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"Why Can't a Man Be More Like a Woman? Sex Differences in Big Five Personality Traits Across 55 Cultures," (vol 94, pg 168, 2008)
Abstract
Reports an error in "Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures" by David P. Schmitt, Anu Realo, Martin Voracek and Jüri Allik (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2008[Jan], Vol 94[1], 168-182). Some of the sample sizes presented in Table 1 were incorrectly reported. The correct sample sizes are presented in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2007-19165-013.) Previous research suggested that sex differences in personality traits are larger in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women have more opportunities equal with those of men. In this article, the authors report cross-cultural findings in which this unintuitive result was replicated across samples from 55 nations (N = 17,637). On responses to the Big Five Inventory, women reported higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness than did men across most nations. These findings converge with previous studies in which different Big Five measures and more limited samples of nations were used. Overall, higher levels of human development--including long and healthy life, equal access to knowledge and education, and economic wealth--were the main nation-level predictors of larger sex differences in personality. Changes in men's personality traits appeared to be the primary cause of sex difference variation across cultures. It is proposed that heightened levels of sexual dimorphism result from personality traits of men and women being less constrained and more able to naturally diverge in developed nations. In less fortunate social and economic conditions, innate personality differences between men and women may be attenuated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
... The authors concluded that these findings contradict sociological, gender role-based explanations for sex differences, calling for more multifactorial explanations. Other predictors of larger sex differences in personality were proposed by Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, and Allik (2009). In a sample of subjects from 55 nations, the authors reported larger sex differences in more developed countries. ...
... To check whether the results of this study replicate previous existing findings, Mahalanobis' D was correlated with the "Global Sex Difference Index" (GSDI) reported by a widely cited cross-cultural study (Schmitt et al., 2009). The GSDI is defined as the mean average sex difference of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and was supposed to give "an overall index of the extent to which sex differences were emphasized in a particular culture", similar to Mahalanobis' D in this study. ...
... Effect sizes of differences were large and comparable to previous studies using different personality inventories (Booth & Irwing, 2011;Del Giudice, 2009;Del Giudice & Booth, 2012). The national average sex differences in this study replicate previous findings fairly well, although the GSDI reported by Schmitt et al. (2009) is merely an average of univariate sex differences. Mahalanobis' D could not be calculated for these results because factor intercorrelations were not available for the subsamples. ...
Sex differences in personality were found to be larger in more developed and more gender-equal societies. However, the studies that report this effect either have methodological shortcomings or do not take into account possible underlying effects of ecological variables.
Here, a large, multinational (N = 867,782) dataset of personality profiles was used to examine sex differences in Big Five facet scores for 50 countries. Gender differences were related to estimates of ecological stress as well as socio-cultural variables. Using a regularized partial-correlation approach, the unique associations of those correlates with sex differences were isolated.
Sex differences were large (median Mahalanobis’ D = 1.97) and varied substantially across countries (range 1.49 to 2.48). Global sex differences are larger in more developed countries with higher food availability, less pathogen prevalence, higher gender equality and an individualistic culture. However, after controlling for confounds, only historic pathogen prevalence, food availability and cultural individualism remained. Sex differences in personality are uniquely correlated to ecological stress. Previously reported correlations between greater sex differences and outcomes of gender equality could be due to confounding by influences of ecological stress.
... systematic developmental trends and cross-cultural differences have been found, there is remarkable consistency across age groups, assessment methods, and cultural contexts (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). ...
... Previous research examining sex differences in assessed five-factor traits (Costa et al., 2001;Lippa, 2010;Lynn & Martin, 1997;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto, John, Gosling, & Potter, 2011) suggests that relative to their male counterparts, women score consistently higher on N and A. Women also tend to score higher on E, O, and C, but these findings are somewhat mixed across studies (e.g., Lynn & Martin, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto et al., 2011). The discrepancy across studies may be due, in part, to divergent sex effects at the facet level. ...
... Previous research examining sex differences in assessed five-factor traits (Costa et al., 2001;Lippa, 2010;Lynn & Martin, 1997;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto, John, Gosling, & Potter, 2011) suggests that relative to their male counterparts, women score consistently higher on N and A. Women also tend to score higher on E, O, and C, but these findings are somewhat mixed across studies (e.g., Lynn & Martin, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto et al., 2011). The discrepancy across studies may be due, in part, to divergent sex effects at the facet level. ...
