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Alternate Research Paradigms: A Review and Teaching Proposal
Abstract
This article reviews the major paradigms that are different from the positivistic research tradition of reductive experimentation and presents an approach to teaching these paradigms in graduate counseling psychology programs. Arguments and issues related to broadening reductive-positivist conceptions of research are first summarized. Three alternate paradigms, (a) the naturalistic-ethnographic, (b) the phenomenological, and (c) the cybernetic, as well as other high-context approaches are described. Each paradigm is presented in terms of its conceptual base, methodological characteristics, applications, types of research questions it can address, and its strengths and limitations. A curriculum for teaching these alternate paradigms as an extension of standard research courses is proposed. The teaching philosophy, teaching-learning mechanisms, instructional resources, and observations from past experiences of implementation are given. It is argued that such teaching would promote students 'epistemic development and more informed method choices, as well as facilitate the integration of theory, research, and practice.
... They mirror the controversy that still raises heated arguments in some academic communities; in spite of consistent calls for acceptance of alternative forms of research in the social sciences (e.g. Hoshmand, 1989;McLeod, 2001;Rennie, 1999), some scholars do not 463 The Qualitative Report September 2003 consider qualitative research equal to traditional methods (Rennie, 1999). For others, study of what has become the main alternative to quantitative research (McLeod, 2000) causes a powerful connection to the research process and opens the door to generation of new research questions (McLeod, 2001). ...
... Nevertheless, this acceptance has not been without controversy. Fields that have relied heavily on studies based on quantitative measures have been slower to embrace this alternative paradigm (Hoshmand, 1989;McLeod, 2000). This situation may be based on lack of understanding that the essential purpose of qualitative inquiry is to address different questions and to answer them in different ways (Hoshmand, 1989;Ponterotto & Grieger, 1999). ...
... Fields that have relied heavily on studies based on quantitative measures have been slower to embrace this alternative paradigm (Hoshmand, 1989;McLeod, 2000). This situation may be based on lack of understanding that the essential purpose of qualitative inquiry is to address different questions and to answer them in different ways (Hoshmand, 1989;Ponterotto & Grieger, 1999). It is not simply a different method, but a completely different paradigm that implies a distinctly different world-view, and a different consideration of the sources of truth (Hoshmand, 1989). ...
We describe the experiences and responses of a group of graduate students as they first encountered an in-depth study of qualitative research methods. Four themes emerged as having important contributions: the nature of previous research experiences, personal style and learning preferences, epistemological and philosophical commitments, and assessment of professional viability.
... I discovered that in an effort to capture the richness of human experience, many authors suggested a focus on process, discovery, and ambiguity to complement traditional scientific models (Atkinson, Heath, & Chenail, 1991;Chenail, 1992aChenail, , 1992bEisner & Peshkin, 1990;Guba, 1990;Hoshmand, 1989;Keeney & Morris, 1985a, 1985bLeininger, 1985;Moon, Dillon & Sprenkle, 1990;Schon, 1983). In addition, some researchers specifically addressed the advantages of exploring literary works, music, and the arts as meaningful resources for clinical, research, and evaluation efforts (Chenail, 1992b;Chenail & Fortugno, 1991;Eisner, 1979Eisner, , 1985Greene, 1988;Guba, 1990;Polkinghorne, 1988;Ross, 1988;Schon, 1983). ...
... Statistical evaluation of question and answer sequences has been redressed and interviews have been reconceptualized as discovery-oriented, collaborative conversations or textual narrative patterns that are co-constructed products of communication and meaning between interviewees and interviewers (Guba, 1990;Hoshmand, 1989;Keeney & Morris, 1985a, 1985bMishler, 1986a;1986b;van Maanen, 1983). The open-ended interview has been likened in format to a modern novel, using such literary devices as introspection and retrospection, with parts of the story out of sequence chronologically (Merton, Fiske, & Kendall, 1990;Polkinghorne, 1988). ...
In keeping with new narrative metaphors in the family therapy field and new epistemological approaches to clinical interaction, literature as a paradigm for qualitative inquiry and evaluation is discussed. Description of a research project that explores how fictional literature can be integrated into graduate programs reveals a multi-layered, aesthetic approach to family therapy research and training as well as the design of project-specific methodology (Chenail, 1992a).
... Objectivity is not ass um ed possible, nor eve n desirable, in ethnogra phic resea rch of social and psychological phenomen a. Increasingly, quantitative , researchers have acknowle dged that objectivity m ay be a chimera (cf., Gurman, 1983), alth o u gh the question of how to interpret subjective results remains controversial. Ethnographers address the issu e by trying to incorporate subjec tivity explicitly into their studi es, while traditional experimental researchers try to remove it by controlling threats to internal validity (Hoshmand, 1989). Researche rs incorporate subjectivity into their studies by making their role clear and any known researcher biases explicit when reporting results. ...
... The ethnographer's biases a re therefo re less important than a Jack of awareness of how those biases might dictate questions and category construction. To illustrate how the issue of bias might be handled, the instructo r should show students several ethnogra phies that re port Downloaded by [Florida State University] at 09:25 06 August 2015 potential researcher bias before presenting results ( cf., Elks & Kirkhart, 1993;Hoshmand, 1989;Moon et al., 1990;Sells et al., 1994). ...
... One way to do this is to create your own research curriculum and try it out. Lisa Hoshmand's (1989) paper, "Alterative research paradigms: A review and teaching proposal," is a good starter for any would-be research explorer. Other ways to delve into this are to journey into the deepest, darkest corners of the library, "Scan the stacks" of journals and books, pick a new journal or shelf each day to study, just peruse the pages, and slowly but surely, you will begin to familiarise yourself with these new worlds of research … (Chenail, 1991b, p. 4) Ron: The playfulness in that piece owes something to Brad Keeney who was very playful and encouraged me in this. ...
Dear Readers, we have a question for you: Do you know about the origins and history of the journals you decide to submit your manuscripts to for publication? We are most pleased to present to you an interview with the three Co-Editors-in-Chief of TQR (Ron Chenail, Sally St. George, and Dan Wulff) and David Denborough of the Dulwich Centre delving into the origins of TQR in the early 1990s. The roots of TQR were intertwined with family therapy authors and practitioners (Tom Andersen, Michael White, and many others) and that continues today. We think that you will find these historical relationships and influences to be fascinating and instructive in understanding how one qualitative research journal came into being and how it is positioning itself to go forward. We are using this interview to introduce this special issue on practice-based research, in particular, narrative therapy and research.
... Moving into phenomenological accounts of how these men experienced sex after abstaining from chemsex, enables a more in-depth analysis into the lived experiences of these men which may not have been able to be facilitated by other research into the area by virtue of their epistemologies. By exploring men's experiences of sex after abstinence through qualitative research, I hope that I have been able to provide accounts for the individual and contextual variations amongst the experiences of these men (Hoshmand, 1989;Ponterotto, 2005). I suggest then that the use of IPA in particular, through its use of interpretation and the importance of idiographic accounts, has helped to provide further insight into the participant's nuanced experiences of sex whilst emphasising their individuality (Hoyt & Bhati, 2007;Osborn, 1990). ...
... However, in the 1970s, Goldman [3] began a discussion of the acceptability of quantitative methods for researching psychotherapeutic processes and outcomes. Therefore, there was great enthusiasm for some researchers and therapists in the field of psychotherapy research when they discovered a new qualitative approach to the evaluation of psychotherapy that has its roots in education and anthropology [4,5]. Qualitative research methods in psychotherapy developed in the years that followed. ...
