grow, with
particularly notable increases in developing econo-
mies. e global population is expected to top 9bn in
2050, compared with 6.5bn in 2006, and as a result, the
consumption of grain will rise. Grain consumption in
developing countries is set to double in 2050 from the
annual average of 1.1bnt between 1999 and 2001. To ad-
dress the tightening food supply and demand situation,
Japan strengthens relations with food-exporting nations
to realise a stable food supply, and conclude more eco-
nomic partnership agreements
with them that include trade
liberalisation of farm prod-
ucts. However, the white paper,
compiled by the Ministry of Ag-
riculture, Forestry and Fisheries,
underlined risks of depending on
imports, saying exporting coun-
tries will supply food to their
own people rst in the event of a
crisis. As for measures to improve
the food self-su ciency rate in
Japan, the paper calls for creating
large-scale farming with an eye
to reducing production costs. e paper also calls for
revitalising agriculture by encouraging women and resi-
dents in urban areas to engage in the industry at a time
of aging and declining population in farming areas.
e paper also proposes cultivating rice on abandoned
farmland to prepare for emergency situations.
The arguments for biodiesel
Biodiesel is a clean-burning fuel alternative which is
produced from renewable, domestic resources that have
no petroleum, but can be blended with petroleum to
produce a biodiesel mixture for use in diesel engines
with no or little modi cations. e bene ts of biodiesel
include higher lubricity, longer-lasting engines, clean
burning as compared to diesel, less reliance on foreign
oil, low toxicity, biodegradability, pleasant odour and
e ciency as compared to diesel. is trend shows no
sign of abatement.
Biodiesel fuel is produced from animal fats or used
vegetable oil that may be added to petroleum, or may
replace conventional diesel fuel entirely. Biodiesel
popularity is growing, and US sales in it have increased
from 26.5Ml in 2000 to 1325Ml in 2007.6
Almost all biodiesels in the US are produced from
canola (rapeseed) or soybean oil. By several signi cant
measures, biodiesel mixtures perform better compared
to petroleum diesel. However, its comparatively high
cost of production (about three times as high as that
of petroleum diesel) and the limited availability of a
number of raw materials restricts its use commercially.
Nevertheless, researchers are constantly working with
the biodiesel fuel industry to decrease production costs
and to be able to compete with conventional diesel in
the next four to ve years.
globalfuels MAGAZINE
globalfuels MAGAZINE February 2008 23
T
r
ad
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
b
iodiesel manufacture
involves the harvesting of
s
oybeans (top) and rape-
seed (bottom
)
globalfuels MAGAZINE
24 globalfuelsMAGAZINE February 2008
Methanol (near pure) costs around only US$0.62/l;
however, 1/5 of a litre of methanol is needed for each
litre of biodiesel. It is worth mentioning however that
methanol costs vary considerably, depending on where it
is obtained. Methanol is considered a hazardous chemi-
cal; therefore the shipping costs are high. By utilising
both waste grease and used agricultural oils, it is esti-
mated that biodiesel production costs may slash by 50%,
thereby making biodiesel very reasonable and on a level
where it can compete with conventional diesel. Biofuels
in general are fairly easy to produce, and anyone can
make it in the comfort of their own homes.4,5 One such
alternate source of biofuels comes from microalgae.
Microalgae
Over the last 20 years microalgae production volumes
have increased strongly. e cultivation of microalgae
is proven to be the most pro table business in the bio-
technology industry. It is a wasteless, ecologically pure,
energy- and resource-saving process. Microalgae are a
diverse group of microscopic plants with a wide range
of physiological and biochemical characteristics and
contain, among other things, high quantities of natural
proteins, enzymes, amino acids, pigments, 30% lipids,
over 40% glycerol, up to 8-10% carotene and a fairly
high concentration of vitamins B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, E, K,
D etc, compared with other plants or animals. Moreover,
microalgae are important raw materials for amino acids,
and other medically-important products.