Numerous studies have documented subtle but consistent sex differences in self-reports and observer-ratings of five-factor personality traits, and such effects were found to show well-defined developmental trajectories and remarkable similarity across nations. In contrast, very little is known about perceived gender differences in five-factor traits in spite of their potential implications for gender biases at the interpersonal and societal level. In particular, it is not clear how perceived gender differences in five-factor personality vary across age groups and national contexts and to what extent they accurately reflect assessed sex differences in personality. To address these questions, we analyzed responses from 3,323 individuals across 26 nations (mean age = 22.3 years, 31% male) who were asked to rate the five-factor personality traits of typical men or women in three age groups (adolescent, adult, and older adult) in their respective nations. Raters perceived women as slightly higher in openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness as well as some aspects of extraversion and neuroticism. Perceived gender differences were fairly consistent across nations and target age groups and mapped closely onto assessed sex differences in self-and observer-rated personality. Associations between the average size of perceived gender differences and national variations in sociodemographic characteristics, value systems, or gender equality did not reach statistical significance. Findings contribute to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of gender stereotypes of personality and suggest that perceptions of actual sex differences may play a more important role than culturally based gender roles and socialization processes. 520075J CCXXX10.1177/0022022113520075Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyLöckenhoff et al.
... systematic developmental trends and cross-cultural differences have been found, there is remarkable consistency across age groups, assessment methods, and cultural contexts (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). ...
... Previous research examining sex differences in assessed five-factor traits (Costa et al., 2001;Lippa, 2010;Lynn & Martin, 1997;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto, John, Gosling, & Potter, 2011) suggests that relative to their male counterparts, women score consistently higher on N and A. Women also tend to score higher on E, O, and C, but these findings are somewhat mixed across studies (e.g., Lynn & Martin, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto et al., 2011). The discrepancy across studies may be due, in part, to divergent sex effects at the facet level. ...
... Previous research examining sex differences in assessed five-factor traits (Costa et al., 2001;Lippa, 2010;Lynn & Martin, 1997;McCrae, Terracciano, & 78 Members of the Personal Profiles of Cultures Project, 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto, John, Gosling, & Potter, 2011) suggests that relative to their male counterparts, women score consistently higher on N and A. Women also tend to score higher on E, O, and C, but these findings are somewhat mixed across studies (e.g., Lynn & Martin, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2008;Soto et al., 2011). The discrepancy across studies may be due, in part, to divergent sex effects at the facet level. ...
Abstract
Numerous studies have documented subtle but consistent sex differences in self-reports and
observer-ratings of five-factor personality traits, and such effects were found to show welldefined
developmental trajectories and remarkable similarity across nations. In contrast, very
little is known about perceived gender differences in five-factor traits in spite of their potential
implications for gender biases at the interpersonal and societal level. In particular, it is not clear
how perceived gender differences in five-factor personality vary across age groups and national
contexts and to what extent they accurately reflect assessed sex differences in personality. To
address these questions, we analyzed responses from 3,323 individuals across 26 nations (mean
age = 22.3 years, 31% male) who were asked to rate the five-factor personality traits of typical
men or women in three age groups (adolescent, adult, and older adult) in their respective nations.
Raters perceived women as slightly higher in openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
as well as some aspects of extraversion and neuroticism. Perceived gender differences were
fairly consistent across nations and target age groups and mapped closely onto assessed sex
differences in self- and observer-rated personality. Associations between the average size of
perceived gender differences and national variations in sociodemographic characteristics, value
systems, or gender equality did not reach statistical significance. Findings contribute to our
understanding of the underlying mechanisms of gender stereotypes of personality and suggest
that perceptions of actual sex differences may play a more important role than culturally based
gender roles and socialization processes.
520075JCCXXX10.1177/0022022113520075Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyLöckenhoff et al.
research-article2014
... However, this effect was not found for neuroticism. Schmitt et al. (2008) also found that male personality varied more than female personality across nations. Thus, a summary of Schmitt's perspective would be that in cultural groups where stress and religiosity are low, men's inherent characteristics become more fully expressed, thereby emphasizing sex differences. ...
... There is also ambiguity in the existing literature as to the consistency and specificity of the sex effects that have been studied. Significant effects have been summarized across a range of personality dimensions (Schmitt et al., 2008) and values (Falk & Hermle, 2018), when some specific measures in these studies actually showed no effect. Schmitt et al. (2008) reported sex differences in Big Five conscientiousness, but Costa et al. (2001) found only differences in the dutifulness facet of conscientiousness, and no effects for the five other facets of conscientiousness. ...
... Significant effects have been summarized across a range of personality dimensions (Schmitt et al., 2008) and values (Falk & Hermle, 2018), when some specific measures in these studies actually showed no effect. Schmitt et al. (2008) reported sex differences in Big Five conscientiousness, but Costa et al. (2001) found only differences in the dutifulness facet of conscientiousness, and no effects for the five other facets of conscientiousness. The Big Five measure used by Schmitt did not provide separate facet scores. ...