One of the goals of research in the field of psychotherapy is to improve knowledge about processes and outcomes of psychotherapeutic treatments. Researchers and professionals have been discussing the best methods for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of psychotherapeutic treatments for many years. This paper aims to give an overview of the specifics of quantitative and qualitative research methods, by noting the advantages and disadvantages of these methods in the evaluation of psychotherapeutic treatments. Within the quantitative scientific research, three approaches are described: randomized controlled research, mood enhancement by psychoanalytic and cognitive therapies, and meta-analysis. The most common collection methods (observation, interview, other verbal techniques and visual approaches to data collection) and data analysis (comprehensive process analysis, consensual qualitative research and grounded theory) are described within a qualitative scientific methodology. Finally, an approach related to integration of qualitative and quantitative methodology, as well as this related with application of case studies in the evaluation of psychotherapeutic treatments are described. Scientists and professionals in the field of social sciences should use both quantitative and qualitative research methods, separately or in combination, depending on the goal and problems of the research.
... Unlike the quantitative methodological emphasis in the school of positivism, research that uses critical theories often has a methodological emphasis on a dialogic/dialectical approach [57] Researchers who use critical theories would likely employ qualitative methods, which are inductive and without predetermined hypotheses [58]. They would likely ask different questions than positivists, and those questions would be addressed in alternative ways [59][60][61]. For example, the what, how, or why of phenomena are asked rather than how many or how much [54] and this provides insights into the dimensions of experience, and helps to add to the completeness of answers to the questions that are asked [61,62]. ...
Feminist political economy of health is a term that has emerged as a result of research that has combined and connected a feminist political economy lens with a focus on health disparities of women. This paper provides an overview of the literature from the work of feminist medical sociologists and feminist health scholars that have shaped the concept of feminist political economy of health. The analysis indicates that while women have experienced health inequities inside the healthcare system, there are also significant health disparities that are experienced outside the healthcare system due to women’s social, economic, political, and cultural conditions. Given that there are dual crises with respect to the COVID-19 pandemic as well as social movements pushing for change, further work that uses intersectional approaches is advocated.
... In such an "alternative research paradigm" (Hoshmand, 1989), there is a shift away from reliance on the more traditional, empirical scientific method. So it followed that the separation into operational definition, theory testing, and verification designed to separate data from their context is inverted into an investigation initiated with a passionate yet disciplined commitment of the self as investigator. ...
... This entailed connecting the themes of our conversations and an evolving narrative understanding with a respect for discovery and ambiguity (Anderson & Goolishian, 1991;Robinson & Hawpe, 1986). The cooperative nature of my project encompassed collaboration between participants and myself, creating textual narrative patterns for analysis (Hoshmand, 1989;Kvale, 1987;Mishler, 1986). ...
... One way to do this is to create your own research curriculum and try it out. Lisa Hoshmand's (1989) paper, "Alternative research paradigms: A review and teaching proposal," is a good starter for any would-be research explorer. Other ways to delve into this area is to journey into the deepest, darkest corners of the library, "scan the stacks" of journals and books, pick a new journal or shelf each day to study, just peruse the pages, and slowly but surely, you will begin to familiarize yourself with these new worlds of research. ...
... These unique contexts (i.e., action-oriented/problem-solving focus and recursiveness between therapist/client and researcher/subject relationships) allows for clinical qualitative researchers to contribute different methods and theories to the scientific-artistic conversations, and conversely, to learn from the non-clinical communities. In recent years, interactions between therapists and qualitative researchers have increased dramatically in a number of the clinical fields: psychology (e.g., Hoshmand, 1989;Neimeyer & Resinkoff, 1982;Stones, 1985), social work (e.g., Allen-Meares & Lane, 1990), nursing (e.g., Leininger, 1985), and family therapy (e.g., Atkinson, Heath, & Chenail, 1991;Moon, Dillon, & Sprenkle, 1990, but despite these attempts at integration, there still persists a clinical style of qualitative inquiry or reflection which remains unique and distinct from the scientific and artistic varieties. This type of clinical approach to research can be seen clearly in the field of family therapy through a number of well-known clinical projects. ...
For the most part, that which is called qualitative research has been developed, understood, and justified within scientific and quantitative contexts. Sharing common interests (e.g., description, interpretation, criticism, subjectivity, etc.) with this scientific qualitative research are two contrasting traditions of research and practice, which have originated and evolved in domains of inquiry other than science and technology, namely those methods and ways of knowing from the arts and humanities, and from the clinical fields. This latter type, clinical qualitative or practitioner-generated research, is defined and contrasted with the scientific and artistic varieties. A number of clinical qualitative research projects are presented from the field of family therapy, which demonstrate how clinical inquiry may be conducted from a therapist's way of acting and knowing, or may be focused on learning more about a therapist's way of practicing and thinking in the world. Finally, implications of conducting clinical qualitative research or practitioner-generated inquiry in traditional research environments is discussed.
... Among various issues and concerns, philosophical, epistemological, and ideological concerns are the primary focus of many qualitative researchers (Hammersley, 2009;Smith & Hodkinson, 2009). QLR is a different paradigm that denotes a distinctly diverse world-view and a diverse source of truth (Hoshmand, 1989). Besides, undertaking a QLR above all else is a person-centered enterprise and can be specifically appropriate to the work in the field of language teaching. ...
The main objective of this paper is to explore the insights and experiences of ELT (English Language Teaching) faculty members regarding the challenges of conducting QR in the Iranian higher education context. This study is qualitative, with its data obtained from semi-structured interviews with 20 ELT faculty members to gain their standpoints regarding possible challenges faced in qualitative studies. For analyzing the collected data, the recorded interviews were transcribed and then the grounded theory approach was employed. The results showed that the main possible challenges of conducting QR from ELT faculty members’ perspectives consisted of the dominance of positivism in the Iranian higher education context, paper publication, absence of QR course in postgraduate ELT syllabus, interpretation and analysis of data, dedicating a long time conducting QR, and writing proficiency. Most of the participants of the present study believed that the main reason for QR underdevelopment in academic setting is the Iranian higher education policies, and some of them stated that professors’ professional tastes and personal interests determined the research trend in the Iran higher educationsystem
... 80. gados tika apspriesti jautājumi par konsultatīvās psiholoģijas pētījumu paradigmu dažādību. Konsultatīvajiem psihologiem tiek rekomendēts biežāk savā darbā izmantot kvalitatīvas pētījuma metodes (Hill, Gronsky, 1984;Hoshmand, 1989;Howard, 1984;Polkinghorne, 1984). Tomēr Pētnieciskā grupa (Research Group) konferencē Atlantā rekomendēja un atzina visu metodoloģijas un pētījumu veidu izmantošanu konsultatīvajā psiholoģijā (Gelso et al., 1988). ...
... Goldman's (1976) influential article was followed by further calls for methodological pluralism appearing in JCP (Polkinghorne, 1984) and TCP (Neimeyer & Resnikoff, 1982). In time, both journals would publish special sections or entire special issues on the importance of balancing quantitative research with a variety of qualitative approaches (Carter & Morrow, 2007a, 2007bHaverkamp, Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2005;Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997;Hoshmand, 1989). More recently, scholars have noted that the flexibility inherent in qualitative approaches allows us to capture the nuances of experience within culturally diverse communities and to decolonize our counseling practices (Fine & Cross, 2016;French et al., 2019). ...
In the new millennium, counseling psychologists have answered the call to address oppression related to intersectional identities. We have played a major role in the development of practice guidelines and policies, as well as in the application of ethical principles in cultural contexts. The Counseling Psychologist has served to disseminate information addressing needs and interventions for diverse communities. In this article, we review the history and impact of our efforts to ameliorate oppression. The pressing challenges of economic and educational disparities are highlighted along with how counseling psychologists are uniquely situated to meet the needs of the underserved. Our research, training, and practice are anchored in methodological pluralism, global helping paradigms, participatory engagement, and the promotion of liberation and radical healing. We offer recommendations to deconstruct current models and reconstruct a decolonized approach, embrace interdisciplinary collaboration to fight cultural encapsulation, strengthen prevention and advocacy, train a culturally diverse workforce, and prioritize intersectional research.
