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Academic Achievement as Influenced by Bilingual Instruction for Spanish-Dominant Mexican American Children
Abstract
The primary purpose of this study was to compare academic outcomes for two groups of Mexican American children (Spanish-dominant N = 24; English-dominant N = 118) equated for ethnicity, SES, grade level and duration of program participation. These Spanish-dominant subjects were exposed to a transitional bilingual education program and the English-dominant subjects to a traditional English-only curriculum for grades one through three. The study's secondary objective was to assess the impact of the experimental group's exposure to the transitional bilingual education program by examining their Spanish and English academic performance. Obtained data indicate that experimental group subjects outperformed the comparison group on second-grade vocabulary achievement while there were no other differences for reading comprehension, mathematics computation and concepts. It was also noted that experimental subjects developed English proficiency in reading and mathematics at an earlier grade than previously reported in the literature while maintaining Spanish proficiency in reading and mathematics above national norms. Implications of such findings for the education of bilingual learners are discussed.
... In this group of studies, a wide range of grades was represented, from grades 1-3 to grades 7 to 12. In all but six studies (Cazabon Nicoladis, & Lambert, 1998;de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Gersten & Woodward, 1995;Lindholm, 1991;Ramirez, 1992;Thomas & Collier, 2002), there was little or no description of what bilingual instruction entailed, except to indicate that the curriculum was common across the two programs being compared. Even when the bilingual program was described, the treatment, if any, that the comparison group received was not always clear (Cazabon, Lambert & Hall, 1998;Lindholm, 1991). ...
... The students in most studies were similar in ethnicity, grade level, and social class background, except for Burnham-Massey & Piña (1990) who did not specify the backgrounds of the students included in the comparison group. Sample sizes were respectable (subjects per group ranged from 40 to 500) in all but de la Garza and Medina's (1985), Fulton-Scott and Calvin's (1983) and Saldate et al.'s (1986) (n=20-31 per group) research. Thirteen of the 15 studies used standardized achievement test scores in English to assess student outcomes (except Curiel et al., 1986, andLindholm-Leary &Borsato, 2001). ...
... Specifically, Alanis (2000) reported that grade 5 ELLs in two-way immersion (TWI) programs score significantly lower than EO peers in reading achievement at one school site; at the other school site she examined, however, TWI students performed significantly higher in reading. In four of the remaining studies, bilinguallyinstructed students scored at levels equivalent to the English-only comparison groups in reading at the final grade level in which comparisons were made (Burnham-Massey & Piña, 1990;Cazabon et al., 1998;de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Medrano, 1986). In two studies representing three school sites, students who were educated through their first language significantly Chapter 5: AcadAch Feb 10 04 8 outperformed monolingually-educated comparison students in reading (Saldate, Mishra & Medina, 1985;Thomas & Collier, 2002),. ...
INTRODUCTION Academic achievement broadly refers to the communicative (oral, reading, writing), mathematical, science, social science, and thinking skills and competencies that enable a student to succeed in school and society. Because these forms of achievement are difficult to assess, most researchers have relied on a more narrow definition that is largely limited to outcomes on standardized achievement tests. In this chapter, academic achievement refers to content-area achievement as measured in English mathematics, science, or social studies (e.g., history, geography); it does not cover the content areas of English language arts (addressed in Chapter 4), foreign language or other humanities (music, art, theater), or cognition (except as it specifically relates to science or mathematics problem solving). The topic of reading achievement is included if the outcome measure is a standardized test and the study assesses reading and mathematics achievement of one or more educational programs. While many of the studies included in this chapter assess academic achievement by means of standardized achievement tests, others use general measures of school attainment, such as grade point average (GPA), high school drop-out rates, and attitudes toward school and school-related topics. The academic achievement of ethnic and language minority students has received considerable attention especially as it relates to the underachievement of Hispanics, African Americans, Native Americans, and ELLs. This chapter examines only ELLs and does not consider research on the achievement of Hispanic, Asian-American, or other ethnic minority or immigrant students, except as the samples and results pertain to ELLs. © Cambridge University Press 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
... Studies supporting the use of primary language instruction to facilitate second language acquisition skills have found advantages of bilingual treatment conditions when compared with Englishonly conditions across ages and linguistic ability levels. Studies have noted positive effects in second language achievement and/or acquisition (Collier & Thomas, 2004;de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Gersten & Woodward, 1995;Medina & Escamilla, 1992), vocabulary acquisition and/or word learning (school age and preschool) (Bruck, 1978;Perrozi & Chavez-Sanchez, 1992), and psychosocial development (Auerbach, 1993;Lucas & Katz, 1994). While participant ages, linguistic ability levels, and outcomes measured have differed across studies, all studies discussed here pertain to the effectiveness literature in that they compared the effects of (a) bilingual and English-only experimental conditions or (b) multiple instructional models that support primary language development. ...
