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Stretching during Warm-Up: Do We Have Enough Evidence?

Taylor & Francis
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance
Authors:
Duane Victor Knudson at Texas State University
Duane Victor Knudson
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Stretching during warm-up: Do we have enough evidence?
Duane Knudson
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance; Sep 1999; 70, 7; Research Library
pg. 24
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
... Many movement professionals are still not familiar with the results of the dramatic expansion of research on stretching (Warneke, Konrad, & Wilke, 2024a). This article is designed to follow previous JOPERD articles that helped kick off the expansion of research on stretching and the complete renovation of warm-up protocols for vigorous sports and training (Knudson, 1998(Knudson, , 1999. Figure 1 illustrates the annual number of scholarly publications published on "stretching" and "warm up" and indexed in Google Scholar. ...
... The reality was the long-held assumptions that stretching prior to vigorous physical activity would both improve performance and reduce the risk of injury were just not supported by prospective evidence then and is even more conclusive now. The initial JOPERD article and journal correspondence noted was followed up by a review in JOPERD (Knudson, 1999) several studies, and the first study of the dose-response of static stretch induced maximal strength deficits by the author (Knudson & Noffal, 2005). The acute effect of static stretching on all kinds of maximal muscular performance is negative or negligible, despite the likelihood of a positive placebo effect from past promotion of stretching in warm-up at that time. ...
When Should Stretching be Programmed into Physical Education Lessons?
Article
  • Oct 2024
Until recently, fitness and sport physical education lessons often began with stretching. Given the limited time of most physical education periods it is essential that stretching be implemented in an evidence-based fashion. The last thirty years have seen a revolution in knowledge on the acute and chronic effects of stretching, igniting dramatic changes in programming stretching and warm-up for vigorous physical activity. This article highlights what physical educators need to know about this dramatic change in understanding and practice of stretching, the difference in acute and chronic responses to stretching, and provides suggestions on teaching evidence-based stretching. The latest research on the effects of stretching presents a “teachable moment” in history for the physical educator. Modeling informed decision-making about stretching to improve performance and maintain adequate levels of flexibility for safe movement are important objectives for the physical educator.
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... I t is believed that the completion of a preexercise (or presport) physical preparation routine is required to augment performance and reduce injury risk (1)(2)(3). One component of this routine that has received much scrutiny is the inclusion of static (particularly passive) muscle stretching (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). From an injury minimization perspective, studies have typically not confirmed a clear effect of preexercise static stretching on all-cause injury risk in sports (9,10), which has resulted in some researchers suggesting a limited role for the practice (6,7,10) or for the inclusion of dynamic forms of stretching (2). ...
... One component of this routine that has received much scrutiny is the inclusion of static (particularly passive) muscle stretching (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). From an injury minimization perspective, studies have typically not confirmed a clear effect of preexercise static stretching on all-cause injury risk in sports (9,10), which has resulted in some researchers suggesting a limited role for the practice (6,7,10) or for the inclusion of dynamic forms of stretching (2). However, other authors conclude that static stretching might specifically provide a small-to-moderate protective effect for muscle-tendon injury risk, especially in running-based sports (e.g., the various football codes and court sports) (3,4,8,9), which attract by far the highest participation (11) and injury (12) rates. ...