... This could be partly due to difficulties in modeling career development as a measurable variable that can be optimized as well as difficulties in enhancing career development opportunities without compromising the construction crew's productivity. The existing literature on career development opportunities in workforce planning is mainly limited to (1) qualitative models of career interests, choice, and development (Holland 1985(Holland , 1997Parsons 1909;Peterson et al. 1991;Lent et al. 1994;Brown 1995Brown , 2002b, and (2) theoretical propositions such as psychological theory of work adjustment (Dawis and Lofquist 1984), developmental theory of occupational aspirations (Gottfredson 1981), social learning theory of career decision making (CDM) (Mitchell 1974;Krumboltz et al. 1979), and theories rooted in logical positivism and social constructionism (Collin and Young 1986;Hoshmand and Tsoi 1989;Wilber 1989). To address this gap in knowledge, this paper presents an innovative mathematical model for multiobjective optimization of task allocation to workers, with two objectives: (1) maximizing career development opportunities available to construction workers, and (2) maximizing the overall productivity of the construction crew. ...
Workforce planning in the construction industry too often ignores the symbiotic relationship between employee and employer objectives by overly concentrating on corporate objectives such as maximizing productivity at the expense of construction workers' career development needs. Overall, the consequence of this approach is suboptimal performance. To address this problem, this paper presents an innovative multiobjective model that enables managers to optimize the relationship between these interdependent corporate priorities. The proposed model was implemented and solved using mixed-integer nonlinear programming on a case study involving the allocation of tasks to employees with different skill levels in a multidisciplinary engineering consulting company. While leading to a small loss of productivity, the results show a significant improvement in the career development of workers compared to conventional productivity-oriented workforce planning models, with on average 8.6% improvement in employees' closeness to their ideal skill set. Furthermore, the model produced Pareto-optimal points and a Pareto curve that enabled client-model users to select optimum job allocation based on their preferences. This research represents a paradigm shift toward a new class of socially responsible workforce planning models in which the objectives of both employees and employers are optimized.
... Como el presente artículo es derivado de una investigación cualitativa la cual es particularmente recomendada para hallar resultados significativos en el comportamiento que las personas conceden a sus experiencias (Hoshmand, 1989;Polkinghorne, 1991), el método seleccionado será la revisión de material existente y referentes en fuentes secundarias, lo que permitirá identificar el entendimiento de los empresarios que serán abordados acerca de sus experiencias culturales (Glaser, 1978), concepción de hipótesis de trabajo o afirmaciones (Erickson, 1986) de los datos y análisis de narrativas de los participantes y sus percepciones. Como instrumento de recolección de información las entrevistas a empresarios del sector turístico en el departamento (Savin-Baden y Major, 2013), el análisis de documentos, registros y artefactos sobre el tema. ...
... 3. The summaries of each interview were read to determine existing patterns. This process is referred to as the hermeneutic circle, and has been described as a spiral or reflexive process through which investigators seek to uncover progressively deeper levels of meaning in a text (Hoshmand, 1989;Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009;Polkinghorne, 1984). ...
American Indian tribes face the phenomenon known across the world as the brain drain. They invest millions of dollars in educating their members only to have little return on their investment. Many nation members leave reservations to get postsecondary education but never return. Those who get education off the reservation and choose to return are the exception to this rule. Although there is an abundance of literature regarding brain drain across the world, there has been little research done with American Indians. In order to begin to understand the brain drain phenomenon, this study analyzed unstructured qualitative interviews with 17 Navajo Nation members who left their reservation, obtained a degree, and returned to work on the reservation. Themes resulting from the hermeneutic analysis of transcribed interviews were (a) Family Support, (b) Community, (c) Cultural Identity, (d) the Simple Life, (e) Reservation Economy, and (f) Commitment to the Reservation. The analysis found that constant, lengthy, and meaningful relationships were motivating factors in drawing participants back to contribute to their reservations. Further study is needed to understand how communities and tribes can ensure that these relationships are built and maintained.
... Como el presente artículo es derivado de una investigación cualitativa la cual es particularmente recomendada para hallar resultados significativos en el comportamiento que las personas conceden a sus experiencias (Hoshmand, 1989;Polkinghorne, 1991), el método seleccionado será la revisión de material existente y referentes en fuentes secundarias, lo que permitirá identificar el entendimiento de los empresarios que serán abordados acerca de sus experiencias culturales (Glaser, 1978), concepción de hipótesis de trabajo o afirmaciones (Erickson, 1986) de los datos y análisis de narrativas de los participantes y sus percepciones. Como instrumento de recolección de información las entrevistas a empresarios del sector turístico en el departamento (Savin-Baden y Major, 2013), el análisis de documentos, registros y artefactos sobre el tema. ...
El escenario empresarial existente en este tiempo le propone a las compañías el reto de coexistir en el ambiente de sistemas organizacionales asociados, específicamente para las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas, y su aporte al crecimiento de la región. Esta situación ha despertado inquietud en los investigadores por analizar este tejido empresarial a partir de su impacto en la ejecución de las firmas. A partir del anterior raciocinio, este artículo analiza el impacto que genera el vínculo existente entre empresas y el establecimiento en relación a los procesos de creatividad empresarial en los municipios del departamento de Cundinamarca (Colombia). El presente documento es empírico y los resultados obtenidos forman parte de la construcción del marco teórico que da sustento a la investigación que la genera. El producto de este trabajo muestra que los lazos que vinculan a las organizaciones empresariales analizadas con el fin de llevar a cabo acciones de Investigación y Desarrollo y transmisión de conocimientos, contribuyen de manera provechosa al crecimiento de las organizaciones.
Este trabajo forma parte de una revisión bibliográfica de investigación que posteriormente se consolidará como una propuesta de mayor impacto y relevancia para el sector objeto de estudio.
... Qualitative research methods are the most appropriate for understanding the quality and types of information regarding the subjects' worldview. This study utilized a modified grounded theory approach (Straus & Corbin, 1998), which focuses on description and discovery, rather than theory testing or verifications (Hoshmand, 1989). Using qualitative methods of observation and interviews, data is presented in the context of participant's experience, adding richness and credibility to the results. ...
A primary goal of Juvenile Treatment Courts is participant abstention from the use of alcohol and drugs. The present paper seeks to understand the role of social networks in participant abstention by examining the accounts of peer interactions of 37 current and former youth participants in New York State. This qualitative study found that while severing deviant network ties were involved in abstention in some cases, the dominant theme was the perceived protective role of emotionally close, albeit drug using, peers in supporting abstention. Although most cognitively based adolescent chemical abuse treatment programs explore the role of social networks in youth chemical use and abuse, the findings that youth in Juvenile Treatment Court programs have continued exposure to drugs and alcohol through interaction with their social networks suggest that social network interactions also enter into the discourse taking place within Juvenile Treatment Court settings.
... The used methodology consists of a qualitative research which is particularly recommended to find significant results in behavior that people attach to their experiences (Hoshmand, 1989;) Polkinghorne, 1991). The selected methodology will identify the understanding of employers who will be approached about their cultural experiences (Glaser, 1978), conception of working hypotheses or statements (Erickson, 1986) of data and analysis of narratives of the participants and their perceptions. ...