Sex differences in aspects of independent versus interdependent self-construal and depressive symptoms were surveyed among 5,320 students from 24 nations. Men were found to perceive themselves as more self-contained whereas women perceived themselves as more connected to others. No significant sex differences were found on two further dimensions of self-construal, or on a measure of depressive symptoms. Multilevel modeling was used to test the ability of a series of predictors derived from a social identity perspective and from evolutionary theory to moderate sex differences. Contrary to most prior studies of personality, sex differences in self-construal were larger in samples from nations scoring lower on the Gender Gap Index, and the Human Development Index. Sex differences were also greater in nations with higher pathogen prevalence, higher self-reported religiosity, and in nations with high reported avoidance of settings with strong norms. The findings are discussed in terms of the interrelatedness of self-construals and the cultural contexts in which they are elicited and the distinctiveness of student samples.
... A growing body of work suggests that, in nations with greater wealth and higher levels of gender equality, sex differences are often larger than they are in less wealthy, less equal nations. This is true for a wide range of variables, including aggression (Nivette et al., 2019), attachment styles (Schmitt, Alcalay, Allensworth, et al., 2003), the Big Five personality traits (Schmitt et al., 2008), crying (Van Hemert et al., 2011), depression (Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012), enjoyment of casual sex (Schmitt, 2015), interest in and enjoyment of science (Stoet & Geary, 2018), intimate partner violence (Schmitt, 2015), self-esteem (Zuckerman et al., 2016), spatial ability , STEM graduation rates (Stoet & Geary, 2018), subjective wellbeing (Schmitt, 2015) and values (Falk & Hermle, 2018). 16 Importantly, the pattern is also observed for objectively measurable traits such as height, BMI and blood pressure (Schmitt, 2015), which gives some reason to think that it is not simply a product of cross-cultural differences in the ways that people answer questionnaires or take tests. ...
... In the case of psychological traits, the suggestion would be that men and women in wealthier, more developed nations have greater freedom to pursue what interests them and to nurture their own individuality. This freedom may, in turn, result in larger psychological sex differences (Schmitt et al., 2008; although see Fors Connolly et al., 2019;Kaiser, 2019). ...
It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM. The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e., inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions. [Now in print; published version here: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348295173_Men_Women_and_STEM_Why_the_Differences_and_What_Should_Be_Done]
... A growing body of work suggests that, in nations with greater wealth and higher levels of gender equality, sex differences are often larger than they are in less wealthy, less equal nations. This is true for a wide range of variables, including aggression (Nivette et al., 2019), attachment styles (Schmitt, Alcalay, Allensworth, et al., 2003), the Big Five personality traits (Schmitt et al., 2008), crying (Van Hemert et al., 2011), depression (Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012), enjoyment of casual sex (Schmitt, 2015), interest in and enjoyment of science (Stoet & Geary, 2018), intimate partner violence (Schmitt, 2015), self-esteem (Zuckerman et al., 2016), spatial ability , STEM graduation rates (Stoet & Geary, 2018), subjective wellbeing (Schmitt, 2015) and values (Falk & Hermle, 2018). 16 Importantly, the pattern is also observed for objectively measurable traits such as height, BMI and blood pressure (Schmitt, 2015), which gives some reason to think that it is not simply a product of cross-cultural differences in the ways that people answer questionnaires or take tests. ...
... In the case of psychological traits, the suggestion would be that men and women in wealthier, more developed nations have greater freedom to pursue what interests them and to nurture their own individuality. This freedom may, in turn, result in larger psychological sex differences (Schmitt et al., 2008; although see Fors Connolly et al., 2019;Kaiser, 2019). ...
It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths). The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e. inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions.
... There is cross-culturally robust evidence for sex differences in antisocial aspects of personality. For instance, men are more disagreeable (Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008) and higher on the Dark Triad traits (Jonason et al., 2017), and these traits might lead men and women to adopt different coping strategies. For example, being disagreeable may make men less likely to adopt social coping. ...
... There were several sex differences worth discussing. First, we replicated sex differences in the dark traits (Jonason & Zeigler-Hill, 2018;Jonason et al., 2017), agreeableness, and neuroticism (Schmitt et al., 2008). Second, we showed-not too consistently across the two studies-women were more likely to use social and constructive coping than men were, whereas men were more likely than women to use destructive coping strategies (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2017;Liddon et al., 2017;Peterson et al., 2006). ...
