Relations Between Behavior Problems in Classroom Social and Learning Situations and Peer Social Competence in Head Start and Kindergarten

Abstract

The relations between early emotional and behavioral problems in classroom situations and peer social competence were examined for a representative sample of urban Head Start children. Behavior problems were assessed within the context of routine peer, teacher, and structured learning classroom situations early in the preschool year. Two path models were tested: (a) direct effects of preschool situational problems on peer social competence at the end of preschool and (b) direct and indirect effects of preschool situational problems on peer social competence at the end of kindergarten, accounting for preschool peer social competence and child demographic variables. Early problems in peer and socially mediated learning situations consistently predicted lower peer social competence in preschool and kindergarten. Problems in preschool peer situations directly and indirectly predicted greater disruptive play at the end of kindergarten, and problems in structured learning situations predicted lower interactive play at both time points. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

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2010 18: 195 originally published online 9 April 2010Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Rebecca J. Bulotsky- Shearer, Ximena Domínguez, Elizabeth R. Bell, Heather L. Rouse and John W. Fantuzzo
Competence in Head Start and Kindergarten
Relations Between Behavior Problems in Classroom Social and Learning Situations and Peer Social
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Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders
18(4) 195 –210
© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2010
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DOI: 10.1177/1063426609351172
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There has been much attention paid to the importance of
social and emotional readiness for early school success. Two
National Research Council reports, Eager to Learn (2001)
and From Neurons to Neighborhoods (2000), underscore
the critical links between emotional and behavioral adjust-
ment and engagement in early childhood classroom learning
and socialization experiences. Research suggests that social
and emotional skills are essential to early school engage-
ment and classroom adjustment (Denham, 2006; Knitzer,
2003; Ladd, Herald, & Kochel, 2006; Raver, 2002;
Thompson & Raikes, 2007). There is also consistent evi-
dence documenting the negative influence of social, emo-
tional, and regulatory problems on children’s ability to
engage in socially mediated classroom learning activities
and to form important relationships with peers and teachers
(Fantuzzo, Bulotsky, McDermott, Mosca, & Lutz, 2003;
McClelland, Morrison, & Holmes, 2000). This research
suggests that early behavior problems place children at risk
for social and academic difficulties in preschool and across
the transition into kindergarten (Huffman, Mehlinger, &
Kerivan, 2000).
Research suggests that children who demonstrate prob-
lematic classroom behavior concurrently exhibit problem-
atic relationships with peers and insecure attachment to
their classroom teacher (Pianta & Caldwell, 1990; Vaughn,
Hogan, Lancelotta, Shapiro, & Walker, 1992). More recent
studies in Head Start examining peer social competence
link both overactive (externalizing) and underactive (inter-
nalizing) behavior problems to classroom peer disruption
and peer disconnection, respectively (Fantuzzo, Bulotsky-
Shearer, Fusco, & McWayne, 2005; Fantuzzo et al., 2003).
This evidence is concerning in light of the instrumental role
peer social competence plays in promoting successful kin-
dergarten transition (Denham, 2006; Thompson & Raikes,
1
University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL
2
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
Corresponding Author:
Rebecca J. Bulotsky-Shearer, University of Miami, Department of
Psychology, 5665 Ponce de Leon, Coral Gables, FL 33146
E-mail: rshearer@miami.edu
Relations Between Behavior Problems in
Classroom Social and Learning Situations
and Peer Social Competence in Head Start
and Kindergarten
Rebecca J. Bulotsky- Shearer,
1
Ximena Domínguez,
1
Elizabeth R. Bell,
1
Heather L. Rouse,
2
and John W. Fantuzzo
2
Abstract
The relations between early emotional and behavioral problems in classroom situations and peer social competence were
examined for a representative sample of urban Head Start children. Behavior problems were assessed within the context
of routine peer, teacher, and structured learning classroom situations early in the preschool year. Two path models were
tested: (a) direct effects of preschool situational problems on peer social competence at the end of preschool and (b) direct
and indirect effects of preschool situational problems on peer social competence at the end of kindergarten, accounting for
preschool peer social competence and child demographic variables. Early problems in peer and socially mediated learning
situations consistently predicted lower peer social competence in preschool and kindergarten. Problems in preschool peer
situations directly and indirectly predicted greater disruptive play at the end of kindergarten, and problems in structured
learning situations predicted lower interactive play at both time points. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.
Keywords:
preschool classroom behavior problems, Head Start, peer social competence, interactive peer play, developmental-ecological
model

196 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
2007). In preschool, learning is highly socially mediated. In
fact, research suggests that in early childhood classrooms,
“play=learning” (Singer, Golinkoff, & Hirsch-Pasek, 2006).
Successful engagement within the peer social context pro-
motes the development of many skills essential to both
social and academic domains of school readiness such as
the development of emotion regulation skills, problem solv-
ing, empathy, cognitive, and language skills (Coolahan,
Fantuzzo, Mendez, & McDermott, 2000; Fantuzzo, Sekino,
& Cohen, 2004; McClelland & Morrison, 2003; Zigler &
Bishop-Josef, 2006). McClelland and Morrison (2003) in
fact suggest that learning-related social skills such as self-
control, cooperation, independence, and ability to stay
focused and on-task “set the stage” for later social behavior
and academic performance. If not identified early on, class-
room problem behavior places children at risk for a host of
difficulties, including poor social adjustment as they transi-
tion into kindergarten (Ladd, 1990; Ladd, Kochenderfer, &
Coleman, 1996).
Interventions within quality early childhood educational
programs hold promise to mitigate classroom behavior
problems and promote more adaptive engagement in forma-
tive socially mediated learning experiences (Barnett, 1998;
Mashburn et al., 2008; NICHD [National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development] Early Child Care Research
Network, 2001). Key to guiding interventions within early
childhood programs is understanding children’s behavior in
dynamic transactions with classroom learning and social
demands (Friedman & Wachs, 1999; Sameroff & Fiese,
2000). Unfortunately, much of the extant research docu-
menting the negative influence of preschool behavior prob-
lems on children’s classroom learning and socialization
experiences employs teacher or parent rating scales that
have been found to have questionable reliability and validity
for low-income minority populations (Gross et al. 2006;
Konold, Hamre, & Pianta, 2003; Lopez, Tarullo, Forness, &
Boyce, 2000). In addition these measures identify decontex-
tualized problem behavior via checklists of static symptoms
of mental disorders and syndromes rather than identify prob-
lems as they arise in dynamic transaction with classroom
situations (Drotar, Stein, & Perrin, 1995; Fantuzzo & Mohr,
2000; Sherrod, 1999). This research also typically identifies
the “type” of problem (e.g., externalizing or internalizing)
rather than “situations where” problems occur. Although this
research provides evidence for the negative influence of
types of behavioral problems on peer social competence, it
does not inform a more comprehensive, contextualized
understanding of children’s behavior necessary for develop-
mentally appropriate classroom-based interventions.