El Clúster Como Modelo de red Empresarial, una alternativa para la competitividad del subsector del turismo en Colombia. Título en inglés The Cluster as model of network business, an alternative to the competitiveness of the Colombia tourism subsector. Abstract The stage business and existing at this time development proposes to companies the challenge function and coexist in the environment of organizational systems partner, thanks to its impact on the business development, specifically for the micro, small and medium-sized enterprises, and their contribution to the growth of the region. This situation has aroused concern in scholars and researchers to analyze this business from its impact on the execution of the signatures. From the above reasoning, this paper analyzes the impact generated by the link between the companies and the establishment in relation to processes of entrepreneurial creativity in the municipalities of the Department of Cundinamarca (Colombia). The paper for this research is empirical and the results are part of the construction of the theoretical framework that gives support to research that generates it. The product resulting from this work shows that ties linking business organizations analyzed in order to carry out research and development and transfer of knowledge, within the framework of associations of entrepreneurs, contribute helpful fashion to the improvement and growth of organizations.
... cybernetic, naturalist-ethnographic, and phenomenological (Hoshmand, 1989). ...
... The 12 transcribed interviews served as the database for the qualitative analysis. The data analysis was similar to the one used in the original 6-year study (Skovholt & R0nnestad, 1995 ), which consisted of a qualitative, inductive method of inquiry (Hoshmand, 1989; Patton, 1990 ) and an adaptation of the "constant comparative method of analyses" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The data processing consisted of the following two phases: Phase 1, in which we (the authors) individually read the transcriptions, then selected and highlighted sections of meaning, and Phase 2, in which we jointly selected and organized content into domains reflecting sources of influence for professional development. ...
What can senior practitioners teach other practitioners about teaming arenas for professional development? Four primary teaming arenas were identified after a qualitative inquiry of 12 psychotherapists, averaging 74 years in age. The 4 teaming arenas are early life experience, cumulative professional experience, interaction with professional elders, and experiences in adult personal life. The results indicate that profound experiences in any of these primary arenas can radically affect the professional work of the practitioner. To develop optimally, the practitioner needs to continually process and reflect on experiences in both personal and professional life domains.
... La metodología utilizada corresponde a una investigación cualitativa la cual es particularmente recomendada para hallar resultados significativos en el comportamiento que las personas conceden a sus experiencias (Hoshmand, 1989;Polkinghorne, 1991). La metodología seleccionada permitirá identificar el entendimiento de los empresarios que serán abordados acerca de sus experiencias culturales (Glaser, 1978), concepción de hipótesis de trabajo o afirmaciones (Erickson, 1986) de los datos y aanálisis de narrativas de los participantes y sus percepciones. ...
Recientemente los clusters has sido objeto de estudio y su percepción se ha acondicionado a los retos que formula el entorno competitivo de las empresas. Inicialmente, puede asumirse que es conveniente la promoción del concepto clúster independientemente de cual sea la intención de los empresarios, pero el escenario real es bien distinto y deben de valorarse varias circunstancias, más allá el análisis meramente particular sino teniendo en cuenta el escenario regional donde se va a implementar. Se precisa determinar los elementos, componentes de los servicios turísticos existentes y, después, establecer las relaciones a través del uso de instrumentos, donde se determinen los valores agregados de las distintas clases de turismo. Identificadas las clases, se armonizará con los servicios turísticos habituales. Después, se identificarán las potencialidades empresariales de Cundinamarca en su contexto y como se pueden articular dichas potencialidades con la dinámica departamental de competitividad. Abstract: Recently the clusters have been studied and their perception has conditioned the challenges formulated by the competitive environment of companies. Initially, you can assume that convenient is the promotion of the cluster concept regardless of the intention of the entrepreneurs, but the real scenario is very different and should be evaluated several circumstances, beyond the analysis merely particular but taking into account the stage regional where you will implement. He is required to determine the components of existing tourist services and, later, to establish the relations through the use of instruments, where determined values added of different kinds of tourism. Identified kinds, it will harmonize with the usual tourist services. Later, the business potential of Cundinamarca are identified
... A qualitative methodology was used in this study because this is considered by methodologists tobe the most effective means of analysis in the exploratory phases of investigation (Hoshmand, 1989;McLeod, 1996;Patton, 1990). In particular, the consensual qualitative research (CQR) methodology developed by Hill, Thompson, and Williams (1997) was selected for the data analysis. ...
This study examines the professional strengths and limitations of psychotherapists in South Korea as reported by themselves. Open-ended responses from 371 Korean psychotherapists from the Collaborative Research Network: International Study of Development of Psychotherapists (CRN: ISDP) (Bae, Joo, & Orlinsky, 2003; Joo, Bae, & Orlinsky, 2003; Orlinsky et. al., 1999) were analyzed using the consensual qualitative research (CQR) methodology developed by Hill, Thompson, and Williams (1997). Responses to two questions, 1) What do you feel is your greatest strength as a therapist; 2) What do you feel is your most problematic limitation as a therapist? were examined. From the answers to each of these questions, themes and core ideas were obtained. Several suggestions for the development of psychotherapists are offered.
... Thus the qualitative method allowed for an "alternate research paradigm"; a shift away from reliance on the more traditional, empirical scientific methods that allowed the researcher to become the instrument through which research was conducted by enlisting the efforts of co-researchers, who were the heart attack survivors interviewed (Hoshmand, 1989). Second, the qualitative method allowed for insight into the very essence of the neutral zone by engaging survivors in spirited dialogue. ...
Traditional counselling theories have frequently been criticised for their lack of multicultural relevance, yet even today many UK counsellors assume a prevailing white (and middle class) culture. This summary of research findings in multicultural counselling has had to rely entirely on evidence from the USA, since to my knowledge very little comparable work has been done in this country.
This section gives a brief overview of the current research, emphasizing its lack of agreed findings and the limitations in methodology. It then focuses on three major questions, asking whether counsellor race/ ethnicity, explicit multicultural counsellor education and current research affect the counselling process and outcome.
N 215 9 The detailed objectives of the chapter are to: • present a brief history describing how the idea of philosophical research paradigms (and essential attributes of those paradigms) were converted from dualisms into continua; • present a brief history describing how the QUAN-QUAL method-ological dichotomy (and its constituent components) was converted into a set of QUAN-MM-QUAL methodological continua; • present the multidimensional model of research methodology and describe its constituent parts as illustrated in Figure 9.2; • describe in more detail the philosophical continuum in the model; • describe in more detail the methodological continuum in the model;
A student submission using discourse analysis
The therapeutic contract is an important aspect of the counseling process. However, it has received limited research interest, especially in the person-centered community. The objective of this qualitative study was to examine the perceptions and use of therapeutic contracts of seven experienced, person-centered therapists in Greece. A grounded theory design was chosen to guide the analysis of the data that were collected through semi-structured interviews. The emergent theoretical model was conceptualized as a system organized around the core category of ‘Forming a Safe – Attuned Framework’, which included the key-categories ‘Coordination game’, ‘Boundary setting’, and ‘Equal relationship’. Data analysis also revealed the contextual input of the ‘Therapist’s characteristics’ and the contextual output of the ‘Client consequences’. The emergent theory suggests that experienced person-centered therapists utilize therapeutic contracts in the first session with a new client in order to create a safe environment in which they can work cooperatively and develop their relationship. This process is guided by specific characteristics of the therapists (e.g. their sense of professional identity), and leads to various positive consequences for clients (e.g. facilitating their personal freedom). The study has important implications for practicing professionals, as well as for the training of new person-centered therapists.
This study investigates how analysts approach the task of initially categorizing qualitative data, what analysis strategies increase or decrease the testimonial validity of the categories, whether the data should be presented as a whole or in meaningful units, the effects of analysts' familiarity with the material, and the cognitive strategies associated with testimonial validity judgments. 30 upper level undergraduates (aged 19–42 yrs) analyzed essay data for "themes" while engaged in a think-aloud task. The essay writers then ranked the sets of categories in terms of overall quality and rated them on dimensions relevant to testimonial validity while thinking aloud. Think-aloud protocols for the best and worst approaches are examined. Implications for the use of qualitative research methods are discussed.