Many roads to psychological health and ruin exist, yet most are likely to conform to systematic patterns, despite any apparent differences. In a representative (on age and sex) sample of Australians (N = 1,232) and a Mechanical Turk sample from the USA (N = 602), secondary principle components analyses were conducted on two related measures of coping strategies revealing three similar, higher-order coping strategies, which we called constructive, destructive, and social. Individual differences in these higher-order coping strategies were assessed in relation to personality (i.e., the Big Five, the Dark Triad, sadism, and spitefulness) and outcomes (i.e., resilience, hopelessness, interpersonal trust, alcohol intake, general health, life satisfaction, and future discounting) in the fill sample and in men and women. We found that constructive and destructive coping were rather opposite forms of coping as seen in the nomological network associated with them and modest, negative correlations between them. In contrast, social coping stood slightly on its own vis-à-vis correlations with extraversion, narcissism, and interpersonal trust. We also found sex differences in the higher-order coping strategies which were often mediated by individual differences in personality. Results are discussed in terms of learning, biological, clinical, and evolutionary models of personality and sex differences.
... Later studies indicated that women reported themselves to be higher in neuroticism and agreeableness than men, while gender differences in conscientiousness, extraversion and openness to experience were inconsistent or limited to lower-level dimensions (Costa et al, 2001). Similar findings were also found in the studies conducted in the BFM across 55 cultures by Schmitt, Realo, Voracek and Allik (2008). Most findings were consistent across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations (Feingold, 1994). ...
... As discussed, there is inconsistency about the psychological processes related to gender differences and conflict management styles, thus we examine personality as a moderator in the relationship between gender and conflict management styles. We expect the greatest gender differences in agreeableness (higher among women), and emotional stability (higher among men), predicting the analyzed differences in conflict management styles is related mainly to these two personality traits (Costa et al, 2001;Schmitt et al., 2008). As gender differences in the three remaining personal traits are historically inconsistent, we explore for possible moderating effects, of all personality traits, in the link between gender and conflict management. ...
ABSTRACT IN ITALIAN
Il modello della personalità dal macro a micro come una variabile moderatrice descrive il modello generale, il macro, di stati alterati, chiamati sovrapposizioni quantistiche (Gao, 2015), come parte della ricerca di informazioni (Tidwell & Sias, 2005). Iil micro spiega PERCHÉ i modelli macro si verificano in base a il microvisivo o l'audio innesca il keying su una caratteristica saliente che inquadra quindi l'esperienza di sovrapposizione quantistica nell'analisi lacaniana del ruolo dei visual e della motivazione subconscia (Drzewiecka, 2014, Gao, 2015, Stein, 2017 & 2019). La personalità come predittore dello stile di leadership si basa su concetti di personalità immutabili o limitati, ma nessuno ha spiegato PERCHÉ gli stati alterati della sovrapposizione quantistica sono innescati dall'alterazione dello stile di leadership (Gao, 2015 & Tidwell & Sias, 2005) come parte della chiusura (Kościelniak, Rydzewska, & Sedek, 2016). Offro un modello topografico, con un micro modello che spiega il grilletto, come su una pistola, visivo, uditivo o somatico del comportamento, reagendo, evitando o contrastando gli effetti o la direzione del grilletto, illustrando un modello descrittivo delll'estensione dello spazio mentale della personalità cui modera le relazioni di genere e gestione dei conflitti.
ABSTRACT
Macro to micro model of personality as a moderating variable describes the overall macro pattern of altered states, called quantum superpositions (Gao, 2015), as part of information seeking (Tidwell & Sias, 2005). Micro explains WHY the macro patterns occur based on micro visual or audio triggers in keying onto a salient feature, which then frames the quantum superposition experience in Lacanian analysis of the role of visuals and the subconscious motivation (Drzewiecka, 2014, Gao, 2015, Stein, 2017 & 2019). Personality as a predictor of leadership style is based on concepts of personality as unchanging or limited within the Big Five (Koscielniak, 2020) yet no one has explained WHY altered states of quantum superposition are triggered in altering leadership style (Gao, 2015 & Tidwell & Sias, 2005) as part of closure (Kościelniak, Rydzewska, & Sedek, 2016). A topographic model, with a micro model explaining the visual, auditory or somatic trigger of behavior, reacting towards, avoiding, or countering the effects or direction of the trigger is offered illustrating a descriptive mental space personality extension model moderating relationships of gender and conflict management.
Keywords: Big Five, conflict management, leadership style, mental artifact, personality traits
To address issues of authorship in the deliberation process the discussion transcripts are available by the group agreed upon first author of the final manuscript to prevent academic bullying or mobbing, fraudulent claims of authorship, plagiarism, perjury, and of fake news. The approach of the first author is rank and order in organizational psychology, rank is established by merit, not some PhD or faculty 'appointment'.