... De la Garza and Medina (1985) area material yet with primary language support for the purpose of clarification, concept development, and culture. Results indicated that the bilingual immersion programs yielded favorable effects for language and reading in grades four to six and that students benefited from total English-only instruction at an earlier rate than the comparison group (Gersten & Woodward, 1995). ...
... Effectiveness research findings indicate that bilingual programs, in which primary language support is provided, and bilingual treatment or training conditions are effective at increasing second language skills across domains, as well as positively influencing outcomes in the primary language (Collier & Thomas, 2004;de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Gersten & Woodward, 1995;59 Medina & Escamilla, 1992;Thomas & Collier, 1997). Bilingual programs effectiveness when compared with programs that do not support the primary language is presumably due to the facilitative effect of primary language instruction on second language acquisition or skills. ...
... Other scholars (de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Medina & de Ia Garza, 1989;Saldate, Mishra, & Medina, 1985;Willig, 1985) have also reported Spanish achievement outcomes in transitional bilingual education (TBE) and MBE programs. Spanish-speaking, Mexican American children in a first through third grade TBE program performed at grade level across those three years for Spanish reading and mathematics achievement while their Spanish vocabulary academic performance reached national norms for second and third grades (de la Garza & Medina, 1985). ...
... Other scholars (de la Garza & Medina, 1985;Medina & de Ia Garza, 1989;Saldate, Mishra, & Medina, 1985;Willig, 1985) have also reported Spanish achievement outcomes in transitional bilingual education (TBE) and MBE programs. Spanish-speaking, Mexican American children in a first through third grade TBE program performed at grade level across those three years for Spanish reading and mathematics achievement while their Spanish vocabulary academic performance reached national norms for second and third grades (de la Garza & Medina, 1985). Medina and de la Garza (1989) reported Spanish reading performance to be at national norm levels for grades 1, 2, and 3 within a TBE program. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the mediational effects of a student's fluent or limited Spanish proficiency and gender across selected grade levels on Spanish achievement in a maintenance bilingual education (MBE) program. Reading and mathematics achievement for grades 1-8 were examined for 676 subjects, while achievement in social studies and science across grades 2-8 was investigated for 518 subjects. The overall results indicated the following: (1) fluent Spanish proficient (FSP) subjects consistently outperformed their limited Spanish proficient (LSP) counterparts for each of the four subtests; (2) girls achieved significantly higher reading scores than boys, but no gender differences were noted for the other three subtests; and (3) 16 of the 18 grade mean scores were equal to or significantly above the Texas norms of La Prueba, while two were significantly below that level.
... De la Garza and Medina (1985)) examined the effects of bilingual education in a school district in Douglas, a city on the Arizona–Mexican border. The two studies were conducted on a similar population, using different samples of students. ...
... 2 Our purpose is to provide a meta-analysis of research in Arizona, but we wish to refer interested readers to a narrative review of the Arizona research conducted by Krashen, Park, and Seldin (2000); these authors discussed four Arizona studies (de la Garza & Medina, 1985; Medina et al., 1985; Powers, 1978; Saldate et al., 1985) and concluded that " Arizona studies strongly suggest that bilingual education is beneficial, a conclusion that is consistent with the results of studies done in other states " (p. 5). ...