Although distinctions between theory-driven and naive empirical approaches to research are recognized as valuable, the distinction S. R. Strong (see record 1991-22449-001) makes between them is questionable. An argument is made that the more relevant debate is between qualitative and quantitative approaches to counseling research. Some of the differences between the two approaches, as they relate to Strong's ideas, are presented. A proposal is set forth stating that until a more accurate account of events in counseling is achieved, research that is driven by formal theory is of no greater scientific value than less theoretical approaches.
Counseling psychologists' aversion to theory-driven science and their enthusiasm for naive empiricism impede scientific progress. For the scientist who endorses theory-driven science, causes are emergent entities that arise from the relations among the elements in events, all events are lawful, and the purpose of research is to test and evolve theories. For the scientist who endorses naive empiricism, the causes of events are the essences of the elements in events, only frequent events are lawful, and the purpose of research is to identify regularities from unbiased observations. The consequences of these differences are described in terms of the impossibility of unbiased observation, the importance of theory to give facts meaning, the role of research methods, and the way in which scientific products are applied. The theory-driven science, an unending cycle of discovery and testing creates and evolves theories of ever increasing scope that can guide counseling practice.
T. J. Tracey's (see record 1994-06606-001) 3-stage model of psychotherapy builds on applied psychology's 40-yr fascination with interpersonal personality theory (H. S. Sullivan, 1953). To further the debate on the topic, this article questions some of Tracey's underlying assumptions concerning (1) the nature of therapy and of clients who seek professional help and (2) the value of negative complementarity at any point in treatment. To promote research on the model, the article points out some conceptual and methodological problems in past research and suggests consideration of the use of qualitative methods to isolate clinically meaningful interpersonal change episodes.
Psychotherapy studies published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology ( JCP ) and the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology ( JCCP ) between 1978 and 1992 were examined. Differences were found between the 2 journals. JCP published mostly process, outcome, and analog research, whereas JCCP published mostly outcome research. Most process and process-outcome studies across journals were of individual, brief therapy. Across the years, more diversity was evident in samples used in process research in terms of student status, gender, and race of clients and therapists. Three content areas were prominent in the process measures and classic studies: therapist techniques, therapist influence, and facilitative conditions. Lists are provided of the frequently used measures, most productive authors, and classic studies in process research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Introduction Transformational education involves goals beyond transmission of content and skills. Its expansive goal is to generate reflective, self-critical and self-motivated students who are proficient of criticising and directing independent work open-mindedly and have powerfully developed higher order thinking skills in interpretation, analysis and communication. Transformational pedagogynecessitates a backdrop that encourages and rewards intellectual openness. It incorporatestransparency and authentic partnership between student and teacher. Humbleness becomes an indispensablequality of transformative teacherwho unobtrusivelyis a co-intentional teacher alongside the studentthrough collaborative endeavours and discoveries.
What is phenomenology and how does one practice it? In this chapter I will attempt to answer these two questions in a nontechnical way and will also show that phenomenology is not esoteric but an approach that intuitively makes sense. However, by stating that this approach makes sense intuitively, I do not mean that phenomenology is in accord with common sense, understood as the array of opinions that a group or an individual takes for granted as being self-evidently true, that is, the clichés, prejudices, or assumptions that all of us carry around with us. Rather, by speaking of the intuitive, I am referring to insights or understandings that relate to our immediate experience of the world and of ourselves. Mainstream psychology textbooks also point to how research findings contradict common sense, but imply that our experience of the world is unreliable. In their classic social psychology textbook (1967), Edward Jones and Harold Gerard cite criticisms directed at a large-scale study conducted by Samuel Stouffer and his colleagues of the professional and psychological adjustment of American soldiers during World War II.3 The critics basically argued that the conclusions belabored the obvious. Jones and Gerard also quote at length the spirited defense of such studies by the sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld, who pointed out that many of the conclusions of Stouffer and his colleagues were contrary to what most people would have expected.4
Sixteen licensed psychologists who lived and practiced in rural areas and small communities participated in interviews about ethical dilemmas they faced in daily practice. Dilemmas involving professional boundaries were identified as significant concerns for all of the psychologists. Major themes were the reality of overlapping business relationships, the effects of overlapping relationships on members of the psychologist's own family, and the dilemmas of working with more than 1 family member as clients or with others who have friendships with individual clients. The psychologists knew the content of ethical codes but often struggled in choosing how to apply those codes in the best interest of clients. Ongoing discussions regarding these choices can contribute to the evolution of practice codes applicable to rural areas and other small communities.
Unfortunately the social reality of India continues to be one of widespread deprivation and inequality – one that is difficult for a child or someone who has not acclimatized themselves to it to wrap their minds around. There is necessity for a revolutionary drive for social transformation to challenge and overturn these inequalities, and what allows these inhuman conditions to persist. This paper discusses the possible causes of inequality in Indian society and suggests practical suggestions relating to Paulo Freire's model and methodology. In turn It also stresses on what is needed to enable social transformation is Freirean critical education that equips people to understand the gap between the way the world is and the way the world should be, the reasons for this gap, and the means to act to overcome this gap. Introduction Paulo Freire, the Brazilian educationist, has left a significant mark on thinking about progressive practice. Throughout his life and in his work as an organic intellectual and a philosopher, Freire fought fiercely against social oppression and injustices. His Pedagogy of the Oppressed is currently one of the most quoted educational texts (especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia). Freire was able to draw upon, and weave together, a number of strands of thinking about educational practice and liberation. He devised and tested an education system and a philosophy of education whose educational thrust centers on the human potential for creativity and freedom in the midst of politico-economic and culturally oppressive structures.
This bibliography is a continuation of those published by Berry and Daniel (1984, 1985), Daniel (1981a, 1981b), Fulkerson and Wise (1987), Fulkerson, Wise, and Ancelet (1988), Johnson and Daniel (1974), Morgan and Daniel (1983), Mosely and Daniel (1982), and Wise and Fulkerson (1986, 1989). Search methods, criteria for inclusion, and other considerations were similar to those used previously. We also continued the cumulative numbering practice of previous bibliographies. We included a number of pre-1989 citations not listed in previous bibliographies, because we continue to terminate our search in June. A noteworthy observation about this year’s bibliography concerns the increase in the number of cognitive psychology articles, many of which are difficult to separate from the teaching of psychology.
In addition to the normal health problems encountered in life, racial/ethnic minorities are often subjected to the stressors of minority status in our society. A large body of literature exists indicating that racism is a continuing stressor in the lives of persons of color; that they are subjected to prejudice, bias and discrimination, education, housing, and employment; and that they are more likely to live in poverty (Jones, 1997; President’s Initiative on Race, 1998; D.W. Sue & Sue, 1999; Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999).
A discovery-oriented approach to psychotherapy research relies on discovery-oriented research questions. Four such questions are illustrated, together with the logistics of this approach to research, and the practical working steps in carrying out a program of discovery-oriented research. A case is made for the superior elegance of the discovery-oriented approach to psychotherapy research. (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This article examines the relationship between unity and progress in psychology. It contends that psychologists have traditionally sought unity in order to fulfill positivistic criteria of progress and success. In accordance with innovations in the philosophy of science, and in accordance with recent trends toward methodological pluralism, such unity is neither required nor recommended. However, a problem that arises under the new philosophy of science - incommensurability - must also be addressed. It is argued that before psychology can be a coherent (though pluralistic) discipline, three important questions pertaining to incommensurability must be answered.