Continental European manuscript, produced by academics who have been instructed according to the E.U.'s Bologna process and the European Federation of Psychologists Association standard of ethics. The document stresses emotional maturity as part of academic and professional development, and is under review bridging organizational communication, and leadership psychology coaching, on the redefinition of conflict as information seeking and states as the tapping into leadership traits. This required test data on personality to be interpreted not as a mediating, and instead as a more significant moderating variable, inferring moral agency without obviously mentioning it. Rather than stressing only modes of leadership the research stresses the unique surviving features of the person. The Italian journal publication is to be in English and Italian, requiring an Italian format for a target audience, as proposed in article review and correction by Prof. Emeritus Carlo Umilta'. The manuscript emphasizes protecting national and cultural identity, and personality as an intellectual property.
... In fact, the expected pattern of an earlier onset of age trends in neuroticism , agreeableness, and conscientiousness was found only for cultures with an earlier normative onset of jobrole responsibilities. The lack of effects of cultural norms regarding family-role transitions is especially notable given that psychologists (Lodi-Smith & Roberts, 2007), sociologists (Hogan & Astone, 1986), and anthropologists (Schlegel, 1995) generally consider marriage and parenthood to be the most pervasive markers of adult status. ...
During early adulthood, individuals from different cultures across the world tend to become more agreeable, more conscientious, and less neurotic. Two leading theories offer different explanations for these pervasive age trends: Five-factor theory proposes that personality maturation is largely determined by genetic factors, whereas social-investment theory proposes that personality maturation in early adulthood is largely the result of normative life transitions to adult roles. In the research reported here, we conducted the first systematic cross-cultural test of these theories using data from a large Internet-based sample of young adults from 62 nations (N = 884,328). We found strong evidence for universal personality maturation from early to middle adulthood, yet there were significant cultural differences in age effects on personality traits. Consistent with social-investment theory, results showed that cultures with an earlier onset of adult-role responsibilities were marked by earlier personality maturation.
... Similar is the case of personality differences between the genders. Goodwin and Gotlib (2004) and Chapman, Duberstein, Sörensen, and Lyness (2007) in the United States; Weisberg, DeYoung, and Hirsh (2011) in Canada; León et al. (2017) in Peru;and Costa, Terracciano, and McCrae (2001) and Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, and Allik (2008) cross-culturally have reported greater Neuroticism, Volatility, and/or Withdrawal among females than males. ...
The hypothesis that employees with experience in the public sector differ in personality aspects from those with less or no experience, suggested by the concept of person-organization fit, was tested among 711 participants in executive extension courses of a Peruvian university who filled-in the Big Five Aspect Scales. Whereas significant differences in various personality aspects were observed along age and between males and females, public sector experience only predicted greater Openness. Women outperformed men in Openness and a significant gender x time in public sector interaction revealed that prediction of Openness from the public-sector experience was more pronounced among men. The findings suggest that, in the population studied, little personality differences are attributable to experience in the public sector. Studies are needed to evaluate the external validity of the findings.
... The second research recommendation builds from superordinate theme three suggesting the need for future research to explore any existing connections between the quality of openness and inclusive leadership practices. The research on conceptual openness is robust, particularly in the fields of organizational psychology and management studies (Digman, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2008;Weisberg et al., 2011). The work of Judge et al. (2002) demonstrated the existence of relationships between leadership practice and the big five personality traits, one of which is openness. ...
This study’s purpose was to generate a context-specific analysis and description of the inclusion process at a Midwestern university, and how leaders make sense of said process. The participants in this study are members of an inclusion training program; these participants represent the perspective of stakeholders as well as designated leadership for organizational inclusion. This study utilized Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Data generation occurred through a series of semi-structured interviews. Analysis of data provided a detailed description of the sense making of inclusive leadership is provided to explain how educators experience the phenomenon contextually. Five superordinate themes emerged from this study, (a) inclusion is a journey of growth for educators, (b) complications in the ideals of inclusion, (c) open-mindedness is essential to the practice of inclusive leadership, (d) experiences of exclusion largely frame inclusion and its importance, and (e) higher education is positioned to help in the effort of inclusion. A discussion of these findings is provided along with implications and recommendations. Adviser: Gina S. Matkin
... When it comes to Extraversion, a trait both expressive and instrumental, women tend to score higher on the expressive traits of warmth, gregariousness and positive emotions, while men generally score higher on instrumental traits, such as excitement seeking, assertiveness and activity. Finally, research suggests that the biggest demonstration of gender differences in personality is in Neuroticism (Schmitt et al., 2008), an instrumental and expressive trait, where women tend to score higher than men. ...