Effect of static and dynamic stretching during a full warm-up on athletic performance in athletes
Conference Paper
  • Jul 2016
Introduction: Significant evidence indicates that static muscle stretching can acutely reduce muscle force/power production whilst dynamic stretching may increase it. However, study designs have not been appropriate in the majority of studies to determine whether muscle stretching affects performance when it is performed within a full, sports-specific warm-up (Behm et al. 2016). We aimed to determine the effects of static and dynamic stretching during a ’sport-specific warm-up” on running, jumping, agility and flexibility performances in athletes. Methods: Twenty men competing in running-based sports completed a familiarization and four weekly testing sessions. Using a randomized, cross-over design the subjects performed 5-s static passive stretches of lower limb muscles, 3x10-s static stretches, dynamic stretches (5 reps/leg, identical body positions to static stretches) or a non-stretch control condition within a warm-up (5-min general warm-up before stretch, and test-specific, progressive warm-up including maximal efforts after stretch). Researchers were blinded to the warm-up condition, and subjects nominated which condition they believed would yield best performance before the study (subject-level bias) as well as their perception of ‘preparedness’ (1-10 scale) after each warm-up condition. Results: Eighteen of 20 subjects believed that dynamic stretching would yield best performances, however no between-condition differences (p=0.23-0.99) were detected in: (1) 5 m, 20 m or 10-20 m sprint times, (2) squat, countermovement or 3-step running jump heights, or (3) agility T-test time. Magnitude-based inference statistics showed a high likelihood of ‘trivial’ changes. Small and equal post-warm-up increases in sit-and-reach flexibility (1.9-2.4 cm, p<0.01) were achieved in the stretch conditions compared to no stretch. Subjects typically felt more prepared (>5.2/10) for testing when some stretching was performed (no stretch=3.9/10), with no differences between conditions. Discussion: No stretch-specific effect on performance was observed when a warm-up protocol that included low-intensity exercise before muscle stretching was followed by a progressive, test-specific warm-up to maximum exercise intensity in athletes. Thus, although subjects felt better prepared for exercise, short- (5 s) or moderate-duration (30 s) static stretching or dynamic stretching had no group-level effect on performance when used in a full warm-up. Subject belief (i.e. subject-level bias) also did not influence test performances. Based on current and previous data, and contradictory to (some) current recommendations, muscle stretching appears not to influence physical performance when used as part of a full ’sport-specific warm-up’ in athletes. Reference Behm D., Blazevich AJ., Kay AD., McHugh M. (2016). Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 41, 1-11.
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... Initial KF aROM improvements (6.0%) with SS_rest persisted for 10 minutes (3.4%) but returned to baseline before 20 minutes. Passive ROM has been demonstrated to persist for #3 (12), #5 (44), #10 (6,39), #30 (15,32,35), #90 (27), and #120 minutes (39) after acute SS; therefore, this study joins a relatively conflicting pool of literature. These variances are likely due to inconsistent protocols such as stretching duration and intensity or different muscle groups examined. ...
Impact of 10-Minute Interval Roller Massage on Performance and Active Range of Motion
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2017
Hodgson, DD, Quigley, PJ, Whitten, JHD, Reid, JC, and Behm, DG. Impact of 10-minute interval roller massage on performance and active range of motion. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2017-Roller massage (RM) has been shown to increase range of motion (ROM) without subsequent performance deficits. However, prolonged static stretching (SS) can induce performance impairments. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of combining SS and RM with and without subsequent RM on ROM and neuromuscular performance. Subjects (n = 12) participated in 5 sessions: (a) SS only (SS_rest), (b) SS + RM (SS + RM_rest), (c) SS with RM at 10 and 20 minutes after stretch (SS_RM), (d) SS + RM with RM at 10 and 20 minutes after stretch (SS + RM_RM), and (e) control. For the SS conditions, the quadriceps and hamstrings received passive SS for 2 × 30 seconds each. For the SS + RM conditions, SS was applied to the quadriceps and hamstrings for 30 seconds each, and RM was performed for 30 seconds per muscle. SS_RM and SS + RM_RM conditions received an additional 30-second RM at 10 and 20 minutes after warm-up, whereas sessions without additional RM rested for the same duration. Testing measures included hip flexion (HF) and knee flexion (KF) active and passive ROM, hurdle jump height and contact time, countermovement jump height, and maximal voluntary isometric contraction force. Initial KF and HF ROM improvements provided by SS_RM and SS + RM_RM were sustained up to 30 minutes after intervention. Furthermore, SS_RM exhibited greater ROM compared with sessions lacking additional RM in active and passive HF as well as active and passive KF. Similarly, SS + RM_RM elicited greater KF and HF ROM improvements than SS_rest. In conclusion, active KF and HF ROM improvements were prolonged by additional RM, whereas neuromuscular performance remained relatively unaffected.