This article reviews the current policy context in the state of Arizona for program options for English language learners and produces a meta-analysis of studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education that have been conducted in the state in or after 1985. The study presents an analysis of a sample of evaluation studies (N = 4), which demonstrates a positive effect for bilingual education on all measures, both in English and the native language of English language learners, when compared to English-only instructional alternatives. We conclude that current state policy is at odds with the best synthesis of the empirical evidence, and we recommend that current policy mandating English-only and forbidding bilingual education be abandoned in favor of program choices made at the level of the local community.
... De la Garza and Medina (1985) examined the immediate impact of bilingual education when using native language instruction. During this study, researchers compared ELL students in a bilingual program to English proficient students in a monolingual program in a public school in Tucson, Arizona. ...
... The magnitude of an effect size indicates the between-group difference in units of the standard deviation of the control group. For example, de la Garza and Medina (1985) compared TBE to EO for non-limited English proficient students in Grades 1 through 3. Their study showed the size of the sample for the TBE group to be about one fifth the size of the EO group. The mean effect size for reading vocabulary was calculated as .15. ...
This article presents a meta-analysis of program effectiveness research on English language learners. The study includes a corpus of 17 studies conducted since Willig's earlier meta-analysis and uses Glass, McGaw, and Smith's strategy of including as many studies as possible in the analysis rather than excluding some on the basis of a priori “study quality” criteria. It is shown that bilingual education is consistently superior to all-English approaches, and that developmental bilingual education programs are superior to transitional bilingual education programs. The meta-analysis of studies controlling for English-language-learner status indicates a positive effect for bilingual education of .23 standard deviations, with outcome measures in the native language showing a positive effect of .86 standard deviations. It is concluded that bilingual education programs are effective in promoting academic achievement, and that sound educational policy should permit and even encourage the development and implementation of bilingual education programs.
... In additive bilingual education contexts, in which the continued development of English language learners' native language is a program goal, students' English language development exceeds those of peers in English-only classrooms and those who receive ESL support but whose native language isn't supported. Students in these developmental bilingual programs eventually achieve on level academically in English with their native English speaking peers (Burnham-Massey & Pina, 1990;Collier 1992;de la Garza & Medina 1985[cited in Krashen, 1999; Thomas & Collier 1996). Students in two-way bilingual programs typically advance to high levels of English language proficiency and literacy and exceed many native English speaking students academically. ...
For more than three decades US language education policy was realized through the Bilingual Education Act, enacted in 1968 to meet the educational needs of language minority students. The Bilingual Education Act emphasized bilingual education and provided options for the development of students native language as well as their English language proficiency and academic achievement. In 2002 the Bilingual Education Act expired and was replaced by the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act. Drawing on Ricento and Hornbergers [(1996) TESOL Quarterly, 30(3), 401--428] onion metaphor for the multi-layered nature of language planning and policy, this paper considers the potential impact changes in language education policy may have on programs and practices for language minority students. A summary of interview responses from a small sample of Southern Oregon educators provides an added perspective.
... ; de laGarza & Marcella (1985); Educational Operations Concepts (1991a);Lampman (1973); Legerreta(1979); Lum (1971); Maldonado (1974); Matthews (1979); Moore & Parr (1978); Pena-Hughes & Solis (1979); Prewitt Diaz (1979); Stebbins, St. Pierre, Proper, Anderson, & Carva ...
In 1996, Christine Rossell and Keith Baker conducted a review of the literature on the effectiveness of bilingual education and concluded that the majority of 75 methodologically acceptable studies showed that bilingual education was not beneficial. This study re-examines their literature review to verify the Rossell and Baker list of methodologically acceptable studies. After identifying only 11 studies that actually meet the standards for being methodologically acceptable, this study aggregates the results of those studies by a technique known as meta-analysis. The conclusion of the meta-analysis is that the use of at least some native language in the instruction of limited English proficient children has moderate beneficial effects on those children relative to their being taught only in English. During the debate over Proposition 227 in California that sought to eliminate the use of native language in the instruction of children with limited English proficiency (LEP), competing cla...