The developmental-ecological model provides a frame-
work for examining diverse, low-income children’s emo-
tional and behavioral problems within important proximal
contexts, such as the preschool classroom and across
important school transitions (such as kindergarten entry).
This model recognizes (a) the influence of proximal con-
texts such as the preschool classroom on emotional and
behavioral adjustment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998)
and (b) the development of emotional and behavioral prob-
lems as a function of the dynamic transactions between the
demands of proximal contexts and children’s developmental
capacities over time (Sameroff, 1975; Sameroff & Fiese,
2000; Sroufe, 1997). Proximal processes in the preschool
classroom are interactions between children, peers, teachers,
and instructional materials that serve as the primary mecha-
nism for children’s learning (Hamre & Pianta, 2007; Pianta,
2006). In this model, child problem behaviors develop as a
function of the dynamic transactions between children’s
developmental capacities and social and learning classroom
demands (Cicchetti & Sroufe, 2000; Cicchetti & Toth,
1997). Children master tasks and demands based on their
individual resources and past experiences. Problem behav-
ior results when the demands of the situation do not match
child capacities (Goldstein, 1995).
Fortunately, McDermott (1993) and colleagues have
developed an alternative approach to studying children’s
emotional and behavioral adjustment that is sensitive to the
dynamic classroom context. Recently, this approach has been
applied to study behavioral adjustment within early child-
hood educational settings for low-income, preschool chil-
dren. In partnership with early childhood professionals in a
large, urban Head Start program, Lutz, Fantuzzo, and
McDermott (2002) identified a comprehensive set of 144
routinely observed adaptive and maladaptive behaviors
within the context of 24 typical classroom social and learning
situations. Three latent situational dimensions of preschool
classroom problem behavior (or “situtypes” derived from the
Latin meaning: type of situation or circumstance) were
empirically derived: problems in structured learning, prob-
lems in peer interactions, and problems in teacher interac-
tions (Adjustment Scales for Preschool Intervention [ASPI];
Bulotsky-Shearer, Fantuzzo, & McDermott, 2008). The pre-
school situational dimensions reflect classroom experiences
and situational demands unique to early childhood settings
(National Association for the Education of Young Children
[NAEYC], 2009; Singer et al., 2006). For example, problems
in structured learning includes behavior problems within the
context of academic learning activities, both teacher-initiated
learning situations (e.g., sitting during teacher-directed activ-
ities, paying attention in class) and peer-mediated learning
(e.g., taking part in games with others, free play).
The three situational dimensions of problem behavior
differ from traditional measures of psychopathology in a
number of ways. Children’s behavior is easily observable
within routine classroom activities over a 1- or 2-month
period, thus reducing the need for teachers to make infer-
ences regarding children’s internal mediating psychological

Bulotsky-Shearer et al. 197
processes. In addition, rather than identifying the type of
problem via the frequency or intensity of psychiatric symp-
toms, problem behavior is defined by its multisituational
occurrence (pervasiveness within structured learning activ-
ities, teacher or peer interactions). In this way, the ASPI
situational dimensions identify where in the classroom
behavior problems occur rather than the type of behavior
(e.g., internalizing or externalizing behavior problems). For
example, the problems in peer interactions dimension is
confirmed empirically when behavior problems (either or
both internalizing or externalizing) occur at an elevated
level in 6 of 24 classroom situations (e.g., getting along
with age mates, behaving in the classroom, respect for oth-
er’s belongings, standing in line).
Initial research provided evidence for the negative influ-
ence of these situational problems on Head Start children’s
school readiness outcomes (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2008).
Bulotsky-Shearer et al. (2008) used teacher reports of chil-
dren’s peer social competence for a representative sample
of Head Start children. Findings suggested that early situa-
tional problems in social contexts (with peers and teachers)
predicted higher disconnected and disruptive peer play, and
lower play interaction at the end of the preschool year.
Problems in structured learning contexts also predicted
greater disconnected play and lower interactive play out-
comes. Bulotsky-Shearer et al. were the first study to exam-
ine these relations; however, their study had two limitations:
First, examination of the relations between early situational
problems and peer social competence outcomes were lim-
ited to within the preschool year (across a 6-month period
from fall to spring), and second, the relations examined
were confounded by source invariance, as the Head Start
teacher completed both assessments of situational problems
and end-of-year peer social competence.
The purpose of the present study was to extend initial
research in several important ways. First, this study sought
to examine the longitudinal influence of preschool emo-
tional and behavioral problems within classroom situations
on peer social competence. Specifically, this study exam-
ined the differential relations between emotional and behav-
ioral problems within peer, teacher, and structured learning
situations across the transition to formal schooling for a
representative sample of urban Head Start children. Second,
this study employed multivariate structural equation model-
ing techniques (a) to confirm previously documented rela-
tions between situational problems and peer social
competence within the preschool year and (b) to test the
strength of specific relations between preschool situational
problems and kindergarten peer social competence, control-
ling for end-of-year preschool social competence and child
demographic variables. This set of analyses permitted
examination of both the direct and indirect effects of early
situational problems on peer social competence across the
transition to kindergarten. This allowed determination of
whether the effects of preschool situational problems on
kindergarten peer social competence were mediated, fully
or partially, by the level of peer social competence at the
end of preschool (e.g., see Kline, 2005, for information on
indirect effects in path analyses).
Three hypotheses were generated based on previous
research: First, early problems in peer and teacher interac-
tions would predict greater disruptive and disconnected play
and lower interactive play at the end of the Head Start year.
Second, early problems in structured learning situations
would predict lower interactive play and greater discon-
nected play the end of the Head Start year (Bulotsky-Shearer
et al., 2008). Third, we hypothesized that similar relations
would emerge in the prediction of kindergarten peer social
competence. Based on research documenting the stability of
problematic peer behavior in early childhood (Howes,
Phillipsen, & Peisner-Feinberg, 2000; Keane & Calkins,
2004), we hypothesized that the effects of preschool situa-
tional problems on kindergarten peer social competence
would be fully or partially mediated by peer social compe-
tence at the end of the Head Start year.
Method
Participants
A stratified, random sample of 257 Head Start children
from a large urban school district in the northeast partici-
pated in this study. Gender was split evenly with 49% girls.
At the beginning of the Head Start year, children ranged in
age from 4.05 to 5.12 years (M = 4.65, SD = .30) and were
predominantly African American (69%), with 25% Latino,
4% Caucasian, and 2% Asian or Other. Annual income for a
majority of the program’s families was below $15,000.