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Mechanics of the Musculoskeletal System
Chapter
  • Jun 2021
Many professionals interested in human movement function need information on how forces act on and within the tissues of the body. The deformations of muscles, tendons, and bones created by external forces, as well as the internal forces created by these same structures, are relevant to understanding human movement, growth, and injury. This chapter will provide a brief overview of the mechanics of biological tissues, specifically muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bone. The neuromuscular control of muscle forces and the mechanical characteristics of the muscle will also be summarized. The application of these concepts is illustrated using the force–motion principle of biomechanics. An understanding of mechanics of musculoskeletal tissues is important in understanding the organization of movement, injury, and designing conditioning programs.
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Analysis of sports injuries in training and competition for handball players
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2013
The aim of this study is to determine injury types and injured body parts of handball athletes in competition and training in our country so that we will be able to find tangible data providing facility to prepare protector program for most injured body parts. A total of 705 athletes (male, 492; female, 213), who are the ones at different ages participated in handball tournaments in 2011 in Turkey and young male and female national team players (22 male, 22 female) joined voluntarily to the study. A questionnaire about the subject was asked to athletes. It is determined that the min-max age rage of sporters is 11-31 and the average age of them is 17.04±4.6, 69.08% of sporters who participated in the study are male and 30.2% of them are female. 52.6% of the athletes reported that they got at least one injury in their sports life and 47.4% of them reported that they have had no injury. The injury incidence in relation to exposure in competition and training was 65% and 35%, respectively. The most popular incidence of injury in competition (37.8%) and training (45.8%) was sprain and it is determined that foot and ankle were the most commonly injured body parts. The most injured body parts in handball caused by competition and training are ankle, knee, and calf-thigh. It is evaluated that exercise programs for these body parts should be developed and added to training programs to lessen incidence of injuries except ones caused by factors being particular to sports.
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The Māfana Framework: how Pacific students are using collaborative tasks to decolonize their learning
Article
  • Dec 2020
How are Pacific students redesigning their own learning environments, in response to the cultural distance between Western tertiary education and their needs as Indigenous people? This study explores how Pacific students are applying their cultural values within tertiary learning spaces in which teachers are absent, disrupting educational colonization and neoliberal idealism within the autonomous learning zone of collaborative tasks. Our talanoa (conversations) with Pacific tertiary students and review of Pacific scholarship identifies how Pacific cultural ideals might be more clearly recognized and valued through collaborative learning. We describe this as the Māfana Framework; enhancing a sense of māfana (feeling enlivened) by fostering an Acceptance in learning relationships, an Acknowledgement of other beings in all forms, and a purposeful Animation of the space. While this study focuses on tertiary students in collaborative tasks associated with choreography, we present this framework for consideration as to how it might be applied within diverse subject areas, contributing to a growing body of literature that values Pacific learners’ needs and perspectives.
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ARTIGO ORIGINAL André Luiz Demantova Gurjão Efeito agudo do alongamento estático na força muscular de mulheres idosas Acute effect of static stretching on muscle force in older women
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2020
Rev Bras Cineantropom Desempenho Hum 2010, 12(3):195-201 Resumo-O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar, em mulheres idosas, o efeito agudo do alongamento estático sobre a taxa de desenvolvimento de força pico (TDFP) e contração voluntária máxima (CVM). A amostra foi composta por 10 mulheres idosas (idade 68,5 ± 7,0 anos; peso 70,9 ± 8,1 kg; estatura 159,4 ± 6,0 cm; índice de massa corporal 28,0 ± 3,8 kg/m 2). A TDFP e a CVM foram testadas no exercício Leg Press, antes e após as condições controle ou alongamento (três séries de 30 segundos de alongamento estático do quadríceps femoral), em dois dias diferentes (24 horas de intervalo). A TDFP foi determinada como a inclinação mais íngreme da curva, calculada dentro da janela regular de 20 ms (∆Força/∆Tempo), para os primeiros 200 ms após o início da força muscular. A CVM foi determinada como o maior ponto registrado na tentativa. Em cada dia, apenas uma condição foi testada e a ordem de emprego para cada condição foi determinada aleatoriamente. A intensidade do alongamento foi determinada pelo limiar de dor muscular. Quatro avaliações pós-condições (pós-tratamento; 10; 20 e 30 minutos) foram realizadas para acompanhar o comportamento da força muscular. A ANCOVA 2x5, seguida do teste post-hoc de Scheffé, não