This qualitative phenomenological case study is based on the exploration and production activities of a major oil company in Nigeria, the companys experiences within its operating community, and the relationship marketing actions that the company may take in order to maintain general non-disruptive operational atmosphere in the area. Data was collected by interviewing 25 of the stakeholders within the community (Creswell, 2007) to determine their opinions on the general tension in the area as related to the communitys relationship with the major oil company. The interviewees were then asked for their opinions on possible steps that can be taken toward resolution of the problem of unrests in the area resulting from the operations of the major oil company. Specifically, in-depth semi-structured interview methodology was used (Moustakas, 1994). Each participant was asked the following three questions: What do you feel, in general, about your experience of the different unrests that have occurred between the particular major oil company and the host community in the recent past? What do you think can be done to resolve the problems that periodically lead to these unrests? Who is best suited to implement permanent solution to the problem(s)? The data collected was analyzed for themes, that is, clusters of meanings from the significant statement, sentences, or quotes, obtained from the interview transcriptions (Creswell, 2007). The researchers repeated lived experiences (Moustakas, 1994) of the problem of unrest in the area, was also relevant. Results showed that community leaders and some of the other stakeholders in the community desire a greater development of the relationship between the company and the community. They feel greater involvement of the community in the major oil companys projects undertaken for the community would help. Employment of more citizens of the community in technical areas such as engineering and geology are also desirable. In this connection, the company may consider some form of community tutoring or educational upgrade programs to bring high school students in the community up to speed in mathematics and other science subjects. Further, even though the research showed that the major oil company annually budgets substantial amount and carries out infrastructural projects for the community, the general feeling is that an increase in the level and scope would be advantageous for the companys long-term operations in the community.
In recent years pluralism has emerged as a popular approach for overcoming the method wars in psychological research, with advocates of mixed-methods approaches arguing for the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods. They contend that a plurality of methods will allow researchers to draw upon the strengths of one method to overcome the weaknesses of another. In this article I argue that mixed-methods approaches fall short of a true methodological pluralism in the tradition of William James because they rely on a single worldview rather than a plurality of worldviews. I describe how James's pluralism, as outlined in his book A Pluralistic Universe (1909/1987), differs from mixed-methods approaches and I describe some basic features of a true Jamesian methodological pluralism.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of the professional development of counselors and therapists over the career lifespan. Drawing on their own extensive experience as psychotherapists, supervisors, teachers, and researchers, as well as from their own extensive study of the topic, previously published in their 1992 book The Evolving Professional Self, the authors aim to provide an update of their work that all counselors and psychotherapists will find valuable and useful. Readers are provided with empirically based conceptual knowledge that can increase their awareness of the central issues in professional development, allowing them to monitor their own development. The authors discuss the concept of development and review the research literature on practitioner development, and then provide detailed descriptions of its six phases. Aspects of each phase addressed include the developmental tasks unique to that phase; the sources of influence and the learning process which impacts therapeutic work and a sense of development; the perception of the professional role and working style; and therapists' measures of effectiveness and satisfaction. All of this is augmented with quotes and illustrative examples from participants in the authors' research studies. The book includes knowledge generated from research on master therapists and from the Society for Psychotherapy Research/Collaborative Research Network. The book also considers themes of professional development; struggles faced by novice practitioners; patterns of practitioner resiliency; and ways to improve training, supervision, and practice.
Special education teacher attrition rates continue to challenge the profession. A cognitive-behavioral problem-solving approach was used to examine three alternative certification program special education teachers’ professional development through a series of 41 interviews conducted over a 2-year period. Beginning when they were novice special educators, we collected information concerning what they identified as problems and whether their demonstrated self-awareness about problem solving might influence their professional persistence. As would be expected, analyses suggest, these teachers demonstrated more deliberate, active, and self-directed problem solving at the end of data collection than at the beginning. This self-awareness may facilitate teacher sense of control and problem-solving efficacy and thus may increase the likelihood that novice special educators will remain in the field.
Person-centered spiritual maturation is a developmental process with prosocial potential for individuals and communities with diverse belief systems (including secular humanism). Investigation of this process has historical roots in Kass’s work with Dr. Carl Rogers on the Person-Centered Approach Project. Previous work identifies this construct’s conceptual properties. This article reports the effectiveness of a curriculum to mentor this learning process in higher education. We conducted a quasi-experimental, mixed methods study (triangulated qualitative and quantitative data) with experimental and control groups. Qualitative analysis (written student narratives, experimental group) documented five dimensions of growth (behavioral, cognitive, social–emotional, contemplative, and integrative) that culminated in a resilient worldview and prosocial behavior. Statistical analysis (experimental and control groups, pre–post intervention) confirmed these findings, demonstrating significant improvement in quantifiable elements of person-centered spiritual maturation. Effect sizes were meaningful, indicating 15% to 21% greater improvement in the experimental group. These results suggest that person-centered spiritual maturation can serve as a prevention-oriented, community-building intervention for higher education. It offers an integrative model of learning through which faculty in the social sciences and other disciplines can mentor social–emotional growth and contemplative self-inquiry, helping university communities build sustainable cultures of health, social justice, and peace. Further research is necessary and justified.
Explores research on God images, suggesting that prior investigations have been unnecessarily influenced by the tendency to limit participants' perspectives to a set of predetermined descriptors. Concept mapping, a method combining phenomenological inquiry and open card-sorts, is introduced as a way of portraying the scope, latent structure, and relative salience of images of God. Our exploratory concept map suggests that God images vary along the underlying dimensions of punitive versus nurturant and mystical versus anthropomorphic. Participants reported that traditional God images (e.g., "Creator," "Everlasting," "Everywhere") were much more salient for them than more punitive (e.g., "Intimidating," "Unfair") or nontraditional (e.g., "Humorous," "Woman") images.
Research on change processes is needed to help explain how psychotherapy produces change. To explain processes of change it will be important to measure three types of outcomes—immediate, intermediate, and final—and three levels of process—speech act, episode, and relationship. Emphasis will need to be placed on specifying different types of in-session change episodes and the intermediate outcomes they produce. The assumption that all processes have the same meaning (regardless of context) needs to be dropped, and a context-sensitive process research needs to be developed. Speech acts need to be viewed in the context of the types of episodes in which they occur, and episodes need to be viewed in the context of the type of relationship in which they occur. This approach would result in the use of a battery of process instruments to measure process patterns in context and to relate these to outcome.