Microalgae, like higher plants, produce and store
lipids in the form of triacyglycerols (TAGs). TAGs could
be used to produce of a wide variety of chemicals, i.e.
fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), which can be used
as a substitute for fossil fuel-derived diesel. is fuel,
known as biodiesel, can be synthesised from TAGs via
a simple transesteri cation reaction in the presence of
acid or base and methanol. Algae have emerged as one
of the most promising sources especially for biodiesel
production,4,7 for two main reasons:
e yields of oil from algae are orders of magnitude •
higher than those for normal oilseeds (see Table 1);
Algae can be grown away from farmlands and for-•
ests, thus minimising the damage caused to the eco
and food chain systems. ey can also be harvested
very quickly, meaning that the production process is
sped up dramatically.
ere is a third interesting reason as well: Algae can be
grown in sewage and next to power-plant smokestacks
where they digest the pollutants to produce oil. To
produce the required amount of biodiesel by growing
soybeans would require almost 3bn acres of soybeans
elds, or over 1bn acres of canola elds at nominal yields
of 48 and 127 gallons of oil per acre, respectively. Con-
versely, to produce 15,000 gallons of oil per acre from
algae would require only approximately 9.5m acres.9
Algae has the following properties that make com-
mercial production attractive:
Microalgae grow much faster than the land grown •
plants, o en 100 times faster;
Microalgae have uniform cell structures with no bark, •
stems, branches or leaves, allowing easier extraction
of products and higher utilisation of microalgae
cells;
e cellular uniformity of microalgae makes it prac-•
tical to manipulate and control growing conditions
for the optimisation of cell properties. is means
that even land not suitable for farming can be used
to grow algae. Furthermore, this may be bene cial
to countries not capable of raising crops due to their
economy; the relative cheapness of growing biodiesel
algae could be a saviour for them.
ere’s still a long way to run for biodiesel fuel. How-
ever, the more algae is grown, the more the awareness
of its versatility will increase. Consumers will purchase
biodiesel vehicles and the alternate fuel source could
take o more than it already has. erefore biofuel pro-
duction is expected to be a new rapidly growing global
market for algae products.4,5 10
From 1978 to 1996, the US Department of Energy’s
O ce of Fuels Development funded a programme to
develop renewable transportation fuels from algae,
known as the Aquatic Species Programme (ASP).11 e
main focus of the programme NREL/TP-580-24190
was the production of biodiesel from high lipid-content
algae grown in ponds. A major conclusion from the cost
analyses conducted in the 1970s and 1980s is that for
microalgae production there is little prospect for any
alternatives to the open pond designs, given the low
cost requirements associated with fuel production. e
factors that most in uence cost are biological, and not
engineering-related. ese analyses show the need for
highly productive organisms capable of near-theoretical
levels of conversion of sunlight to biomass. For example,
200,000 hectares (less than 0.1% of climatically suitable
land areas in the US) could produce 28.4bnl of fuel!
Today, this task is centralised in the Biofuels
Programme. is is managed by the O ce of Fuels De-
velopment (OFD) within the O ce of Transportation
Technologies under the assistant secretary for Energy
E ciency and Renewable Energy at the DOE. For ex-
amples of industrial projects designed to use algae as a
means of producing biofuels, see Table 2.
Nature protection
It is known that the biological method is considered the
most e ective and economically e cient manner for
Substa
n
ce
Gallons o
f
oil per acre per yea
r
C
orn
15
S
o
y
beans 4
8
Su
n
o
w
e
r
10
2
R
apesee
d
(cano
l
a)
12
7
O
i
l
pa
l
m
63
5
M
icroal
g
ae
a
b
ased on actual biomass yields;
b
th
eoretica
l
l
a
b
orator
y
y
ie
ld
1850
a
5
000-15
,
000
b
Tabl
e 1
:
Y
i
e
l
d
of
b
i
o
-
o
il
s
produced from a variety
of
crop
s
globalfuelsMAGAZINE February 2008 25
globalfuels MAGAZINE
the puri cation of industrial waste-
water by using the microbiological
active slime and algae.18,19 However,
bacteria of the active slime have low
stability to high concentrations of
organic and mineral components.
is method also requires further
destruction of super uous quan-
tities of active slime, which also
contains other pathogenic micro-
organisms.
