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Herding Cats: Choosing a Governance Structure for Your Communities of Practice
Journal of Change Management
Abstract
Many organizations grapple with the challenge of connecting their organizational silos. Both organizational and geographical boundaries often slow down or block the flows of knowledge and experience that are needed to make full use of the organization's capabilities. There is a high cost to the duplication of effort, inconsistencies and inefficiencies that result. A number of organisations have pioneered new ways of working in order to address this strategic challenge. One of the most promising approaches is the development of what is commonly referred to as ‘communities of practice’. This article highlights the experiences of four global organisations - Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Oracle, Shell and Schlumberger – in terms of how they have approached the governance of their communities, at both a strategic and an operational level.
... Communities of practice (CoPs) are defined as spaces of freedom and cooperation between individuals in which organizational practices evolve via an unconstrained knowledge creation process (Brown & Duguid, 1991;Lave & Wenger, 1991;Orr, 1996). While the first studies on CoPs viewed them as autonomous, informal social systems and self-emerging processes, recent research highlights that, in practice, managers not only attempt to guide CoPs (e.g., Josserand, 2004;Thompson, 2005), but often actively support their formation (e.g., Dubé et al., 2005Dubé et al., , 2006Lank et al., 2008;Blanchot-Courtois & Ferrary, 2009;Borzillo, 2009). Some investigations conclude that the concept of CoPs as a self-regulating system is unrealistic and clearly contrary to the normative goal of steering them to increase organizational performance (Contu and Willmott, 2003;Fox, 2000). ...
... Thus, there seems to be a growing consensus that CoPs can create strategically relevant knowledge (Wenger et al., 2002;St-Onge & Wallace, 2003;Josserand, 2004;Lank et al., 2008) and that managerial 'control' may play a constructive role (Adams & Freeman, 2000;Lesser & Everest, 2001;Kimble & Hildreth, 2005;Thompson, 2005;Milne & Callahan, 2006;Loyarte & Rivera, 2007;Probst & Borzillo, 2008). Control refers to 'any mechanism that managers use to direct attention, motivate, and encourage organizational members to act in desired ways to meet an organization's objectives ' (Long et al., 2002, p. 198). ...
... First, scholars suggest that if members have knowledge objectives, they will participate more actively in the process of knowledge creation (Wenger, 2000;McDermott, 2003;Lank et al., 2008). Second, organizations assign leadership roles to motivate community members to develop a practice together (Lesser & Everest, 2001;Wenger et al., 2002;Thompson, 2005). ...
Drawing on a longitudinal case study of Alpha Chemicals, we use four complexity theory constructs – adaptive tension, enabling leadership, enhanced cooperation, and boundary spanning – to explain the continuous knowledge creation dynamics in Communities of practice (CoPs). Our findings show that the virtual cycle of knowledge creation results from CoPs oscillating between guided and self-directed modes. In a guided mode, adaptive tension and enabling leadership prevail, resulting in knowledge expansion. In a self-directed mode, enhancing cooperation and boundary spanning are the most significant, resulting in knowledge probing. This research uncovers the value of conceptualizing CoPs as complex adaptive systems with emergent and intentional processes coexisting to create a virtual knowledge creation cycle. Our findings complement the dominant theory on CoPs’ insights by moving beyond the control/autonomy debate and highlighting that knowledge creation dynamics results from a flexible combination and recombination of the different top-down and bottom-up forces.
... Elles ne sont ainsi pas toujours connues des entreprises qui les abritent (Büchel et Raub, 2002 ;Ribeiro et al., 2011). À l'inverse et selon une approche descendante, les COP peuvent être suscitées ou initiées par l'entreprise dans le but d'encourager l'apprentissage et le partage de bonnes pratiques (Lank et al., 2008) et améliorer la performance (Orr, 1996). On parle dans ce cas de communautés pilotées, « fruit d'un intérêt rationnel calculé, désigné par la direction » (Cohendet et al., 2010, p. 33). ...
... L'ensemble des données codées a été repris par les autres co-auteurs. Puis, les deux autres chercheurs ont dirigé l'analyse des données codées en comparant celles qui venaient d'AERO à celles qui venaient d'AUTO afin d'identifier les caractéristiques communes et distinctes dans les trajectoires de formation des COP et de la construction de l'identité professionnelle des acheteurs-innovation. (Cohendet et al., 2010 ;Lank et al., 2008), initiée par la direction de l'innovation collaborative ; et de la COP AUTO une COP spontanée, qui s'auto-organise (Wenger, 1998b ;Wenger et al., 2002). Chez AERO, les AIRT occupent des postes hétérogènes, du fait notamment de la variété des divisions au sein du groupe. ...