Ageism, or the prejudicial attitude towards other age groups, especially older adults, is seen as one of the most prevalent preconceived judgment in Canadian society. Present in many domains of society including the workplace and healthcare system, the detrimental effects of ageism are well-established. With effects ranging from financial problems to mental and physical deterioration, the underlying structure of ageism requires more exploration if we are to attempt a reduction of its presence. Terror Management Theory suggests that aversive attitudes towards different groups, in this case, older adults, are rooted in defensive attitudes towards the fear of death. Every human being unique, individual differences also have a role to play in the way people perceive older adults. The present study attempts to better understand the role of attitudes towards death and personality on ageism. Since the role of avoidant and acceptant attitudes towards death is, to the author’s knowledge, understudied in the ageism literature, this study builds on existing knowledge by examining the unknown role of avoidance and acceptance of death on ageism. Four hundred and thirty-six undergraduate students enrolled in first-year psychology classes volunteered to participate in an online questionnaire. The questionnaire assessed demographic information, personality traits, attitudes towards death and attitudes towards older adults. Results suggest the association between prosocial personality traits (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Consciensciousness and Openness) and decreased ageism. The existential fear of death and of the fear of a loved one going through the process of dying were associated with more aversion towards older adults, while the fear of a loved one’s death indicated lower levels of discrimination. Belief in death as leading to an after-life indicated a decreased tendency to avoid older adults. Correlates of personality and attitudes towards death were also explored. Implications and future areas of research are discussed.
... Otra fuente de validez estudiada en el NEO PI-R, son las evidencias de grupos contrastados. Principalmente, se han llevado a cabo estudios que analizan si las puntuaciones del instrumento reflejan las diferencias entre sexos (Costa & McCrae, 1992b;de Miguel Negredo, 2005;Terracciano, 2003) reportadas a lo largo de numerosas investigaciones sobre los cinco factores de personalidad (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008;South, Jarnecke, & Vize, 2018). Estos estudios concluyen que estas diferencias responden principalmente a factores culturales y de rol de género. ...
Las principales herramientas de evaluación de la personalidad se construyeron a partir de las bases teóricas del modelo de los Cinco Factores. Particularmente, en Argentina, el IPIP-NEO es uno de los instrumentos, basados en este modelo, que presenta resultados satisfactorios en los estudios de consistencia interna (confiabilidad) y de validez mediante evidencia de estructura interna (análisis factorial exploratorio). El objetivo de este trabajo fue aportar nuevos estudios psicométricos a la escala utilizando una muestra heterogénea de argentinos (N = 499). Se estimó la estabilidad temporal de las puntuaciones a través del método test-retest y se realizó un estudio de validez de estructura interna mediante análisis factorial confirmatorio. Por otro lado, se aportó validez externa a traves de estudios de convergencia, estudios de contraste de grupos divididos por sexo y edad, y un análisis test criterio mediante regresión múltiple con actividades recreativas. Los resultados sugieren que las puntuaciones que del IPIP-NEO son estables, con adecuados índices de confiabilidad y evidencias de validez externa, lo que indica que puede ser utilizado en muestras argentinas. Se planifica la elaboración de un baremo local y nuevos estudios de validez externa con implicancias clínicas y laborales.
... Specifically, we expect increases in distress between baseline and follow-up in three groups: women, older groups of age, and individuals with children. Concerning the former, literature on personality has clearly demonstrated a greater inclination in them towards negative emotionality [35], and within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is evidence of a greater tendency in women to experience feelings of loneliness closely related to family and care responsibilities [36]. Regarding the differences found by age groups, a recent study [37] reported that older adulthood was associated with the perception of greater risks of dying if COVID-19 was contracted, but with the perception of a lower risk of contracting COVID-19, being quarantined, or running out of money, as well as lower levels of depression and anxiety and negative financial worries; this is interesting when considering the more optimistic view in older adults at the beginning of the pandemic and a better response to daily stressors [38,39]. ...
We examined longitudinal differences in the severity of distress, depression, anxiety, and concerns and behaviors related to COVID-19 during the first two months of this pandemic, correlations between these variables, and interactions of distress with significant sociodemographics across waves. A longitudinal online survey was conducted in the State of Mexico, from 8 April to 27 May, 2020, in a sample of men and women between 18 and 60 years old, using: Impact of Event Scale-6, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, General Anxiety Disoder-7, and a questionnaire of concerns and behaviors related to COVID-19. Six hundred seventy participants were analyzed. Only a mild difference in distress was observed between the two waves and mild correlations of this variable with contagion in oneself and in a relative. Having a high-risk medical condition proved a considerable effect on distress within both waves. Perception of usefulness of preventive measures, concerns of contagion in a relative, and financial and security situations scored high within our questionnaire but did not change in the follow-up. We hypothesize that habituation to distressful events in the Mexican population (emergent resilience) might explain the absence of meaningful differences. Our research adds to the monitoring of mental health in Mexicans during the COVID-19 pandemic; its findings can serve to perform comparisons in other studies and for further meta-analyses.