Of the stratified random sample, 192 children had com-
plete data for both fall and spring of the preschool year
(Year 1). These children did not differ from the original
sample with regard to gender, age, race, or preschool assess-
ments scores. In this sample, 52% were girls; children
ranged in age from 4.13 to 5.11 years (M = 4.65, SD = .29)
and were predominantly African American (67%) with 28%
Latino, 4% Caucasian, and 1% Asian or Other. During the
spring of the kindergarten year (Year 2), 199 children of the
original sample were located and assessed. Of these chil-
dren, 115 had complete data for Year 1 and Year 2. Children
were enrolled in 64 schools, across 125 kindergarten class-
rooms. The demographic breakdown of this kindergarten
follow-up sample was nearly identical to that of the original
sample: Fifty percent were girls, children ranged in age
from 4.13 to 5.11 years (M = 4.66 years, SD = .30), and the
sample was predominantly African American (67%). There
were no significant differences from the original sample
with regard to gender, age, race, or preschool assessment
scores.

198 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
Seventy-eight teachers in the Head Start program par-
ticipated and completed assessments on their children.
Program demographic information indicated that all teach-
ers were credentialed in early childhood education and had
at least a bachelor’s degree. The majority (61%) had experi-
ence teaching in Head Start for at least 5 years and 35% had
more than 10 years experience in Head Start. Teachers were
predominantly Caucasian (62%) with 29% African
American, 3% Latino, 1% Asian, and 5% Other.
Measures
Preschool classroom situational emotional and behavioral
adjustment. The ASPI (Lutz et al., 2002) was used to assess
emotional and behavioral problems across routine pre-
school classroom situations at the beginning of the pre-
school year. The ASPI is a teacher measure that assesses
adaptive and maladaptive behavior within the classroom
context. It was developed in collaboration with Head Start
teachers, special needs coordinators, and parents to ensure
that the content was developmentally appropriate and the
items were scripted in the parlance of early childhood edu-
cators (Lutz et al. 2002). The ASPI is a 144-item multidi-
mensional instrument based on teacher observations of
behavior across 22 routine preschool classroom situations
and two categories of nonsituationally specific behavior
problems (e.g., unusual habits or outbursts; Lutz et al.,
2002). The scale’s items reflect both problematic behaviors
(122 items) and more adaptive behaviors (22 items) chil-
dren may exhibit in the preschool classroom. The ASPI was
standardized on a sample of urban Head Start children and
validated for use with this population (Lutz et al., 2002).
The ASPI identifies three situational dimensions in
which behavior problems occur within the preschool con-
text: structured learning, peer interactions, and teacher
interactions (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2008). The three situ-
ational dimensions derived and confirmed via exploratory
and confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated adequate
internal consistencies, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients
of .84, .81, and .75 (problems in structured learning, prob-
lems in peer interactions, and problems in teacher interac-
tions, respectively) and have been found to be replicable
and generalizable to important subgroups of the standard-
ization sample (i.e., younger and older children, boys and
girls, and African American, Latino, and Caucasian ethnici-
ties). Convergent and divergent validity of the three ASPI
situational dimensions have been established with con-
structs of interactive peer play and classroom learning com-
petence (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2008) and emergent
literacy in kindergarten and first grade (Bulotsky-Shearer,
Fantuzzo, & Rouse, 2009). Correlations between situational
dimensions and readiness outcomes ranged from .16 to .63,
with high positive correlations between problems in peer
interactions and disruptive behavior, problems in structured
learning and disconnected behavior, and negative associa-
tions between problems in structured learning and learning
outcomes (see Note 1).
Peer social competence. The teacher version of the Penn
Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS-T; Fantuzzo, Coolahan,
Mendez, McDermott, & Sutton-Smith, 1998) was used to
assess children’s interactive peer play competencies within
the classroom at the end of Head Start and kindergarten.
The PIPPS-T is a 32-item rating scale used to measure com-
mon play behaviors that facilitate or interfere with prosocial
peer interactions. This measure was created in collaboration
with Head Start teachers and parents and has been validated
for use with Head Start (Fantuzzo et al., 1998) and low-
income kindergarten populations (Fantuzzo & Hampton,
2000). Reliability and validity studies of the PIPPS-T in
Head Start and kindergarten have revealed three dimen-
sions: play interaction, play disruption, and play disconnec-
tion, with adequate internal consistencies (Cronbach’s
alphas = .92, .91, and .89, respectively, for Head Start and
.89, 90, and .90, respectively, for kindergarten). In Head
Start, convergent and divergent validity has been estab-
lished using direct observations of play, peer sociometrics,
and measures of learning behaviors, temperament, emotion
regulation, psychological adjustment, and social skills
(Coolahan et al., 2000; Fantuzzo et al., 1998; Mendez,
McDermott, & Fantuzzo, 2002). Correlations between the
PIPPS-T and these measures ranged from .45 to .99 (with
most robust correlations between play disruption and over-
active classroom behaviors). In kindergarten, convergent
and divergent validity has been established using teacher-
rated social skills and academic achievement (Hampton &
Fantuzzo, 2003).
Procedures
Sampling. A stratified, random sample of children (N =
257) was drawn for the purposes of the study. Children in
this sample consisted of 4-year-old children targeted to go
on to kindergarten in the fall. Children within classrooms
were stratified to be demographically and geographically
representative of the school district’s nine geographic
regions. During that academic year, the program served a
total of 4,539 children across 73 centers and nine geo-
graphic regions. Children in the sample were enrolled in 20
schools across 78 classrooms and nine regions.
Data collection. This study involved both archival data col-
lected on a routine basis by school district personnel and addi-
tional teacher assessments of children’s classroom behaviors.
Specifically, data collection involved: (a) administrative data
including child, family, and teacher demographic information
routinely collected by the district’s Head Start program; (b)
Head Start teacher assessments of classroom emotional and

Bulotsky-Shearer et al. 199
behavioral adjustment (ASPI) collected programmatically at
the beginning of the preschool year; (c) Head Start teacher
assessments of peer social competence (PIPPS-T) collected in
the spring of the preschool year; and (d) kindergarten teacher
assessments of peer social competence (PIPPS-T) collected in
the spring of the kindergarten year. Teachers completed the
PIPPS-T for all sampled children in their classroom. Consent
for children’s participation was obtained from parents as part
of a larger collaborative university research partnership proj-
ect with an urban public school district Head Start program in
the Northeast.