This study explores the influence of bilingual education and varied ESL (English as a Second Language) instructional approaches on elementary school students' academic achievement, language proficiency, and cultural competence. Recognizing the growing diversity in educational settings, this research examines how both asset-based and deficit-based ESL frameworks impact classroom engagement and overall student success. The asset-based approach emphasizes students' cultural and linguistic strengths, leveraging their background knowledge to foster learning and language development. In contrast, the deficit-based approach often views students' native language and culture as barriers to academic success, potentially hindering engagement and learning outcomes. Using a mixed-methods design, the study assesses data from both quantitative academic performance measures and qualitative insights derived from student and teacher interviews. Quantitative data includes standardized test scores to evaluate academic achievement and language proficiency, while qualitative analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of how students engage with multicultural literature and classroom activities. Additionally, the research investigates the role of multicultural literature in developing empathy and enhancing cultural competence among elementary students. By examining literature's ability to increase students' awareness and appreciation of diverse perspectives, this study highlights its significance in shaping inclusive and empathetic classroom environments. Findings reveal that bilingual education, when combined with an asset-based ESL approach, significantly enhances language proficiency, academic achievement, and cultural competence. Students exposed to multicultural literature demonstrate improved empathy and greater engagement in classroom activities.
Background
Low levels of numeracy and literacy skills are associated with a range of negative outcomes later in life, such as reduced earnings and health. Obtaining information about effective interventions for children with or at risk of academic difficulties is therefore important.
Objectives
The main objective was to assess the effectiveness of interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties in kindergarten to Grade 6.
Search Methods
We searched electronic databases from 1980 to July 2018. We searched multiple international electronic databases (in total 15), seven national repositories, and performed a search of the grey literature using governmental sites, academic clearinghouses and repositories for reports and working papers, and trial registries (10 sources). We hand searched recent volumes of six journals and contacted international experts. Lastly, we used included studies and 23 previously published reviews for citation tracking.
Selection Criteria
Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included:
Population: The population eligible for the review included students attending regular schools in kindergarten to Grade 6, who were having academic difficulties, or were at risk of such difficulties.
Intervention: We included interventions that sought to improve academic skills, were conducted in schools during the regular school year, and were targeted (selected or indicated).
Comparison: Included studies used an intervention‐control group design or a comparison group design. We included randomised controlled trials (RCT); quasi‐randomised controlled trials (QRCT); and quasi‐experimental studies (QES).
Outcomes: Included studies used standardised tests in reading or mathematics.
Setting: Studies carried out in regular schools in an OECD country were included.
Data Collection and Analysis
Descriptive and numerical characteristics of included studies were coded by members of the review team. A review author independently checked coding. We used an extended version of the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool to assess risk of bias. We used random‐effects meta‐analysis and robust‐variance estimation procedures to synthesise effect sizes. We conducted separate meta‐analyses for tests performed within three months of the end of interventions (short‐term effects) and longer follow‐up periods. For short‐term effects, we performed subgroup and moderator analyses focused on instructional methods and content domains. We assessed sensitivity of the results to effect size measurement, outliers, clustered assignment of treatment, risk of bias, missing moderator information, control group progression, and publication bias.
Results
We found in total 24,414 potentially relevant records, screened 4247 of them in full text, and included 607 studies that met the inclusion criteria. We included 205 studies of a wide range of intervention types in at least one meta‐analysis (202 intervention‐control studies and 3 comparison designs). The reasons for excluding studies from the analysis were that they had too high risk of bias (257), compared two alternative interventions (104 studies), lacked necessary information (24 studies), or used overlapping samples (17 studies). The total number of student observations in the analysed studies was 226,745. There were 93% RCTs among the 327 interventions we included in the meta‐analysis of intervention‐control contrasts and 86% were from the United States. The target group consisted of, on average, 45% girls, 65% minority students, and 69% low‐income students. The mean Grade was 2.4. Most studies included in the meta‐analysis had a moderate to high risk of bias.
The overall average effect sizes (ES) for short‐term and follow‐up outcomes were positive and statistically significant (ES = 0.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.25, 0.34] and ES = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.17, 0.36]), respectively). The effect sizes correspond to around one third to one half of the achievement gap between fourth Grade students with high and low socioeconomic status in the United States and to a 58% chance that a randomly selected score of an intervention group student is greater than the score of a randomly selected control group student.