The finding that females hold more pro-environmental attitudes and engage in more conservation behavior, relative to males, is one of the most robust effects in the field of environmental psychology. Yet sparse research has attempted to understand why males are less pro-environmental than females. In three studies, the present research tested the hypothesis that sex differences in personality account for sex (Studies 1–3) and gender (Study 3) differences in both pro-environmental attitudes and behavior. Results from Study 1 demonstrated that conscientiousness mediated links between sex and attitudes towards environmental utilization, protectionism, and conservation behavior in an undergraduate sample. Results from Study 2 with a community sample demonstrated that conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism mediated the link between sex and environmental protectionism. Study 3 replicated the mediating effect of conscientiousness on sex differences in environmental behavior using the HEXACO model and extended this finding beyond biological sex to gender differences. Taken together, results suggest that core differences in personality traits explain sex and gender differences in environmentalism, offering new insight into how to potentially promote increased pro-environmental action among men.
Sex differences in personality were found to be larger in more developed and more gender-equal societies. However, the studies that report this effect either have methodological shortcomings or do not take into account possible underlying effects of ecological variables.
Here, a large, multinational (N = 867,782) dataset of personality profiles was used to examine sex differences in Big Five facet scores for 50 countries. Gender differences were related to estimates of ecological stress as well as socio-cultural variables. Using a regularized partial-correlation approach, the unique associations of those correlates with sex differences were isolated.
Sex differences were large (median Mahalanobis' D = 1.97) and varied substantially across countries (range 1.49 to 2.48). Global sex differences are larger in more developed countries with higher food availability, less pathogen prevalence, higher gender equality and an individualistic culture. After controlling for confounds, only cultural individualism, historic pathogen prevalence and food availability remained. Sex differences in personality are uniquely correlated to ecological stress. Previously reported correlations between greater sex differences and socio-cultural liberalism could be due to confounding by influences of ecological stress.
Different factors shape individuals’ personality, where their interaction with others in certain situations could reveal their personal characteristics. Studies have explored the influence of culture in forming personalties, where differences in behaviours are observed. The advancement in communication technologies has opened the world and increased the cultural diversity. Therefore, understanding individual personalities is crucial for the enhancing the effectiveness in communication and for the development of an interconnected world. Such an understanding not only would guarantee smooth group interaction in workplace, education, and social environments, but also would allow for better resource utilization and role allocation for group members. Moreover, with the emergence of HCI technologies and affective computing, automation of personality assessment using non-verbal cues seems feasible. Acknowledging the differences in personality traits between cultures, several studies have analysed such traits clusters in different countries. However, given the unique culture of Arabs in general and Saudi Arabian in particular, personality traits distribution is yet to be investigated. This research investigates two aspects: (1) the distribution of personality types of individuals living in Saudi Arabia compared to other countries, and (2) the feasibility of automatically classifying personality types by analysing non-verbal cues during an interaction setting. To accomplish the first part of the this work, we used the big-five personality assessment survey, where a total of 232 individuals have responded. The results showed a slight difference in the personality assessment of individuals living in Saudi Arabia compare to other cultures. For the second part, we conduced physical interviews with eight subjects where their body actions are recorded. Several non-verbal features were extracted from the body movement (e.g. touching face) and used for automatic classification. The results are generally reasonable, where the accuracy on average was 67% using Support Vector Machines. The slight differences in the personality types from this study results compared suggest the uniqueness of Arab culture in general and Saudi culture in particular. Moreover, the automatic assessment of personality types using body language demonstrate a potential success. Linking the two aspects of personality distribution and automatic assessment of personality, could increase the reliability and accuracy of the results.