Approval for the research activities was obtained from the
director of the Head Start Program and the Head Start Policy
Council. Approval from the University Institutional Review
Board was obtained before initiating data collection. Program
administrative data were prepared in cooperation with the
School District’s Office of Research and Evaluation and the
Head Start program. Before archival data were obtained, a
confidentiality agreement was signed to ensure the confiden-
tiality of all identifying information. Data were linked by
school district personnel using students’ unique district iden-
tification numbers. Once the files were integrated, any identi-
fiers were stripped from the files to protect the confidentiality
of participants before proceeding with data analyses. The
ASPI is systematically collected twice a year (within the first
45 days in the fall and in mid-May at the end of the Head
Start year) as part of a federal Head Start assessment require-
ment (Program Performance Standards for the Operation of
Head Start Programs by Grantee and Delegate, 1997). The
study principal investigator obtained permission from the
school district administration to use these administrative
records and integrate them as described previously.
In the early spring of the Head Start year, teachers were
contacted to elicit participation in the study. Before data
collection, research team members met with teachers indi-
vidually to explain the purpose of the study and to clarify
issues of confidentiality, informed consent and data collec-
tion procedures. Packets including the PIPPS-T were dis-
tributed to teachers individually. A research team of
psychology and education graduate students were hired to
follow up with the teachers and to collect completed mea-
sures directly from the schools. In Year 2 of the study, the
research team collaborated with the School District Office
of Research and Evaluation to locate the former Head Start
children who had transitioned into kindergarten. Once chil-
dren were located, kindergarten teachers were contacted
and a research team of graduate students followed the same
procedures as followed for Year 1.
Data Analytic Approach
A series of path analyses were tested using Mplus (Muthén &
Muthén, 2007). This was chosen as the most appropriate
data-analytic strategy given that it accounts for measurement
error and allows for the incorporation of multiple mediators
in a single model. In addition, this approach allows the use of
all available data by using full information maximum likeli-
hood (FIML) functions that incorporate information on cases
with some missingness (Hancock & Mueller, 2006; Kline,
2005). Modern methods for handling missing data in longitu-
dinal investigations (e.g., FIML) have been suggested as best
practice for developmental research (McCartney, Burchinal,
& Bub, 2006). Unlike listwise deletion (i.e., using only cases
that are complete on all variables), pairwise deletion (i.e.,
deleting cases with missing data on a bivariate set), and
imputation procedures (e.g., imputing values from another
case with similar observed values), FIML uses all available
data for each case when estimating parameters (Enders &
Bandalos, 2001). FIML, in particular, has been shown to be
unbiased under MCAR (data missing completely at random)
or MAR (data missing at random) mechanisms (Enders &
Bandalos, 2001).
First, the direct effects of early situational problems
(assessed by the ASPI in the beginning of preschool) on
children’s peer play competence were examined at the end
of Head Start. Second, both direct and indirect effects (via
end-of-preschool peer social competence) of ASPI situa-
tional problems were examined on peer social competence
in kindergarten. For all models, the χ
2
test was used to
assess fit of the overall model to the data; lack of signifi-
cance indicated acceptable model fit (Kline, 2005). Four
additional fit measures were also used to assess the close-
ness of fit: the Tucker-Lewis coefficient (TLI; Tucker &
Lewis, 1973), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler,
1990), the root mean square residual (SRMR; Hu & Bentler,
1998), and the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980). Values for both the TLI
and CFI greater than .90 and values for the SRMR and
RMSEA of .08 or less were considered acceptable and indi-
cated adequate model fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).
Sample size was adequate to detect a close fit, with an
RMSEA value of at least .08 (acceptable values range from
.00 to .08; Hu & Bentler, 1998). In the final longitudinal
model with 25 df, a minimal sample size of 143 was needed
to detect a close fit (Preacher & Coffman, 2006).
Results
A series of path models were estimated to test the study’s
hypotheses using Mplus (Muthén & Muthén, 2007). First,
data were examined to determine whether they were nor-
mally distributed. Each of the variables was examined for
outliers, homoskedasticity, and kurtosis; no assumptions
were found to be violated. Independent sample t-tests for
the end-of-preschool and kindergarten longitudinal samples
showed no significant differences in mean scores on the
preschool ASPI and PIPPS-T assessments, indicating that
the kindergarten follow-up sample was representative of

200 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
the original preschool sample. Mean scores for ASPI for the
preschool sample were 49.16 (SD = 10.39), 50.56 (SD =
10.20), and 47.20 (SD = 9.57), and mean scores for ASPI
for the kindergarten sample were 49.44 (SD = 10.53), 50.03
(SD = 9.85), and 46.64 (SD = 9.19) for problems in teacher
interactions, peer interactions, and structured learning situ-
ations, respectively. Mean scores for the PIPPS-T for the
preschool sample were 49.30 (SD = 9.60), 49.40 (SD =
9.82), and 49.98 (SD = 10.65) and mean scores for the
PIPPS-T for the kindergarten sample were 49.02 (SD =
9.24), 49.34 (SD = 9.33), and 48.79 (SD = 10.27) for play
disruption, play disconnection, and play interaction, respec-
tively. Significant gender differences in mean level of play
interaction were found in preschool (with girls’ mean scores
higher than boys), t(225) = 2.56, p < .05. Bivariate correla-
tions are provided in Table 1.
Preschool Model
Direct effects. A path model was examined to confirm
previously established associations between early situa-
tional problems and peer social competence (Bulotsky-
Shearer et al., 2008). Because previous research suggested
that demographic variables, such as age and gender, were
significantly associated with dimensions of peer social
competence (Coolahan et al., 2000; Mendez et al., 2002;
Milfort & Greenfield, 2002), these associations were
examined first. Variables that were significant predictors of
social competence dimensions were included in the model
as covariates (nonsignificant covariates were excluded in
subsequent models for parsimony). Significant covariates
were included to ensure that the effects of preschool situa-
tional dimensions were not overestimated (Kline, 2005). In
this model, therefore, age was included as predictor of play
disconnection and gender as a predictor of play interaction.
ASPI situational dimensions were included as predictors of
peer social competence based on previous findings.
Accounting for child demographic covariates, the follow-
ing unique relations were tested: problems in structured
learning situations as a predictor of both play disconnec-
tion and play interaction, problems in peer interactions as a
predictor of play disruption and play disconnection, and
problems in peer interactions as a predictor of play
interaction.
Figure 1 displays the standardized coefficients and cor-
responding standard errors in the direct effects path model
(note that coefficients represent the unique effects when
partialed for all other independent variables in the model).