Microalgae on the other hand
possess higher stability, which ena-
bles their use in more concentrated
and toxic environments. One such
example is the microalga named
chlorella. Chlorella actively utilises
mineral elements, spirits, sugar,
and amino acids, and compared
to active slime, enables higher
puri cation rates (up to 96-98%
for organic and 80% for mineral
components.18,20 Chlorella also has
organic acids which prevent the
growth of pathogenic microorganisms in solution.18,20
For example, the Ufa chemical plant in Russia
demonstrated high levels of cleaning of its phenol
wastewaters from chlorella. Similar observations have
been made at a Polish nitric acid fertiliser and sugar
plants, as well as cattle-breeding and poultry farming
establishments.18,21,22
The aims and strategy of RICPO
e technology developed at the Research and Industry
Center of Photosynthesising Organisms (RICPO) in
Armenia will allow product manufacture from sewage-
derived raw materials, which at present pollute the
environment, and simultaneously provides biological
clearing for these wastewaters creating an additional
source of pro t.
e strategy adopted by RICPO ensures that the
cost savings of raw material derived from biologically-
cleaned wastewaters will increase the availability of
microalgae biomass for biofuel producers. erefore, re-
searchers at RICPO have carried out research to develop
microalgae cultivation technologies in wastewaters con-
taining amino acids such as lysine. e sites chosen for
investigation were the Yerevan chemical reagents factory
and the chloroprene rubber factory at Nairit.20, 24, 25 Also
investigated were the wastewaters of the enzyme and
food industries. RICPO has also submitted a proposal
entitled ‘Development technology of drugs destruction
by using microalgae chlorella’.26
In the case of lysine wastewaters, more e cient treat-
ment with chlorella was achieved compared to a mineral
salt solution.20 Simultaneously, high levels of wastewater
puri cation from organic and mineral compounds was
achieved and this was accompanied by a sharp reduction
in the bacteria content in strongly microbiologically-
infected wastewaters. Based on RICPO’s extensive
experience, new technology has also been developed
that takes an innovative approach to the di erence stages
of microalgae manufacture. is technology is based on
feeding microalgae with organic compounds that do not
contain heavy metals and radioisotopes.
At present RICPO’s pilot business plan is at the
commercialisation stage. RICPO is seeking partners as
well as looking at large-scale production of microalgae
in open cement pools aimed at increasing production
volume.
Microalgae: Biomass for food?
RICPO’s strategy is based on the belief that the cost
savings of using raw materials from waste waters via
biological cleaning will also help raise the availability
of microalgae biomass for food. It will also promote an
uptake in global microalgae manufacturing volumes.
Today’s fruits and vegetables contain small amounts
of key nutrients, including proteins (6%), calcium,
phosphorus, iron, vitamin B2 (38%) and vitamin C,
according to the latest ndings.27 Although there is
probably more than one explanation, the trend may
be largely through farmers choosing to generate a high
crop yield. As a result, the need of people and animals to
use high quality food additives to compensate for a lack
of physiologically active components which they cannot
get from ordinary food and feed has increased.