mostrou interações, condição vs. momento, significativas (P > 0,05) para a TDFP e CVM. Em conclusão, séries agudas de alongamento estático para o quadríceps femoral não afetam a capacidade de produzir força muscular rapidamente e máxima de mulheres idosas. Palavras-chave: Envelhecimento; Aquecimento; Curva força-tempo Isométrica. Abstract-The objective of this study was to investigate the acute effect of static stretching on the peak rate of force development (PRFD) and maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) in older women. Ten women (68.5 ± 7.0 years; 70.9 ± 8.1 kg; 159.4 ± 6.0 cm; body mass index: 28.0 ± 3.8 kg/m 2) were studied. MVC and PRFD were determined by leg press exercise before and after the control or stretching condition (three sets of 30 seconds of static stretching of the quadriceps) on two different days (interval of 24 hours). PRFD was determined as the steepest slope of the curve, calculated within regular windows of 20 milliseconds (∆force/∆time) for the first 200 milliseconds after the onset of contraction. MVC was determined as the highest value recorded in each set. Only one condition was tested on each day and the order of application of each condition was determined randomly. The stretching intensity was evaluated by the muscle pain threshold. Four post-condition assessments (post-treatment, 10, 20, and 30 minutes) were performed to monitor muscle strength. ANCOVA 2x5, followed by the Scheffé post-hoc test, showed no significant interactions between conditions vs. times (P > 0.05) for PRFD or MVC. In conclusion, acute bouts of static stretching of the quadriceps femoris do not affect the ability of rapid and maximum muscle force production in older women.
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Tongue stretching exercises improve tongue motility and oromotor function in patients with dysphagia after stroke: A preliminary randomized controlled trial
Article
  • Aug 2019
  • ARCH ORAL BIOL
Objectives: This study investigated the effect of tongue stretching exercises (TSE) on tongue motility and oromotor function in patients with dysphagia after stroke. Design: This study was designed as a 4-week, double-blind, two-group, block randomized controlled trial. A total of 25 patients were randomly allocated into either the experimental (n = 13) or the control group (n = 12). The experimental group received TSE from an occupational therapist. TSE were divided into dynamic and static passive stretching exercises (20 repetitions each). The intervention was performed five times a week for four weeks. Tongue motility was measured before and after the intervention as the distance from the lower lip to the tip of tongue during maximum protrusion of the tongue. Measurements were performed twice each time and the mean value recorded. Oromotor function was assessed using the oral phase events of the videofluoroscopic dysphagia scale (VDS) based on a videofluoroscopic swallowing study. Results: The experimental group showed significant differences in tongue motility, bolus formation, tongue to palate contact, premature bolus loss, and oral transit time in the oral phase of VDS (p < 0.05 for all) before and after the intervention, whereas the control group showed a significant difference only in lip closure (p < 0.05). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that TSE have a positive effect on tongue motility and oromotor function in patients with dysphagia after stroke. Therefore, we recommend TSE as an effective treatment for dysphagia.
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No Effect of Muscle Stretching within a Full, Dynamic Warm-up on Athletic Performance
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2018
Purpose: To examine the effects of static and dynamic stretching routines performed as part of a comprehensive warm-up on flexibility and sprint running, jumping and change of direction tests in team sport athletes. Methods: A randomized, controlled, cross-over study design with experimenter blinding was conducted. On separate days, 20 male team sport athletes completed a comprehensive warm-up routine. After a low-intensity warm-up a 5-s static stretch (5S), 30-s static stretch (30S; 3×10-s stretches), 5-repetition (per muscle group) dynamic stretch (DYN) or no stretch (NS) protocol was completed; stretches were done on 7 lower body and 2 upper body regions. This was followed by test-specific practice progressing to maximum intensity. A comprehensive test battery assessing intervention effect expectations as well as flexibility, vertical jump, sprint running and change of direction outcomes was then completed in a random order. Results: There were no effects of stretch condition on test performances. Before the study, 18/20 participants nominated DYN as the most likely to improve performance and 15/20 nominated NS as least likely. Immediately before testing, NS was rated less 'effective' (4.0±2.2 on 10-point scale) than 5S, 30S and DYN (5.3-6.4). Nonetheless, these ratings were not related to test performances. Conclusion: Participants felt they were more likely to perform well when stretching was performed as part of the warm-up, irrespective of stretch type. However, no effect of muscle stretching was observed on flexibility and physical function compared to no stretching. Based on the current evidence, the inclusion of short durations of either static or dynamic stretching is unlikely to affect sprint running, jumping or change of direction performance when performed as part of a comprehensive physical preparation routine.