This model resulted in good fit to the data, χ
2
(8) = 9.457,
p = .3052; CFI = 0.994, TLI = 0.987, RMSEA = 0.027,
SRMR = 0.025. Problems in structured learning situations
positively predicted play disconnection; children with
more difficulties in structured learning situations early in
the year exhibited higher play disconnection scores at the
end of the year. In addition, problems in structured learning
situations negatively predicted play interaction. Problems
in peer interactions were positively associated with play
disruption, such that children experiencing difficulties
interacting with peers early in the year exhibited higher
play disruption scores at the end of the year. Contrary to
hypotheses, problems in peer interactions did not predict
play disconnection, and problems in teacher interactions
did not predict play interaction. In the final model, age was
marginally related to play disconnection and gender was
significantly related to play interaction.
Kindergarten Longitudinal Model
Direct effects. A second path model was examined to explore
whether the relations between ASPI situational problems and
Table 1. Bivariate Correlations Between Fall Adjustment Scales
for Preschool Intervention (ASPI) Situational Dimensions With
Head Start and Kindergarten Outcomes
ASPI situational dimensions
Outcomes
Problems in
structured
learning
Problems in
teacher
interactions
Problems in
peer
interactions
Head Start outcomes
Play interaction –.34** –.28** –.12
Play disruption .39** –.31** .58**
Play disconnection .41** –.31** .26**
Kindergarten outcomes
Play interaction –.21* –.10 –.33**
Play disruption .22* .18* .52**
Play disconnection .18* .22* .32**
*p < .05. **p < .01.
HS Fall Structured
Learning
HS Fall
Peer Interactions
HS Fall
Teacher
Interactions
HS Spring Play
Disruption
HS Spring Play
Disconnection
HS Spring Play
Interaction
Child Gender
Child Age
0.59*
Figure 1. Results for the Head Start path model.
Note: Numbers shown are standardized path coefficients. Dotted lines
represent nonsignificant paths. HS = Head Start.
*p < .05.

Bulotsky-Shearer et al. 201
peer social competence were replicated in kindergarten when
controlling for peer social competence assessed at the end of
the preschool year. The effects of demographic covariates (age
and gender) were examined first. As mentioned previously,
nonsignificant covariates were excluded from subsequent
models for parsimony, but significant covariates were always
controlled for in all models. Age was included as a predictor of
play disconnection and gender as a predictor of play interac-
tion. In this second path model, situational problems were
included as predictors of peer social competence in Head Start
as well as in kindergarten (note that coefficients represent the
unique effects when partialed for all other predictors in the
model). Both direct and indirect effects (through Head Start
peer social competence) on kindergarten peer play compe-
tence were examined
This model resulted in good fit to the data, χ
2
(25) =
34.132, p = .1051; CFI = 0.984, TLI = 0.971, RMSEA =
0.038, SRMR = 0.053. Direct, indirect, and total effects for
the final model are presented in Table 2. In this model,
because the three dimensions of peer play in Head Start orig-
inated from the same measure, their error variances were
specified to be correlated with each other (Kline, 2005). The
residual variances for the play dimensions in kindergarten
were specified to be equal to each other because their values
were nearly identical. Examination of the residuals indicated
that there was a very strong association between play disrup-
tion in Head Start and play interaction in kindergarten. This
path was therefore specified in the model. Direct effects on
Head Start outcomes remained the same as those found in the
initial direct effects model (see previous results). Effects on
kindergarten outcomes (controlling for end-of-preschool
social competence) changed, however. Problems in struc-
tured learning situations did not directly predict play discon-
nection at the end of kindergarten. However, consistent with
Head Start findings, problems in structured learning situa-
tions were negatively associated with play interaction at the
end of kindergarten. Additionally, problems in peer interac-
tions were positively associated with play disconnection
in kindergarten, such that children experiencing difficulties
interacting with peers early in the year exhibited higher
play disruption scores at the end of the kindergarten year.
Problems in peer interactions also positively predicted
play disruption. Problems in teacher interactions did not
predict play interaction in kindergarten. In the final model,
gender did not predict kindergarten peer social competence.
Age, however, predicted kindergarten play interaction (see
Figure 2).
Indirect effects. There were two significant indirect effects
in the kindergarten longitudinal model. First, problems in
peer interactions indirectly affected play disruption at the
end of kindergarten through its effect on play disruption at
the end of Head Start. Second, problems in structured learn-
ing situations did not directly predict play disconnection at
the end of kindergarten; however, it indirectly predicted
play disconnection at the end of kindergarten through its
effect on play disconnection at the end of Head Start (see
Table 2 for a summary of significant indirect effects and
Figure 2 for a path diagram).
Table 2. Effects Decomposition for Play Outcomes (Final Model)
Endogenous variables
Head Start Kindergarten
Play disruption Play disconnection Play interaction Play disruption Play disconnection Play interaction
Predictors Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate
Problems in structured
learning situations
Direct effects — 0.301* –0.254* — 0.049 –0.200*
Total indirect effects — — — — 0.068* –0.016
Specific indirect effects — — — — 0.068* –0.016
Problems in peer
interactions
Direct effects 0.600* 0.115 — 0.316* 0.147* —
Total indirect effects — — — 0.160* 0.026 —
Specific indirect effects — — — 0.160* 0.026 —
Problems in teacher
interactions
Direct effects — — –0.086 — — 0.102
Total indirect effects — — — — — –0.005
Specific indirect effects — — — — — –0.005
Note: Estimates are standardized coefficients.
*p < .05.

202 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
Discussion
The present study advances the knowledge base by examin-
ing the longitudinal influence of emotional and behavioral
problems within routine preschool classroom situations on
peer social competence. Guided by a developmental-eco-
logical framework, the study examined these relations
within key proximal classroom contexts and across critical
school transitions for a representative sample of urban Head
Start children.
Preschool Model
The study confirmed the contribution of two key classroom
situations to peer social competence: structured learning situ-
ations and peer interactions. Contrary to hypotheses, how-
ever, no significant relations between preschool problems in
teacher interactions and peer social competence were found.
In the preschool direct effects path model, problems in struc-
tured learning situations predicted greater disconnected and
lower interactive peer play. These findings are consistent
with early childhood research and developmental theory sug-
gesting that the nature of learning is highly social in early
childhood classrooms (NAEYC, 2009; Singer et al., 2006).
Research conducted in Head Start indicates that behavior
problems in preschool structured learning situations predict
poor peer social competence at the end of the year (Bulotsky-
Shearer et al., 2008). As well, research in Head Start supports
the finding that early behavioral difficulties in teacher-
directed and peer-mediating learning contexts may interfere
with children’s opportunities to master social and academic
readiness skills (Fantuzzo et al., 2003; Hampton & Fantuzzo,
2003). Children with difficulties engaging in rich learning
experiences afforded within preschool learning situations are
more likely to demonstrate lower social and academic readi-
ness outcomes (Huffman et al., 2000; National Research
Council and Institute of Medicine, 2000).