All measures indicated substantial heterogeneity across short‐term effect sizes. Follow‐up outcomes pertain almost exclusively to studies examining small‐group instruction by adults and effects on reading measures. The follow‐up effect sizes were considerably less heterogeneous than the short‐term effect sizes, although there was still statistically significant heterogeneity.
Two instructional methods, peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction by adults, had large and statistically significant average effect sizes that were robust across specifications in the subgroup analysis of short‐term effects (ES around 0.35–0.45). In meta‐regressions that adjusted for methods, content domains, and other study characteristics, they had significantly larger effect sizes than computer‐assisted instruction, coaching of personnel, incentives, and progress monitoring. Peer‐assisted instruction also had significantly larger effect sizes than medium‐group instruction. Besides peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction, no other methods were consistently significant across the analyses that tried to isolate the association between a specific method and effect sizes. However, most analyses showed statistically significant heterogeneity also within categories of instructional methods.
We found little evidence that effect sizes were larger in some content domains than others. Fractions had significantly higher associations with effect sizes than all other math domains, but there were only six studies of interventions targeting fractions. We found no evidence of adverse effects in the sense that no method or domain had robustly negative associations with effect sizes.
The meta‐regressions revealed few other significant moderators. Interventions in higher Grades tend to have somewhat lower effect sizes, whereas there were no significant differences between QES and RCTs, general tests and tests of subdomains, and math tests and reading tests.
Authors’ Conclusions
Our results indicate that interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties from kindergarten to Grade 6 have on average positive and statistically significant short‐term and follow‐up effects on standardised tests in reading and mathematics. Peer‐assisted instruction and small‐group instruction are likely to be effective components of such interventions.
We believe the relatively large effect sizes together with the substantial unexplained heterogeneity imply that schools can reduce the achievement gap between students with or at risk of academic difficulties and not‐at‐risk students by implementing targeted interventions, and that more research into the design of effective interventions is needed.
Chambers for their comments on an earlier draft, and Susan Davis and the Center for Applied Linguistics for assistance with the literature search.
Media opinion pieces, as persuasive rhetorical devices, have recourse to the use of social science research in support of their editorial positions. This study examines the extent to which newspaper and magazine opinion pieces employed scientific research findings in making their arguments in support of or opposition to bilingual education. A content analysis was conducted on bilingual education articles published in educational research journals as well as opinion pieces--staff editorials, signed opinion pieces, and letters to the editor--on bilingual education from five national newspapers and three national news magazines over an eleven year period, 1984–1994. Major findings of the analyses were that (a) 82% of empirical studies and research reviews reported favorable findings on the effectiveness of bilingual programs; (b) only 45% of persuasive newspaper articles took a similar position favorable to bilingual education; (c) less than half of all persuasive newspaper articles made any mention of social science research, while nearly a third relied on personal or anecdotal accounts; and (d) there was no significant difference in terms of position (for or against) between those persuasive pieces which used research and those which did not. Findings are discussed in terms of the means by which academic research information is disseminated and influences on editorial opinion formation from sources outside of the social sciences.
The primary purpose of this study was to determine the long-term effect of transitional (TBE) and maintenance (MBE) bilingual instructional programs on the development of native (LI) and English (L2) oral-language proficiency. The sample populations included TBE-instructed Vietnamese (n = 125) and MBE-instructed Hispanic (n = 298) children enrolled in kindergarten through second grade during 1984 through 1987. The study also examined change in LI and L2 oral-language proficiency across grades K-2 for TBE and MBE programs and the subsequent bilingualism of participants. These variables were analyzed for three linguistically homogeneous groups of TBE and MBE subjects who were classified in kindergarten as (a) the most limited English proficient (LEP), (b) fluent in their LI, or (c) nearly fluent in their LI. The most significant overall findings emerging from the study related to positive (additive) and negative (subtractive) effects of TBE and MBE programs on their respective participants' oral L1, L2, and subsequent bilingualism.