Dans un environnement où l’innovation est clé pour la compétitivité, de nouvelles fonctions ayant pour objet de la promouvoir apparaissent dans les entreprises, comme par exemple les acheteurs-innovation en collaboration avec les partenaires externes, en charge de la veille et de la mise en œuvre de projets innovants. Comment ces managers hybrides construisent-ils leur identité professionnelle ? Fondée sur deux études de cas d’entreprises où ces pratiques se sont développées, cette recherche montre le rôle central des communautés et paysages de pratique dans la construction identitaire de ces innovateurs.
... Humphries (2008) reports significant expansion from around 12 PSLs in London in the 1990s to an estimated 200-300 in the UK by 2002, with many more appointments subsequently across Europe, but far fewer in the US. The role is now well-established in large and medium-sized firms (Gibson, 2001;Hoult, 2003); Goodman (2007) notes a doubling of the number of PSLs at Berwin Leighton Paisner in 18 months and Lank et al. (2008) report that the large London-based firm Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer employs 90 PSLs (who are known as Knowledge Management Lawyers), while Janetta (2008, p. 274) describes the growth of PSLs at medium-sized Field Fisher Waterhouse from "a handful" when she joined the firm to a situation where "nearly every practice group has the support of a PSL and an information officer". Their function is typically presented as disseminating know-how and particularly associated with drafting precedents and keeping them up-to-date, producing guidance notes and providing legislative updates or other types of current awareness (Attfield et al., 2010;Barrow, 2005;Faulconbridge, 2008;Hoult, 2003;McKenzie, 2004). ...
... Their function is typically presented as disseminating know-how and particularly associated with drafting precedents and keeping them up-to-date, producing guidance notes and providing legislative updates or other types of current awareness (Attfield et al., 2010;Barrow, 2005;Faulconbridge, 2008;Hoult, 2003;McKenzie, 2004). In addition to promoting knowledge-sharing, they are often involved in intranet development, knowledge organisation (cataloguing/classification) and training (Attfield et al., 2010;Barrow, 2005;Booth, 2001;Faulconbridge, 2008;Gibson, 2001;Hoult, 2003;Lank et al., 2008;McKenzie, 2004;Rudman, 2009;Tuckwell, 2010). Hoult (2003) notes continuing evolution of the role with specialisms establishing their own support networks, predicting an increasing profile and greater professionalization. ...
Purpose – Legal information work has expanded with the growth in knowledge management and emergence of a new type of knowledge/information manager, the professional support lawyer. This study investigated competency requirements for library-based information work in UK law firms, including the specialist subject knowledge required, methods of development and the impact on information professionals of professional support lawyers.
Design/methodology/approach – The investigation used a pragmatic mixed-methods approach, including a mainly quantitative questionnaire, administered online to 64 legal information professionals, followed by 8 semi-structured interviews and a focus group with 4 participants. A literature review informed the questionnaire design and contextualised the findings.
Findings – The survey confirmed a broad range of competency requirements and clarified the specific subject knowledge needed. Participants favoured a varied combination of formal and informal learning. Most also wanted specialised professional education for the sector.
Research limitations/implications – The nature of the sample and use of categorised questions were limiting factors, partly compensated by inviting open-ended comments and follow-up interviews. A larger study using qualitative methods with professional support lawyers and fee-earners would provide a fuller more rounded picture.
Practical implications – The findings indicate that the subject knowledge needed for legal information work in law firms is more extensive than for other sectors and suggest that information science departments should strengthen and extend curriculum content to reflect this need.
Originality/value – The study has advanced our understanding of the competency, education and training needs of UK legal information professionals, challenging assumptions about academic/professional qualifications and illuminating the blend of competencies needed.
... The leadership approach is to inspire middle managers or OCoP leaders to take on leadership roles in organizing and aiding OCoP activities. Lank et al. (2008) indicate that always seeking acceptance from higher-level managers is necessary to legitimize devoting time to OCoPs; therefore, support from both senior and middle management is important for OCoPs to thrive. ...