The present study underscores the importance of oppor-
tunities for children to negotiate successfully the interper-
sonal demands of classroom peer social situations. Early
behavior problems in peer situations predicted greater dis-
ruptive play with a nonsignificant trend in the prediction of
disconnected play at the end of the preschool year. Children
who exhibited early behavior problems within peer situa-
tions had greater difficulties initiating and maintaining play
with peers at the end of the year. Research provides support
for this finding, linking emotional adjustment within impor-
tant classroom social contexts to social competence
(Denham, 2006). Studies suggest that children exhibiting
emotional and behavioral problems within social classroom
situations are also likely to experience significant peer dif-
ficulties (Denham, McKinley, Couchoud, & Holt, 1990;
Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992). Recent studies in Head Start
provide further evidence that children with socially discon-
nected or socially disruptive behavior problems in the
classroom also display peer social difficulties (Fantuzzo &
McWayne, 2002; Fantuzzo, McWayne, Perry, & Childs,
2004; Lutz et al., 2002).
Although the literature suggests that early teacher–child
interactions are important to children’s social and academic
adjustment, the present study did not confirm this relation.
Emerging research indicates that the teacher–child relation-
ship is one of the most critical factors in children’s preschool
and kindergarten adjustment (Birch & Ladd, 1997, 1998).
Teacher–child conflict has been found to predict lower
teacher-reported social competence (Garner & Waajid, 2008;
Mantzicopoulos, 2005), and children perceived to have more
problem behaviors are more likely to be rated as having more
conflictual relationships with teachers and lower social com-
petence (Howes et al., 2000; Palermo, Hanish, Martin, Fabes,
& Reiser, 2007). Sensitive and responsive teacher–child
interactions have, however, been found to predict social and
academic gains in prekindergarten and higher ratings of
social competence (Howes et al., 2008; Mashburn et al.,
2008; Palermo et al., 2007). Our finding might have been due
to the nature of sample; or perhaps it suggests that for this
sample of children, teacher–child interactions are differen-
tially important for other more traditionally “academic” or
“cognitive” dimensions of school readiness (such as emer-
gent literacy or numeracy skills) that we did not examine. In
fact, other research in Head Start does suggest that ASPI
problems in teacher interactions predict lower academic
readiness outcomes such as emergent literacy and approaches
to learning in Head Start (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2008;
Domínguez, Vitiello, Fuccillo, Greenfield, & Bulotsky-
Shearer, 2009) and across the transition to kindergarten
(Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2009).
HS Fall
Structured
Learning
HS Fall
Peer
Interactions
HS Fall
Teacher
Interactions
Child Age
0.60*
K Spring Play
Disruption
K Spring Play
Disconnection
K Spring Play
Interaction
Child Gender
0.05
–0.25*
HS Spring Play
Disconnection
HS Spring Play
Disruption
HS Spring Play
Interaction
Figure 2. Results for kindergarten longitudinal path model
(final model).
Note: Numbers shown are standardized path coefficients. Dotted lines
represent nonsignificant paths. HS = Head Start; K = kindergarten.
*p < .05.

Bulotsky-Shearer et al. 203
Age and gender findings indicated that younger children
demonstrated greater disconnected play and girls exhibited
greater interactive play at the end of the preschool year.
These findings are supported by other research in Head
Start suggesting that older children and girls exhibit higher
levels of peer social competence and younger children
exhibit higher levels of disconnected play (e.g., Bulotsky-
Shearer et al., 2008; Coolahan et al., 2000). Both develop-
mental and gender findings have been documented in the
preschool and Head Start literature, suggesting that (a)
younger children demonstrate less emotion regulation and
greater socially withdrawn behavior in the classroom than
older children, and (b) boys exhibit higher levels of exter-
nalizing and socially disruptive problems in the classroom
than girls (Coolahan et al., 2000; Fantuzzo et al., 2001;
Mendez et al., 2002). Other studies of preschool children
provide further evidence that boys typically exhibit more
behavioral problems than girls (Birch & Ladd, 1997;
Lumley, McNeil, Herschell, & Bahl, 2002; Pianta &
Caldwell, 1990). This finding is hypothesized to reflect
basic gender differences in the developmental trajectory of
behavior problems (Campbell, 2002; Qi & Kaiser, 2003). In
other research, gender differences are explained by social
learning theory. For example, Fagot and Hagan (1985)
found that whereas aggressive behavior in preschool girls
was ignored by peers and adults, it was reinforced in boys.
Further, Martin and Fabes (2001) suggest that girls and
boys manifest behavioral difficulties as a function of the
differential reinforcement of their behavior in sex-segre-
gated peer groups. The present study findings may reflect a
combination of basic gender differences in early behavioral
adjustment as well as differences in environmental contin-
gencies for boys’ and girls’ behavior.
Kindergarten Longitudinal Model
The kindergarten longitudinal findings extend the literature
by examining the influence of preschool situational prob-
lems on peer social competence across the transition to kin-
dergarten. Accounting for child demographic covariates,
significant direct and indirect effects were found in the pre-
diction of kindergarten peer social competence. In the lon-
gitudinal model, effects represented unique effects, partialed
for the effect of preschool peer social competence (Pedhazur,
1997); findings suggested that the influence of preschool
situational problems on kindergarten social competence
were mediated by the level of preschool social competence.
The strongest direct path was found between preschool
problems in peer interaction and kindergarten play disrup-
tion. Two other direct paths were found: (a) problems in peer
interaction predicted greater kindergarten play disconnec-
tion, and (b) problems in structured learning predicted lower
kindergarten play interaction. Perhaps most interesting, two
significant indirect paths were also identified. Preschool
problems in peer interactions indirectly predicted greater
kindergarten play disruption through its effect on play dis-
ruption at the end of preschool. This suggests that the initial
effects of preschool problems in peer interactions were par-
tially mediated by persistent disruptive play difficulties
across the transition into kindergarten. In addition, although
there were no significant direct effects between preschool
problems in structured learning and kindergarten play dis-
connection, problems in structured learning indirectly pre-
dicted greater kindergarten play disconnection through its
effect on preschool play disconnection. These findings are
consistent with the literature suggesting that problematic
peer behavior in early childhood is relatively stable over
time (Howes et al., 2000; Keane & Calkins, 2004).
The present study advances the knowledge base by
examining the longitudinal influence of problems in peer
situations on peer social competence at the end of kinder-
garten for a representative sample of urban low-income
children. This extends extant early childhood research con-
ducted with predominantly White, middle-class samples.