During 2007, the primary goal was to increase the
feed assimilability, but it was achievable principally
by using small concentrations of powdered activated
carbon and adding enzymes, raising only the degree of
cellulose hydrolysis, assimilability and the commodity
weight of production per feed unit. is one-sided ap-
proach has resulted in product quality impairment and a
decrease in animal resistance to illnesses. Alternatively,
the frequency of mass epidemics of animals and poul-
tries in various countries has been observed, notably the
outbreak of H5N1 avian u in southeast Asia.28 is has
Compan
y
/Inst
i
tut
e
Project
d
etai
ls
C
h
e
vr
o
n
a
n
d
N
at
i
o
n
a
l R
e
n
e
w
ab
l
e
Energ
y
Laborator
y
(NREL), (US
)
11
A
g
reement to investi
g
ation the production of liquid trans-
portation fuels from al
g
a
e
Algae BioFuels (subsidiary o
f
Pet
-
roSun Dri
ll
ing (US
)
13
Algae cultivation as an energy source
f
or biodiesel in Ari-
zona an
d
Austra
l
i
a
Ro
y
al Dutch Shell (Netherlands)
and HR BioPetroleum (Hawaii
,
Venture to build a pilot facilit
y
to grow marine algae and
produce ve
g
etable oil for conversion into biofuels
Aqua
ow Bionomin Co (New
Zea
l
an
d)
15
Mines biodiesel
f
rom sewage algae on a lab- and pilot
p
l
ant-
b
ase
d
sca
le
AlgoD
y
ne Ethanol Energ
y
(US
)
1
6
Harvests biomass from marine al
g
al blooms to produce
carbon-neutral ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, electricit
y
,
coa
l
a
n
d
a
nim
a
l f
eed
(Wa
l
es
)
1
0
Development o
f
an algae
ltration system (‘Greenbox’) that
converts
CO
2
e
missions into
b
io
d
iese
l
. Between 2005-2007,
emissions re
d
uce
d
b
y 85-95%
.
Colorado State Universit
y
and Solix
Biofuels
(
US
)
17
Mass production cheap al
g
ae-derived oil for biodiesel. The
al
g
ae is
g
rown on unused land next to power and ethanol
p
lants
.
Ta
bl
e 2: Examples of
p
ro
j
ects designed to
use microal
g
ae for the
p
roduction o
f
bio
f
uel
s
caused great economic damage to manufacturers and
whole countries. e manufacture of vaccines against
mass epidemics requires enormous feats of organisation
and is not always e ective.
Another problem faced today is the consequences
caused by the over-use of antibiotics in animal feed.
While antibiotics were proven to be e ective in improv-
ing poultry production, their use came under pressure
as an increasing number of consumers feared that their
inclusion in animal feed rations would lead to antibiotic
resistant bacteria that are pathogenic to humans.
In 2005 the EU removed the last antibiotic growth
promoters from pig and poultry diets. e search for al-
ternatives to these additives continues to attract intense
interest. As consensus begins to develop among the
scienti c community on this subject, a few approaches
stand out in terms of e cacy, technological and eco-
nomical feasibility, particularly in terms of organic
acids and the use of essential or botanical oils. Organic
acids provide a natural alternative, reducing production
of toxic components by bacteria and
causing a change in the morphology
of the intestinal wall that reduces
colonisation of pathogens, thus
preventing damage to the epithelial
cells.29 Anions of organic acids deac-
tivate the RNA transferase enzyme,
which damage the nucleic acid multi-
plication process and eventually result
in death of the organisms. But the use
of organic acids and essential oils in the feed industry
are potentially a source of other problems: corrosion,
worker safety, handling, vitamin stability in pre-mixes,
environmental concerns, and the stability of products.
At the University of Georgia, US, scientists suggest that
curbing the use of antibiotics on poultry farms will do
little – if anything – to reduce rates of antibiotic-resist-
ant bacteria that have the potential to threaten human
health.30
With all this in mind, the use of chlorella as a feed ad-
ditive could become the best solution, since microalgae
contain natural organic acids that reduce colonisation
of pathogens. anks to this feature, chlorella is used
also for feed conservation and reduction of microbio-
logical pollution of wastewaters. Hence, the success of
RICPO’s strategy may help reduce not only the general
de ciency, but the poor quality and inferiority of the
majority of feed additives as well, which may be one of
the major causes of the alarming frequency increases of
mass epidemics facing animals and poultry (i.e. bird u
between 2004-2007).