Learning the concept of organizational communities of practice (OCoP) is very effective but too complicated when it comes to implementation. Challenges arise when cultivating OCoPs and creating effective communication processes, particularly within an organization that has a traditional hierarchy. Literature on knowledge management (KM) fails to provide an inclusive comprehension of the significance of OCoPs. Thus, the current exploratory research aims to determine how organizational contexts can enable or disable the establishment and development of OCoPs. This article is built on communities of practice (CoP) theory to study the phenomenon of intentionally established OCoPs within large organizations. The case studies conducted for this research involved two companies based in Saudi Arabia, with intentionally created OCoPs. The selected cases assist in providing a holistic understanding of the influential role of organizational context in enabling OCoP activities, using semi-structured interviews, document reviews and field notes. The study findings support an integrated framework to assist organizations in establishing effective OCoPs. Its five phases include establishment, enforcement, recognition, maintenance and sustainability, representing OCoP development phases. The resulting framework organized 16 enabling or disabling factors in OCoP development. This article expands the focus of research beyond traditional CoPs, to investigate the intentional establishment of OCoPs within organizations and understand opportunities and challenges that enable OCoPs. The study argues that organizations implementing OCoPs should offer a comprehensive, long-term strategy for KM initiatives that leads to designing OCoP activities that enable better alignment with the organization’s business plan. A company can shape perceptions and behaviours by establishing the organizational context for social interaction. Thus, this article extends the perspective on developing OCoPs within organizations and argues that the role of middle management requires more thoughtfulness about OCoP research.
... Facilitators are in effect serving a community at the same time as managing it. In community-oriented leadership, facilitators need to ensure that processes are in place to enable community members to improve their collective capability and contribute to learning in the process (Lank, Randell-Khan, Rosenbaum, & Tate, 2008). In the UTS trial, this involved designing strategies to engage and re-engage members in decision making and action, keeping the community energized, focused and interactive, and at times holding participants accountable. ...
Julie Thompson Klein’s contributions to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research have enriched the way collaboration is discussed and handled by introducing concepts of boundary work and boundary crossing from the field of Science and Technology Studies. In recent years, she has been integrating those concepts into crossdisciplinarity, an effort culminatingnin the development of a framework for a forthcoming book (Beyond Interdisciplinarity: Boundary Work, Collaboration, and Communication in the 21st Century). With her permission, we have used an earlier version of her framework to analyze boundary work and boundary crossing in transdisciplinary sustainable water management projects in Australia and Switzerland. The aim of using the framework has been twofold: to explore and assess the heuristic value of the framework, i.e. how it improves our conceptualization of
boundary work in the two projects, and to examine the framework itself, i.e. whether some of the seven concepts involved are hard to work with or should be further developed.
... The issue of boundaries has been regarded as a vital factor in examining knowledge transfer in organizational studies (Hansen, 1999;Lank et al., 2008). The burgeoning literature has addressed the importance of managing knowledge across boundaries in driving innovation and organizational success (Nonaka, 1994;Leonard-Barton, 1995;Davenport and Prusak, 1998). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine innovative practices and emphasize the mechanism of knowledge transfer across knowledge boundaries. By comparing and discussing the emerging boundary issues in knowledge transfer among small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) registered in the incubation centers in China, this paper identified the main knowledge transfer approach and several contextual and organizational factors impacting knowledge transfer.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conduct 39 semi-structured in-depth interviews with employees working within business incubation centers in China. The study uses thematic analysis for data analysis.
Findings
Our results contribute to the literature of knowledge transfer and in particular to our understanding of boundary conditions and knowledge transfer approaches in emerging economies. The results also highlight several contextual and organizational factors which impact knowledge transformation across the pragmatic boundary in the context of China.
Practical implications
First, organizations need to establish an effective process with tools to accommodate novelty; second, organizations should be aware of the impact of entrepreneurial orientation on innovative performance; and third, it will help organizations if they adopt and integrate information-rich media in managing innovative practices.
Originality/value
This research highlights the impact of contextual and organizational factors of SMEs on knowledge transfer in emerging markets and chooses incubation centers as study subjects, which is an organizational context that has not been thoroughly studied due to its unique nature and emerging complexity.
... With the emergence and increasing popularity of social media, commercial Facebook-like tools (corporate social networks) became widely adopted and replaced profile libraries. They allowed a more informal emergence of knowledge maps (Lank et al., 2008), but still relied on the efforts of knowledge workers to keep them up to date and relevant. They can also become a catalyst by creating an environment that encourages and eases the development of knowledge networks (O'Dell and Grayson, 1998;Wenger et al., 2009), the third objective of KMS. ...