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Joint stiffness: Myth or reality?
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 1993
  • HUM MOVEMENT SCI
The notion of joint stiffness as commonly studied in biomechanics and motor control is compared with the physical definition of stiffness. The importance of elastic deformation and storage of elastic energy is stressed. Different terms are suggested in order to differentiate between experimentally observed relations between joint angle and torque that are likely to have different nature. A review of studies measuring stiffness of joint subcomponents and intact joints is presented. We suggest to either abandon the term ‘joint stiffness’ as misleading or to state up front stiffness of which of the joint components or subsystems is analyzed in each particular study. We also suggest that each study of ‘joint stiffness’ should clearly state to what extent the results are defined by the system's properties and to what extent they are reflections of the particular experimental procedure.
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Developing a Stretching Program
Article
  • Nov 1981
Although stretching exercises can prevent muscle injuries and enhance athletic performance, they can also cause injury. The author explains the four most common types of stretching exercises and explains why he considers static stretching the safest. He also sets up a stretching routine for runners. In setting up a safe stretching program, one should precede stretching exercises with a mild warm-up; use static stretching; stretch before and after a workout; begin with mild and proceed to moderate exercises; alternate exercises for muscle groups; stretch gently and slowly until tightness, not pain, is felt; and hold the position for 30 to 60 seconds.
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Biophysical Factors in Range-of-Motion Exercise
Article
  • Dec 1981
Studies of the physical properties of connective tissue have helped determine improved techniques for therapeutic range-of-motion exercise. Laboratory studies indicate that the best way to permanently lengthen connective tissue structures without compromising their structural integrity is prolonged, low-intensity stretching at elevated tissue temperatures and cooling the tissue before releasing the tension. This article provides some practical therapeutic guidelines for physicians, trainers, and therapists who prescribe range-of-motion exercise for both rehabilitation and physical conditioning.
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Potentially Dangerous Exercises: Are They Harmful to All?
Article
  • Jan 1989
This article identifies 10 exercises generally considered to have the greatest potential for causing neck, back, or knee problems. Insufficient research prevents general agreement on the extent of risk associated with certain exercises or on the most susceptible individuals. (IAH)
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Questionable Exercises--Some Safer Alternatives
Article
  • Oct 1989
Some commonly misused or abused exercises which are potentially harmful are identified. Each questionable exercise is illustrated, its potential for harm discussed, and an alternative suggested. Ten general rules are offered to help teachers, coaches, exercise leaders, and individuals avoid exercise-related injuries. (IAH)
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The Effects of Cyclic Stretching on Tensile Properties of the Rabbit's Skeletal Muscle
Article
  • Feb 1998
Objective. To define the threshold of muscle injury with cyclic passive stretch.Design. The changes in the load-deformation curve of muscle-tendon unit were monitored until the failure point by an in vivo rabbit model.Background. Muscle injuries range in severity from a simple strain to complete rupture. Although strains occur more frequently than complete failures, only a few studies have investigated the phenomena of these sub-failure injuries. Monitoring of the continuum for stretch-induced injury allows us to define the threshold of stretch injury.Methods. Thirty rabbits' triceps surae muscle-tendon unit preparations were used. One of the pairs (control) was stretched until failure; the other (experimental) was first cyclic stretched to either 12, 20 or 25% of the initial length of the muscle-tendon unit and then stretched to failure. Comparisons were made between the load-deformation curves of the experimental and control specimens.Results. When cyclic stretched to 12 or 20%, there were no significant changes existed in the biomechanical parameters except the deformation at the peak load. In contrast, all the biomechanical parameters except the ration of the energy absorption changed significantly after 25% strain cyclic stretch.Conclusions. A threshold for stretch-induced injury does exist. This can be reproduced at the 25% strain of the triceps surae muscle-tendon unit.
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