Three propositions underlying a unificationist view of research in counseling and clinical psychology are tentatively offered: (a) Psychotherapy research is science; (b) psychotherapy research is part of a unified attempt to understand human behavior; and (c) all scientific tools are acceptable in the effort to understand the process of psychotherapy. These propositions advocate the integration of basic and applied research, theory and practice and of laboratory-experimental and field-correlational methods, and offer potential answers to questions concerning the practical value of basic research, “factfinding” research, laboratory studies, theory, and technological research. Last, the unificationist view suggests that (a) fuller development of the theoretical side of psychological science and (b) the integration of theory with research and application are needed in the scientific study of counseling and psychotherapy
12 sessions of personal, insight-oriented counseling were conducted by a female psychologist with a female undergraduate with a dominating, melodramatic communication style. The client's presenting problems were difficulties with her boyfriend and family, anxiety, and headaches. The counselor's style was interpretive, confrontive, and experiential within the context of a safe, supportive, therapeutic atmosphere. Process measures indicated that the client increased amount of experiencing and insight and decreased amount of time spent describing her problems both within and across sessions. Mechanisms of change seemed to be interpretations, direct feedback, gestalt exercises, and discussion of the counselor-client relationship, following the establishment of rapport and support. Client's scores on the Hopkins Symptom Checklist and Tennessee Self-Concept Scale showed that treatment had resulted in an improvement that was maintained at 2 mo, but the client had relapsed at a 7-mo follow-up. Process analyses suggested that relapse occurred because counseling was too brief, not allowing enough time for the client to incorporate changes. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Discusses the social constructionist movement in modern psychology, noting that social constructionism views discourse about the world not as a reflection or map of the world but as an artifact of communal interchange. Both as an orientation to knowledge and to the character of psychological constructs, constructionism presents a significant challenge to conventional understanding. Although the roots of constructionist thought may be traced to long-standing debates between empiricist and rationalist schools of thought, constructionism moves beyond the dualism of these traditions and places knowledge within the process of social interchange. Although the role of psychological explanation is problematic, a fully developed constructionism could furnish a means for understanding the process of science and invites the development of alternative criteria for the evaluation of psychological inquiry. (100 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
States that the methodology used in the case study of counseling process and outcome presented by C. E. Hill et al may help overcome the methodological rigidity of traditional research in psychology and provide a valuable component in the evaluation and design of counseling services. (14 ref)
A grounded theory of academic change is offered as an alternative to existing models of academic change. The constant comparative method, an inductive method of discovering theory, is elaborated and applied to the emergence of the theory. The theory is then presented through a series of theoretical statements which relate a series of primarily political concepts and processes. Briefly, the theory identifies several major processes which link pressures for change and a policy decision to change: conflict and interest group pressures followed by power exertion, administrative intervention, faculty leadership exercised through interest group advocacy, and compromises which are negotiated through administrative leadership. Finally, the theory is briefly discussed and compared with alternative models of change, including Baldridge's political model of academic change.
Research as an instrument for professional change is not unlike counseling for personal change. Each should contribute to objective, subjective, interpersonal, and transpersonal knowledge.
For almost three millennia, philosophy and its more pragmatic offspring, psychology and the cognitive sciences, have struggled to understand the complex principles reflected in the patterned opera tions of the human mind. What is knowledge? How does it relate to what we feel and do? What are the fundamental processes underlying attention, perception, intention, learning, memory, and conscious ness? How are thought, feeling, and action related, and what are the practical implications of our current knowledge for the everyday priorities of parenting, education, and counseling? Such meaningful and fascinating questions lie at the heart of contemporary attempts to build a stronger working alliance among the fields of epistemology (theories of knowledge), the cognitive sciences, and psychotherapy. The proliferation and pervasiveness of what some have called "cognitivism" throughout all quarters of modern psychology repre sent a phenomenon of paradigmatic proportions. The (re-)emergence of cognitive concepts and perspectives-whether portrayed as revo lutionary (reactive) or evolutionary (developmental) in nature-marks what may well be the single most formative theme in late twentieth century psychology. Skeptics of the cognitive movement, if it may be so called, can readily note the necessary limits and liabilities of naive forms of metaphysics and mentalism. The history of human ideas is writ large in the polarities of "in here" and "out there"-from Plato, Pythagoras, and Kant to Locke, Bacon, and Watson.
This paper summarizes the author’s work on the question of the autonomy of natural systems. A more precise characterization of autonomy is proposed, as well as its application to specific biological systems, its mathematical representation, and its impact on cognitive processes.
• Proposes that ideas from phenomenological philosophy and sociology can be helpful in raising questions and devising strategies for research on counseling. A phenomenological version of the philosophy of the social sciences is drawn on to construct methods with which an observer may analyze a counselor and client's management of their social interaction in counseling. As a point of departure, stable concerted action between persons is described as a practical accomplishment, and then remarks about the intellectual tradition of phenomenology and some of its leading concepts are included as a foundation for later argument. Separate typifications of a counselor and client's subjective schemes for interpreting each other and expressing themselves in counseling are provided. These separate schemes are given definition as the working relationship, a counselor's perspective, and the helping relationship, a client's perspective. As well, a set of participant actions that are to be understood as independent of either perspective are identified and labeled as formulations or comments on the interaction itself. It can be observed that counseling participants frequently take the occasion to comment on their conversation itself, as if to attempt a remedy for the indefiniteness of what is being said. Examples of client and counselor interaction in counseling are included to illustrate how an observer may use the definitions of the working relationships to help locate the empirical components of each in an interview. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• Proposes that ideas from phenomenological philosophy and sociology can be helpful in raising questions and devising strategies for research on counseling. A phenomenological version of the philosophy of the social sciences is drawn on to construct methods with which an observer may analyze a counselor and client's management of their social interaction in counseling. As a point of departure, stable concerted action between persons is described as a practical accomplishment, and then remarks about the intellectual tradition of phenomenology and some of its leading concepts are included as a foundation for later argument. Separate typifications of a counselor and client's subjective schemes for interpreting each other and expressing themselves in counseling are provided. These separate schemes are given definition as the working relationship, a counselor's perspective, and the helping relationship, a client's perspective. As well, a set of participant actions that are to be understood as independent of either perspective are identified and labeled as formulations or comments on the interaction itself. It can be observed that counseling participants frequently take the occasion to comment on their conversation itself, as if to attempt a remedy for the indefiniteness of what is being said. Examples of client and counselor interaction in counseling are included to illustrate how an observer may use the definitions of the working relationships to help locate the empirical components of each in an interview. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although problems of reliability and validity have been explored thoroughly by experimenters and other quantitative researchers, their treatment by ethnographers has been sporadic and haphazard. This article analyzes these constructs as defined and addressed by ethnographers. Issues of reliability and validity in ethnographic design are compared to their counterparts in experimental design. Threats to the credibility of ethnographic research are summarized and categorized from field study methodology. Strategies intended to enhance credibility are incorporated throughout the investigative process: study design, data collection, data analysis, and presentation of findings. Common approaches to resolving various categories of contamination are illustrated from the current literature in educational ethnography.
A research paradigm for the study of human experience is presented which is comprised of two stages. The first, an experiential approach, begins with a mode of phenomenological analysis in which investigators question and passively attend to their experiences of a particular phenomenon of experi- ence such as anger or anxiety. They describe these experiences in the context of placing themselves in situations or reliving past situations. The experiences are then described in terms of how they experience the phenomenon rather than in terms of the target of their attention or the stimulus conditions. From analysis of these descriptions, it is possible to formulate definitional hypotheses, that is, statements about the necessary and sufficient experiential elements for the occurrence of a given phenomenon. It also is possible to formulate functional hypotheses, statements about the relationships between these experiential elements. Both definitional and functional hypotheses can then be tested in experiments using subjects that are unfamiliar with these hypotheses. Such experiments constitute the quantitative methods stage of this research paradigm. Definitional hypotheses can be tested with questionnaires and functional hypotheses can be tested using ratio scaling techniques similar to those employed by psychophysicists. Since the variables of functional hypotheses remain within the domain of the experiencing person, it may be possible to discover laws of experience. Finally, confirmation of experiential hypotheses through direct experiential involvement in the approach phase and testing their reliability and generalizability in the methods phase represent two stages of verification that are epistemologically complementary.
Surveyed 35 current students (aged 21-40 yrs) and 34 PhD graduates (aged 28-52 yrs) from a graduate program in counseling psychology to assess (a) whether attitudes toward research changed during and after graduate school and (b) what activities/factors within graduate training affect research skill and interest. Using a combination of current and retrospective reports, it was found that although Ss at all levels perceived their training program's expectations for research as greater than students' own wants, students' interest in research (doing and valuing) increased as they progressed through training and afterwards. Three factors within graduate training that facilitate interest and skill in research are hypothesized: (1) social/interpersonal interaction; (2) training in applied, practical, and less traditional approaches to research; and (3) early, active involvement in research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This paper describes some major consequences of doing fieldwork in schools over an extended period of time. Using Powdermaker’s distinction of “stranger and friend,” the paper traces the balance between these two roles and perspectives in terms of role, reciprocity, and receptivity through a description of the author’s two year study of student life in a junior high school. The paper first describes the evolution from stranger to friend by examining role relationships between the fieldworker and his informants. It then focuses upon the problem of the fieldworker having to take on some of the characteristics of the groups he is studying. Finally the paper discusses both the beneficial and counter-productive tendencies of these positions for the fieldworker’s receptivity to insights about a “familiar” setting. Conclusions center around the dynamic interaction between stranger and friend in long term fieldwork in educational settings.