Technology is an essential part of most knowledge management (KM) initiatives, and the researchers have been both praising and criticising it for almost three decades. In this paper we take a more balanced view of the role of technology in KM and suggest that the impact of technology and the reliance on changes depend on the phase of KM evolution in a company (company's experience with KM practices). In particular, we examined different types of knowledge management systems (KMS) in the context of innovative companies from the energy sector and found that at the beginning companies are quite reliant on document repositories that help them to manage explicit knowledge. When they start paying more attention to knowledge sharing practices, the role of technology shifts to the periphery where wikis were found to be the most useful tool.
... Facilitating community-oriented leadership in the UTS trial Supporting participants to take an active role in community-oriented leadership requires a facilitative rather than directive approach. Facilitators are in effect serving a community (rather than managing it) and are ensuring that processes are in place to enable community members to improve their collective capability and contribute to learning in the process (Lank et al. 2008). In the UTS trial, this involved designing strategies to engage members in decision making and action, ensuring that the community remained energised, focused and interactive and at times bringing participants to accountability. ...
While social learning is advocated as critical for inducing large-scale shifts toward sustainability, methodological issues associated with designing the opportunities for social learning or guidelines for practitioners seeking to facilitate such learning in cross-disciplinary teams working on sustainability-oriented projects are lacking. This paper draws on a two-year pilot project in Sydney, in which government, industry and academic partners collaborated to learn about the development potential of urine diversion (UD) systems in practice. The concept of ‘Communities of Practice’ was used to identify inherent challenges and opportunities for social learning. An outcome of the project has been the identification of overarching principles for designing opportunities for social learning in such projects, particularly the need (1) to facilitate community-oriented leadership, (2) to develop strategic exercises for collaborative engagement and (3) involvement of actors beyond the boundaries of the experiment to introduce novelty, diversity and cumulative learning opportunities.
... The second type, closed membership admits people who meet certain predetermined criteria. The powerlessness of CoP starts creeping in when the enrollment in a CoP is strongly encouraged by the management than the members' own motivation to join (Lank et al., 2008). In such a situation, the members have no other option than to toe in with the management's interests. ...
Purpose
The extant literature provides evidence that control measures employed in communities of practice (CoPs) have undergone significant changes with the evolution of the concept. When it started as a self-organized group, its members had the freedom to pursue their own interests. Now, CoPs are moving closer toward bureaucratic form of control. The purpose of this paper is to discuss that although it might still be difficult to locate the power base in a CoP, undercurrents suggest that they have a strong affinity for managements’ interests.
Design/methodology/approach
This approach taken in this paper is to present a historical background, contrast characteristics of present CoPs with its earlier versions and develop propositions highlighting a power-based perspective on leadership, sponsorship and objectives for CoPs within an existing organization.
Findings
The authors have found that power in a CoP has undergone tremendous changes from the time when it was introduced by Lave and Wenger (1991). When it started as a self-organized group, control exerted was null and void, as the members were given freedom to pursue their interests. The paper shows that CoPs can be formed intentionally, which is quite contrary to the common belief that they emerge naturally. Now, CoPs are moving closer toward bureaucratic form of control with the setting up of governance committees. This has serious repercussions for their autonomy, as envisaged by the early proponents of CoP, who believed that closely knit informal groups would enhance situational learning.
Originality/value
There is a general feeling that the word “autonomy” is a misnomer for CoP today. The power that once rested with the CoP group has been taken over by management in the form of sponsorship, goal congruency, etc. What appears as powerful in a CoP today is the sponsor and the CoP has ceased to exist as they used to be. This paper makes it clear that a CoP approach can provide value to the modern organization. However, if the issues discussed herein with regard to organizational power are not appropriately accounted for, CoP may fall short of expectations.
... Close physical proximity allows more frequent face to face communication while virtual communities use computer mediated communication technologies (Ruuska & Vartiainen, 2003;Ribeiro et al, 2010) to create effective communication flows (Brazelton & Gorry, 2003;Lank, Randell-Khan, Rosenbaum & Tate, 2008). Communities formed around similar practices use different techniques and approaches to enhance their knowledge in the domain. ...
... Researchers also focus on the governance of KM efforts by developing and implementing new KM strategies (e.g., Zyngier et al., 2006); and by defining the roles of KM leaders (e.g., Chourides et al., 2003) or community sponsors or facilitators (Lank et al., 2008). ...