Such research supports our findings and underscores the
negative influence of problems within interpersonal class-
room contexts, such as peer interactions, on children’s
social adjustment in kindergarten (Buhs & Ladd, 2001;
Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Ladd & Burgess, 2001). This
study is the first of its kind to examine emotional and
behavioral problems in dynamic transaction within impor-
tant preschool ecological contexts (classroom situations)
and determine their direct and indirect influence across the
transition to kindergarten. Of note, the most salient predic-
tor of poor kindergarten peer social competence was behav-
ior problems in preschool peer interactions. Even after
accounting for the effects preschool disruptive play, the
negative influence of early situational problems in peer
interactions persistently predicted kindergarten disruptive
play. A similar indirect path held for problems within pre-
school peer interactions in the prediction of kindergarten
disconnected play. It is clear that children with difficulties
navigating the interpersonal demands of peer interactions
early in preschool are at great risk for future difficulties as
they transition into kindergarten. Extant research supports
this finding that young children who exhibit problems par-
ticipating in classroom peer interactions are less likely to
develop positive peer relationships and more likely to
exhibit poor school adjustment (Keane & Calkins, 2004;
Ladd et al., 1999; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003).
The present study also documents the persistent negative
influence of problems within socially mediated classroom
learning situations in preschool on kindergarten peer social
competence. Prior research established this relation within
the preschool year (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2008), but the
present study extends this work by examining outcomes

204 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
across the transition into public school kindergarten. Children
with difficulties engaging in socially mediated learning expe-
riences early in the preschool year continued to exhibit diffi-
culties engaging and connecting with peers at the end of
kindergarten. This finding further underscores the social
nature of learning in preschool. It is clear that the ability to
engage successfully in preschool learning activities requires
not only cognitive but also social and emotional skills (e.g.,
emotional regulation, initiative, motivation, attention; Zigler
& Bishop-Josef, 2006). Participation in routine preschool
structured learning situations (e.g., attending or sitting during
teacher-directed activities, engaging in circle time, or learn-
ing games with others) requires and promotes skills neces-
sary not only for learning but also for active engagement in
rich, interactive peer experiences.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
The present study contributes to the knowledge base by
empirically documenting the differential and persistent
relations between behavior problems in classroom social
and learning situations and peer social competence for low-
income children across the transition to kindergarten.
However, our study has several qualifications. Although
power analyses indicated that we had sufficient sample size
to detect significant differences and we used FIML estima-
tion procedures to take best advantage of all available data
at each time point, it is important to acknowledge that the
sample size for the kindergarten longitudinal model was
small. A common problem in longitudinal studies, there
were a number of kindergarten students who were not
assessed by teachers within the large, urban school district
program. Fortunately, analyses revealed that the kindergar-
ten sample did not differ significantly from the original
sample, nor did it differ from children who were followed
into kindergarten on any demographic or preschool assess-
ment scores. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge
that these samples might differ in regard to other variables
that were not included in this study. Per Widaman (2006),
future studies should aim to decrease attrition levels or
investigate a more exhaustive list of variables that could
relate to missingness.
A second qualification related to the sample involves the
potential for nesting effects. Path estimates (both indirect
and direct effects) do not take into account the fact that chil-
dren are nested within classrooms (in preschool and kinder-
garten) and that some of the variance currently assigned to
child-level behavioral factors may be occurring at the class-
room level. However, because, on average, 2 to 4 children
participated from each of the 73 Head Start classrooms
(averaging 2.6 children per classroom) and by kindergarten
the follow-up children were dispersed across 125 class-
rooms (modal number of 1 child per classroom), we
hypothesized that any nesting effects would be minimized.
Also, because multilevel model indirect estimators are fully
dependent on the number of observations within clusters
(classrooms; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002), we chose the cur-
rent path analysis as the most appropriate to test this study’s
hypotheses. Future studies employing larger samples should
employ multilevel strategies to replicate present findings.
Our study also relied on teacher reports of early classroom
emotional and behavioral adjustment and peer social compe-
tence. We specifically chose teacher report measures of
classroom behavior that were validated for this population
of low-income preschool children (Rogers, 1998; U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS],
2002); research indicates that when rating children’s
behavior within the classroom context, teachers are the most
appropriate and efficient source for accurate, summative
observations of children’s behavior (McDermott, 1986). In
large, municipal programs, teacher reports are often the most
efficient method for assessing children’s behavior on the
large scale (McDermott, 1986). However, to substantiate
findings, future studies can incorporate assessments of chil-
dren’s behavior from additional sources (e.g., parents, teacher
assistants, or independent raters) and across different con-
texts (e.g. home; American Psychological Association, 1999;
Lidz, 2003; Nuttal, Romero, & Kalesnik, 1999).
As well, future studies can incorporate measures of other
important school-readiness domains as recommended by
the National Education Goals Panel (Kagan, Moore, &
Bredekamp, 1995; such as literacy, numeracy, and
approaches to learning). In fact, there is a growing body of
research identifying the influence of classroom behavior
problems on children’s approaches to learning (Domínguez
& Greenfield, 2009; Fantuzzo et al., 2005; McWayne &
Cheung, 2009), which has been cited as one of the least
understood but perhaps most critical component of school
readiness (Kagan et al., 1995). Little research exists that
examines the influence of behavior problems within spe-
cific classroom situations and this important readiness com-
petency. Future studies can examine the direct relationship
between preschool situational problems and approaches to
learning, as well as examine preschool approaches to learn-
ing as a potential mediating variable in the prediction of
other dimensions of readiness.
Although our study employed an ecological framework
for studying children’s behavior problems within the proxi-
mal classroom context, a large body of research suggests the
influence of many sociodemographic factors at multiple eco-
logical levels (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Cicchetti &
Toth, 1997). In fact, there is a large body of research identify-
ing multiple risk factors for early behavior problems and peer
social difficulties, particularly for children living in poverty
(Campbell, 1995; Garbarino, 1995). Unfortunately, data on
other child demographic covariates (e.g., poverty, health

Bulotsky-Shearer et al. 205
status, primary language) or on other ecological contexts
(e.g., neighborhood, family, or classroom) were not reliably
available from the school district to incorporate in the present
study. For example, recent studies with a predominantly
African American, urban Head Start population in fact have
demonstrated that both school- and home-based involvement
are salient predictors of student learning and classroom
behavioral adjustment within the preschool year (Fantuzzo,
McWayne, et al., 2004). Future studies should incorporate
these variables to examine whether other sociodemographic
factors might account for some of our findings.
Finally, future research can examine alternate models
with regard to the temporal influence of emotional and
behavioral problems on children’s peer social competence
and other relevant readiness competencies. Our theoretical
model assumed early social emotional adjustment predicted
children’s peer social competence, and the temporal design
of our study allowed us to test this relation empirically.