The main dimensions of the debate about the relative characteristics and merits of quantitative and qualitative methodology are outlined, emphasizing the philosophical issues which underpin much of the discussion. A distinction is drawn between epistemological and technical issues in relation to the controversy. Three areas are then selected which demonstrate a tendency for the debate to oscillate between epistemological and technical modes of expression. The question is raised as to whether it is possible to establish a clear symmetry between epistemological positions (e.g. phenomenology, positivism) and associated techniques of social research (e.g. participant observation, social survey). The conclusion is sceptical about the extent to which a neat correspondence can currently be established.
Although the social processes in scientific inquiry have received extensive analysis, psychologists have devoted relatively little attention to the thoughts, feelings, and actions of the individual scientist. This neglect has resulted in an unfortunate failure to evaluate long held assumptions about scientist behaviour. This article reviews sociological, archival, and recent experimental evidence bearing on the psychology of the scientist. These data suggest that the correspondence between scientist behaviour and accepted scientific 'ideals' may be far less than has been presumed. After briefly reappraising those ideals, it is argued that psychological research - and particularly psychological theorizing- are critical to an adequate understanding and refinement of human factors in science.
This paper constitutes a slight departure from editorial policy for AERJ. Far from contributing to general knowledge through empirical analysis, the paper is meant to serve a self-referent and practical purpose. It is meant to signify to the discipline that manuscripts based on qualitative research are being welcomed by AERJ editors. It is also meant to assist the editors in recognizing instances of qualitative research and choosing those manuscripts with the greatest relevance and scholarly merit. The author was asked to define qualitative research in education, describe what form an AERJ article based on qualitative research might take, and state some criteria that can be used by the editors and referees to judge the merit of such studies. Seemingly straightforward, the task could hardly be more daunting. The body of work labeled qualitative is richly variegated and its theories of method diverse to the point of disorderliness. Qualitative research is vexed by the problem of different labels. One sees terms such as naturalistic research, participant observation, case study, and ethnography, as well as qualitative research, used interchangeably. If the terms and the work described can be distinguished, it would be a task that requires a separate paper, and, for the present purposes, I will treat them as a package. In addition to the diversity of labels, the field has grown out of diverse disciplines (anthropology, sociology, psychology). Qualitative research is further divided by differing views of the nature of reality (whether there is a world of social objects and forces separate from the observer's perception of them), of object fields judged to be appropriate for study (from whole institutions or communities to brief encounters), of beliefs about the merits of different research methods and ways of representing findings, and of criteria for judging studies. These divisions have created socially bounded territories, acrimonious exchanges among adherents, and institutionalized schools of thought. How then should the editors judge and select manuscripts when such different ways of thinking about and doing qualitative
Naturalistic research is offered as an alternative to the more familiar hypothesis-testing methods of research. Naturalistic research is disciplined inquiry conducted through personal, long-term contact between the researcher and the object of research. Rather than arbitrarily operationalizing the variables and specifying the hypotheses in advance of contact with the case, the meanings held by persons involved with the case and the effects of the context on the case are allowed to emerge from the data and thus become the objects of study. In this article the assumptions of the methodology of naturalistic inquiry are contrasted with those underlying traditional hypothesis-testing methods.
A model of “healing as transformation” is presented, stressing transformation of consciousness and sharing of healing throughout the community. Contrasts with western approaches are discussed.
Phenomenological description is one of the most comprehensive modes of inquiry available for understanding the roles and functions of the counselor. The purpose of this article is to introduce its methods, essential concepts, outcomes, and its complementary relation to other paradigms and methods. The article's hypothetical phenomenologist focuses on an entity called the life world of the counselor, a world made up of meaningful actions. The goal is an understanding of that life world, and the methods are bracketing and multiplying perspectives.
Administrators of counselor education programs have identified specific skills and content areas for their students to master. Counselors in training need to make theory applicable to individuals through the use of counseling techniques and assessment. What counselors do is related to the qualitative, quantitative, and performative knowing that Maccia (1973) found present in student-teacher relationships. This epistemology can be applied to what a counselor needs to know to counsel. Such applications of the epistemology described by Maccia (1973) are significant for counseling in two ways. First, they may aid counselor educators and students in making clear distinctions between content and skill areas as well as making strong connections between content and skills. Second, an epistemology of counseling may point to fruitful areas of research.
Counselors are sometimes disoriented by the massive variety of approaches to the helping process. This plurality of counseling methods often pushes both students and practitioners toward an epistemological crisis—“the crisis of relativism.” A developmental scheme outlined by William Perry in 1970 is employed to interpret some of the typical cognitive transitions that can occur among counselor trainees who struggle with diversity. Also, the authors offer suggestions that may meet the particular needs of counselors coping with this multitude of therapy options.
Counselor education programs listed in Counselor Preparation 1980 were surveyed to determine the proportion of required coursework devoted to instruction in scientific research and program evaluation. Regardless of area specialization, department size, or academic unit in which the program is housed, responding counselor education programs were found to devote approximately twice as much required instructional time to scientific research as to program evaluation. A rationale and suggestions for change are presented.
Three approaches to training counseling students in the processes of research and publication are described. The major difference is in the duration, from a span of several years to one semester to a half‐day workshop. Ideas are presented about working productively within each of those time frames.
The authors surveyed the research training practices of doctoral‐level, APA‐approved counseling psychology programs, non‐APA‐approved counseling psychology programs, and counselor education programs to identify ways to improve such training. Some differences were found according to program type. No differences were found in percentage of students' publishing or presenting research during 1983–84. Suggestions for improving future research training were assessed; highest ratings were given to required participation in research teams; 1st‐year, “hands‐on” research experience; and greater emphasis on design rather than statistics training. Programs characterized by high and low student research productivity differed in the areas of required research training, research emphases and research climate, required presentation or submission of research for publication, and material support for student research. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Additional observations about the perceived non‐utility of research are offered in terms of relevance and rigor, practicum training, practitioners' work environments, and efficiency of information exchange.
This response to Howard's article deals with the application of cybernetic epistemology to clinical research and practice. Implications for scientific research are discussed.
There is evidence that many counselors currently perceive research as irrelevant to their work, possibly because the present model of training counselors to solve problems is inadequate. The authors point out ways in which applied training can be restructured so that counselors will be better able to apply research findings to their practice.
Data are reported which extend the applicability of the Gottschalk-Gleser scales for the content analysis of speech samples to adolescents. The data were gathered on 112 youngsters aged 11-18 stratified by age, race, and sex in a balanced design. Girls had higher Anxiety scores and relatively lower scores on Hostility Directed Inward, Ambivalent Hostility, and Social Alienation and Personal Disorganization than did boys. Blacks spoke less words and expressed more Overt Hostility Outward than did Whites. These latter scores increased with age, as did Hostility Directed Inward. The affect scores for this normative group are also compared to those for "normal" adults and to an adolescent clinic and a juvenile delinquent population. Correlations with three paper-and-pencil inventories (Adolescent Life Assessment Checklist, Defense Mechanisms Inventory, and Rotter I-E scale) are presented.