Drawing upon the concept of governance, this dissertation refers to the two most commonly employed mechanisms that ensure high quality knowledge in electronic repositories as expert-governance and community-governance. In three related but distinct essays, the dissertation examines the governance concept, and investigates contributing knowledge to and using knowledge from electronic repositories governed by these two mechanisms. The first essay sets the conceptual foundations of knowledge governance in repositories, and examines the salient aspects of expert- and community-governance that contribute to knowledge quality. The essay adopts an interpretive research methodology and analyzes empirical data collected from a range of organizations using interviews and online questionnaires.
Findings suggest that executing governance functions thoroughly, experts' credibility, and experts' ownership of content contribute to knowledge quality in expert-governed repositories; and executing governance functions continuously and by a diverse set of members, and members' involvement in governance contribute to knowledge quality in community-governed repositories. The second essay investigates the factors that influence individuals to make voluntary contributions to expert- and community-governed repositories. This essay employs the same research methodology used in Essay I and suggests that personal benefits is a stronger motivator for contributing to expert-governed, and reciprocity is a stronger motivator for contributing to community-governed repositories when these two repositories are implemented on an individual basis in organizational settings.
When the two repositories are implemented simultaneously, two sets of factors influence contribution behaviors: knowledge-based factors include the type, formality, and sensitivity of knowledge; and need-based factors include the need for collaboration, expert validation, and recognition. The third essay investigates knowledge use from expert- and community-governed repositories using a positivist perspective. It conducts a controlled experiment drawing upon elaboration likelihood model, and finds that the credibility of a governance mechanism positively affects subjects' perceptions of knowledge quality as well as their intentions to use knowledge, which in turn affect their actual knowledge use. This essay also conducts within-subject comparisons using repeated measures ANOVA to shed light on subjects' perceptions of expert- and community-governed knowledge assets.
... In order to avoid this and ensure that the knowledge remains mobilised, additional incentives are required. By encouraging communities of practice (COPs) -both within the organisation and out to the extended enterprise -735 firms benefit from teams remaining energised for longer time (Wenger et al. 2002, Bishop 2007, Lank et al. 2008. Informal COPs have been established in many large organisations (such as DaimlerChrysler, Oracle, Rolls Royce Plc, Schlumberger and Shell) to 740 great effect. ...
The key question addressed in this research is ‘how can we effectively manage and mobilise knowledge in the extended enterprise?’. We explore how knowledge sharing and transfer occur when developing new products, with special reference to the telecommunications industry. The benefits of implementing knowledge management strategies have been proven but research has largely focused on technology as a solution. Working together with European-based telecommunication companies, we focus instead on the softer, human issues. The main human barriers identified include international differences, accuracy and protection of knowledge, maintenance of communication channels, lack of time, fear of penalties and market position.
In recent years, several organizations have implemented interventions aimed at integrating work processes and bridging network clusters. These are often permeated by different assumptions regarding clusters in organizational settings. There are concerns about the formation of silos and structural barriers to communication across the formal and informal network structures. Conversely, network clusters are regarded as spaces of local social reinforcement from which innovation ideas may emerge. Although terminologically and functionally different, they share some common features insofar as organizational behavior is concerned and the production of artifacts that fulfill organizational goals. The present scoping review presents an analysis of the literature on organizational silos while investigating attempts to bridge network clusters. Based on the search results, 40 studies were included in the analysis of the findings; of these, 20 were empirical studies and were included in a further quantitative analysis of methods and findings. We identified patterns of definitions of silos and variation in terms of aims, variables, and methods used to evaluate interventions among the heterogeneous studies. Special attention was dedicated to the role of consequences of siloed organizational behavior. We conclude that silos comprise barriers to achieving organizational goals insofar as they pose a threat to internal cooperation.
Summary Specific forms of intra-organizational or inter-organizational networks - communities of practice (CoPs) - are becoming increasingly important. These informal groups of people are well suited for the development and sharing of knowledge and practices across divisions. Our investigation of 9 CoPs (created between 1997 and 2002) in 7 major European and US multinational corporations uncovers a 5-phase process of integration and learning activities. Our findings detail a process of member evolution from peripheral, to active, to core members. These five phases - awareness, allocation, accountability, architectural, and advertising - constitute an ongoing process within CoPs, with newcomers joining and some long-standing core members choosing to end their participation.
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