Chlorella possesses other biologically attractive pri-
orities, such as:
A high concentration of chlorophyll (5-10 times as •
much, compared to spirullina or lucerne). Chlo-
rophyll is an e ective means for the treatment of
anaemia, pancreatitis, skin ulcers and diabetes;
A unique cell wall which consists of three layers; a •
midldle part consists of cellulose, and the outer layer
is formed of polymeric carotene which is capable of
adsorbing toxic elements and removing them from
organisms;
High contents of vitamins, especially pro-vitamin •
A carotene which not only plays an important role
during the growth process, but destroys cancer cells
in their initial stages and improves the generation of
macrobacteriophage in the immune system;
An ability to intensively synthesise high concentra-•
tion of nucleonic acids with a combination of high
contents of bres, peptides, amino acids, vitamins,
sugars and trace elements. Not only does this pro-
mote rapid reproduction of chlorella, but as a growth
factor also provides favourable conditions for chlore-
lla use in other organisms;
e potential poultry demand for microalgae chlo-•
rella powder (as feed additives) is US$8.8m in the
Armenian domestic market, more than US$1.2-
7.2b in the US, more than US$1.4bn in China, and
US$600m in Iran.
Chlorella is a microscopic, green, single cell organism
with a diameter of 3-10μm. During 12 hours the chlo-
rella cell undergoes four-fold reproduction in optimum
conditions. However, previous industrial experience in
chlorella biotechnological cultivation as well as RICPO’s
research shows that in order to keep production costs
low on a industrial scale, it is necessary to carry out the
cultivation process in a centralised manner, with highly
skilled scienti c sta and high production volumes.
Compared to traditional plants, water consumption is
10-times smaller. e biomass yield per unit area is ve
times higher.
e international price set for principal microalgae
products varies from US$40-200/kg. Considering the
high demand and high international price in food and
perfumery markets, RICPO plans to develop innovative
technologies with low cost production to promote the
accesss to the animal feed market.
Algae-derived biomass for the cement
industry
In general, traditional large scale biomass sources are
not yet practical for the cement industry. Furthermore,
26 globalfuelsMAGAZINE February 2008
globalfuels MAGAZINE
B
e
l
ow: Giant pools o
f
c
hlorella at Yaeyema, o
t
he coast of Okinawa,
J
apa
n
A
bo
ve
:
M
icrosco
p
ic view
o
f chlorella cells
not all biomass sources are available year-round for this
application. e exhaust steam and e uent gas emitted
from cement and thermoelectric power plants could be
used for microalgae suspension heating in pools and
biomass all year round.
During microalgae aeration of e uent gases, CO2
is turned into O2 by photosynthesis, further potentially
reducing industrial CO2 industrial emissions. is situ-
ation may change as changing economics and research
continue to focus on how to make biomass more viable
for producing and use in cement plants.
Conclusions
With the interest in microalgae-derived biofuels increas-
ing, it is necessary to bring the overall level of knowledge
in this subject to new heights. e primary goal in this
avenue of research is to introduce cost-e ective technol-
ogies for large-scale production of microalgae in cement
pools with biological cleaning of wastewater, and to ac-
celerate output. In this way, microalgae will nd their
productive use not only in biofuel production, but in
other markets as well.
Consequently, microalgae production and its biomass
use for biofuel industry has global prospects and may
provide sustainable economic development. It is possi-
ble to expect that in the near future the industry will be
better able to solve the above mentioned problems, thus
leading to a global re-orientation of priorities for fuel
production. Microalgae production may turn out to be a
truly global way to settle these global problems.
References
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secondary fuels from waste management processes’, Glo-
bal Fuels Magazine, June 2007, p23.
4. www.biodieselfuelonline.com
5. www.greenfuels.co.uk
6. Poultry International, 2007, 46 (3), p38.
7. www.oilgae.com
8. http://oakhavenpc.org/cultivating_algae.htm
9.http://thefraserdomain.typepad.com/energy/2005/06/
university_of_n.html
10. www.maesanturio.org
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m_algae.pdf.
12. www.greencarcongress.com/2007/10/chevron-and-
nre.html.
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