The primary purpose of this study was to determine the longitudinal impact of a maintenance bilingual education (MBE) program on the development of English (L2) for four groups of native Spanish-speaking students with varying degrees of Spanish oral proficiency who were all limited English proficient (LEP). Program participants were Mexican-American children in grades K-2. These subjects were divided into two major study groups, those considered fluent Spanish proficient (FSP; n = 111) and those who were limited Spanish proficient (LSP; n = 187). Two subgroups selected from the major groups (FSP program participants who were most fluent in Spanish, n = 45, and LSP participants who were most limited, n = 120) were also analyzed. Changes in L2 proficiency for the two major groups and the two subgroups were examined over the same 3-year span (1984-1987). Overall results from this MBE study demonstrated acquisition of statistically significant levels of English for all subjects. The most significant development was found for those subjects who were most limited in Spanish proficiency at the kindergarten level.
The purpose of this study was to compare reading achievement outcomes for two groups of Mexican American students (Spanish- dominant N = 25; English-dominant N = 118). The Spanish- dominant, limited English proficient subjects participated in a transitional bilingual education (TBE) program and the English- dominant subjects in a traditional English program for grades one through three. The study’s second objective was to determine the impact of the experimentals’ exposure to the TBE program by examining their Spanish and English reading achievement. The experimental subjects outperformed the comparison group on second grade vocabulary while no differences emerged for reading comprehension. It was noted that experimental subjects developed English proficiency in reading at an earlier grade than expected and maintained Spanish reading achievement above national norms. The theoretical and empirical implications of these findings are also discussed.
Although over half a billion dollars has been spent on bilingual education since 1968, less than one-half of one percent has been spent for research. Criticisms of the effectiveness of bilingual programs should take into account the lack of basic and operational research needed to improve program quality. Despite the need for research, funds appropriated for this purpose have been reallocated. The present study provides evidence from 12 programs attesting to the effectiveness of bilingual education. In several instances, student achievement in English has risen to or above national norms, while the students have additionally acquired skills in their native language. The conclusion is reached that a quality bilingual education program can be effective in meeting the goals of equal educational opportunity for minority language children, and if a program is not doing so, something is wrong with the program (though the locus of the problem may be external to the instructional program itself). Research on Finnish immigrants in Sweden is cited to show the effect of social and cultural subordination in producing subtractive bilingualism unless strong native language instruction is provided through age 10.
It is argued that the relatively minor impact of research on policy decisions in bilingual education stems primarily not from the lack of research data nor from the sociopolitical ramifications of bilingual education, but from the invalid theoretical assumptions with which the research findings have been approached. In particular, there has been a failure to adequately conceptualize the construct of language proficiency and its cross-lingual dimensions. Two theoretical positions on these issues are elaborated: 1. Cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) becomes differentiated and can be empirically distinguished from basic interpersonal communicative skills (B1CS) in both LI and L2; 2. LI and L2 CALP are interdependent - i.e. manifestations of the same underlying dimension. The implications of these positions for bilingual education in the United States are described in relation to current assumptions regarding entry and exit criteria. The “entry fallacy” consists of the assumption that a consideration of superficial linguistic factors is adequate to determine whether or not a particular student, or subgroup of students, requires bilingual education. The “exit fallacy” consists of the assumptions that mainstreaming minority children out of a bilingual program into an English-only program will promote the development of English literacy skills more effectively than if children were maintained in a bilingual program.
An ex post facto study was conducted using three elementary school programs for Hispanic children who were not proficient in English. The three programs were: 1) bilingual multi-cultural, 2) integrated ESL and 3) non-integrated ESL. Grade point averages in math, reading and language achievement test scores (CTBS) of first and sixth graders were compared. In the sixth grade, the bilingual multi-cultural students were superior on most of the criteria, and the integrated ESL students were superior to the non-integrated ESL students on math GPAs and CTBS achievement test scores. The relationship of these findings to the de Kanter and Baker report is discussed. Limitations of the study are described and the case for a definitive longitudinal investigation is presented.
The final report prepared at the request of the White House Regulatory Analysis and Review Group by the Office of Planning
- K Baker
- A Dekanter