However, there is a growing body of developmental theory
and research highlighting the dynamic and integrative
nature of multiple domains of children’s school readiness
skills (Snow, 2007). This research provides support for the
overlapping nature of children’s skills across developmen-
tal domains (McWayne & Cheung, 2009; McWayne,
Fantuzzo, & McDermott, 2004). Although the temporal
structure of our data did not allow us to examine potential
bidirectional influences between children’s classroom
behavioral adjustment and peer social competence, future
studies can examine such relations.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Fundamental to reliable, early identification of problem
behavior is our understanding of the dynamic context within
which behavioral problems emerge for young children liv-
ing in poverty. Our findings indicated that if problems
occurred in peer or socially mediated classroom learning
situations, these mattered for children’s peer social compe-
tence across the transition to kindergarten. It is critical that
not pathological but rather developmentally and contextu-
ally relevant tools such the ASPI situational dimensions be
used to identify problems where learning occurs in early
childhood educational settings (Merrell & Walker, 2004). If
not identified early on, behavioral problems within critical
classroom contexts can have persistent negative effects on
children’s social adjustment across the transition to formal
schooling.
Our study is responsive to national priorities to meet the
mental health needs of vulnerable populations. These call
for (a) expanding the availability of developmentally and
contextually appropriate assessment tools and (b) increas-
ing intervention capacity within naturalistic contexts (such
as the classroom or school; McLearn, Knitzer, & Carter,
2007; USDHHS, 2001). In many underresourced commu-
nity-based programs, capacity for intervention is limited
and referrals for psychological evaluations can take many
months (Cooper et al., 2008). Head Start is in a unique and
strategic position within the community to respond to the
mental health needs of low-income children (Fantuzzo
et al., 2003), and Head Start is committed to a developmen-
tal-ecological approach to fostering both children’s preaca-
demic and social skills.
Head Start teachers can use the ASPI situational dimen-
sions to identify the most challenging classroom situations
where problems are most likely to influence children’s
social competence. Teachers can identify classroom situa-
tions where behavior problems are emerging and provide
targeted emotional support and intentional instruction. This
ecological approach shifts the focus of intervention from a
more traditional psychological consultation focus on “fix-
ing” the individual child to “making the larger system
work” (e.g., changing the classroom situation to better fit
the capacities of the child; Evans & Evans, 1990; Swartz &
Martin, 1997). Professional development can also support
classroom-based intervention efforts by assisting teachers
to: (a) generate strategies to foster specific social and emo-
tional skill sets within peer social contexts, (b) provide
context-specific coaching and individualized instruction to
promote successful engagement in socially mediated learn-
ing activities (McWilliam & Casey, 2008), and (c) modify
the demands of classroom situations to better fit children’s
capabilities.
Finally, our study highlights the importance of focusing
on social and emotional skills in promoting school readi-
ness. Clearly, requisite social-emotional skills are required
for successful navigation of peer play interactions within
the classroom and the establishment of positive relation-
ships with teachers and peers (Raver & Knitzer, 2002). In
this age of educational accountability, policies call for a
narrow focus on traditional academic skills (e.g., literacy
and numeracy) often to the exclusion of foundational social
skills (e.g., No Child Left Behind, Head Start School
Readiness Act of 2005). At the same time, educators voice
greatest concerns for children’s social and emotional needs
that they increasingly are called on to address within the
classroom (Hemmeter, Corso, & Cheatham, 2006; Rimm-
Kaufman, Pianta, & Cox, 2000). A growing body of research
indicates that it is not a zero-sum game—we must recog-
nize and incorporate multiple dimensions of preacademic
skills in our policies directed toward fostering children’s
early school success (Raver & Knitzer, 2002; Thompson &
Raikes, 2007).
Acknowledgments
A special thank you to our collaborators at Prekindergarten Head
Start in the School District of Philadelphia: Directors Jennifer

206 Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 18(4)
Plumer Davis and David Silbermann, Assistant Director Stephanie
Childs, Special Needs Coordinator Samuel Mosca, and many
other staff members and families who made this study possible. A
special acknowledgment to Maria Llabre for her statistical assis-
tance and collegial support in the preparation of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect
to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research and/or authorship of this article: Head Start
Graduate Student Research Scholars grant to Rebecca Bulotsky-
Shearer (90-YD-0104/02) and Heather Rouse (90-YD-0141/01)
from the Administration on Children, Youth, and Families, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services.
Notes
1.
Five reliable behavioral (phenotypic) dimensions have
also been established: aggressive, oppositional, inattentive/
hyperactive, withdrawn/low energy, and socially reticent
(Lutz, Fantuzzo, & McDermott, 2002). These dimensions
were not included because the focus of this study was on the
three Adjustment Scales for Preschool Intervention (ASPI)
situational dimensions. Each of the five dimensions demon-
strated adequate internal consistency, with Cronbach alpha
coefficients of .92, .78, .79, .85, and .79, respectively. They
have been well validated with constructs of interactive peer
play, behavior problems, temperament, emotion regulation,
and direct observations of classroom behavior problems
(Bulotsky-Shearer & Fantuzzo, 2004) and end-of-the-year
preschool competencies including interactive peer play, class-
room learning competencies, and receptive language skills
(Fantuzzo, Bulotsky, McDermott, Mosca, & Lutz, 2003). Cor-
relations between observed classroom behavior during free
play and circle time and ASPI dimensions ranged from .38
to .25 and multivariate canonical correlations with measures
of temperament (.92–.32), emotional regulation (.63–.99),
and the Conner’s Teacher Rating Scale (.92–.52). The ASPI
behavioral dimensions also demonstrate adequate discrimi-
nant validity (e.g., sensitivity and specificity) and well differ-
entiate children with behavioral needs from those with more
adaptive behavior (Fantuzzo et al., 2003).
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About the Authors
Rebecca J. Bulotsky-Shearer, PhD, is an assistant professor in the
Psychology Department, Child Division, at the University of Miami.
Her research interests include ecological assessment of preschool
emotional and behavioral adjustment and relations between class-
room behavior and school readiness for Head Start children.
Ximena Domínguez, MSEd, MS, is a doctoral student in the
Psychology Department at the University of Miami. Her research
interests include early social and emotional development, class-
room learning behaviors, and classroom-level processes that pro-
mote early learning.
Elizabeth R. Bell, BA, is a doctoral student in the Psychology
Department at the University of Miami. Her research interests
include understanding the social environment of the preschool
classroom and its relationship to early social and emotional devel-
opment as well as school readiness competencies.
Heather L. Rouse, PhD, is a research associate at the University
of Pennsylvania and research director for the Kids Integrated Data
System. Her research interests include early childhood risk and
protective factors for populations of vulnerable children.
John W. Fantuzzo, PhD, is the Albert M. Greenfield Professor of
Human Relations at the University of Pennsylvania. Interests
include early childhood education and Head Start.