There is a lack of up-to-date data on sleep and dream habits of college students. To fill in this gap, we used an online questionnaire sent to the student mailing lists of two major universities of Lyon (Lyon 1 and Lyon 2) for the recruitment of an functional magnetic resonance imaging study with sleep disorders as exclusion criteria. In the sample (1,137 French college students, 411 males, mean age = 22.2 ± 2.4 years, body mass index = 22.0 ± 3.2 kg m⁻²), on average, the participants reported spending about 8 hr in bed during weekdays, 9 hr during the weekends, and 90.9% of them reported no difficulty falling asleep. Less than 0.4% of students reported to have sleep-walking episodes regularly, but nearly 7% reported regular sleep-talking episodes. The average dream recall frequency was about 3 mornings per week with a dream in mind. Dream recall frequency was positively correlated with the clarity of dream content and the frequency of lucid dreaming, and was negatively correlated with age. Fourteen percent of the students reported frequent lucid dreams, and 6% reported frequent recurrent dreams. We found a gender effect for several sleep and dream parameters, including dream recall frequency and time in bed, both of which were higher in women than in men. We have also observed differences between academic disciplines, namely humanities students (Lyon 2) reported spending more time in bed than sciences students (Lyon 1). These results confirm a gender difference for several sleep and dream parameters, and suggest a link between academic disciplines and sleep duration.
The contributions of evolutionary processes to human sex differences are vigorously debated. One counterargument is that the magnitude of many sex differences fluctuates from one context to the next, implying an environment origin. Sexual selection provides a framework for integrating evolutionary processes and environmental influences on the origin and magnitude of sex differences. The dynamics of sexual selection involve competition for mates and discriminative mate choices. The associated traits are typically exaggerated and condition-dependent, that is, their development and expression are very sensitive to social and ecological conditions. The magnitude of sex differences in sexually selected traits should then be largest under optimal social and ecological conditions and shrink as conditions deteriorate. The basics of this framework are described, and its utility is illustrated with discussion of fluctuations in the magnitude of human physical, behavioral, and cognitive sex differences.
Among the most consistent sex differences to emerge from personality research is that women score higher than men on the Big Five personality trait Neuroticism. However, there are few functionally coherent explanations for this sex difference. The current studies tested whether this sex difference is due, in part, to variation in physical capital. Two preregistered studies (total N = 878 U.S. students) found that sex differences in the anxiety facet of Neuroticism were mediated by variation in physical strength and self-perceived formidability. Study 1 ( N = 374) did not find a predicted mediation effect for overall Neuroticism but found a mediation effect for anxiety (the facet of Neuroticism most strongly associated with grip strength). Study 2 ( N = 504) predicted and replicated this mediation effect. Further, sex differences in anxiety were serially mediated by grip strength and self-perceived formidability. These findings add to a nascent literature suggesting that differences in physical attributes may partially explain sex differences in personality.
Background: Sexual behavior usually begins in adolescence, and is mediated
by biological, personality and socio-cultural variables which can affect the expression
of preventive and risky sexual performance, as well as sex and age differences.
Aim: To determine sex differences in the age of sexual initiation, the use of protective
methods and mate selectivity in young men and women, as well as preventive
practices according to age, and the prevalence of partner aggression. Subjects and
Methods: Participants were 484 university students from public and private institutions,
aged 22 ± 3 years (59% women) assessed using a diversity of self-report
measures of personality traits, romantic relationship quality, sexual role, attachment
type, socio-sexual openness, and self-esteem; they also answered questions regarding
sexual behavior, and violence. Results: Differences in age of sexual initiation, risky
sexual behavior, and socio-sexual openness were observed between men and women.
Aggression prevalence in romantic relationships also varied according to sex and age.
Similarities and differences in patterns of behavior and personality variables were
observed in relationship quality, sexual role, kindness, and responsibility in males
and females. Conclusions: The findings present consistencies with the international
evidence and differences that may be due to context specificities, providing also an
empirical referent to consider in health planning.
Sex differences in personality are believed to be comparatively small. However, research in this area has suffered from significant methodological limitations. We advance a set of guidelines for overcoming those limitations: (a) measure personality with a higher resolution than that afforded by the Big Five; (b) estimate sex differences on latent factors; and (c) assess global sex differences with multivariate effect sizes. We then apply these guidelines to a large, representative adult sample, and obtain what is presently the best estimate of global sex differences in personality.
Personality measures were obtained from a large US sample (N = 10,261) with the 16PF Questionnaire. Multigroup latent variable modeling was used to estimate sex differences on individual personality dimensions, which were then aggregated to yield a multivariate effect size (Mahalanobis D). We found a global effect size D = 2.71, corresponding to an overlap of only 10% between the male and female distributions. Even excluding the factor showing the largest univariate ES, the global effect size was D = 1.71 (24% overlap). These are extremely large differences by psychological standards.
The idea that there are only minor differences between the personality profiles of males and females should be rejected as based on inadequate methodology.
Correlations between personality traits and a wide range of sensory thresholds were examined. Participants (N = 124) completed a personality inventory (NEO-FFI) and underwent assessment of olfactory, trigeminal, tactile and gustatory detection thresholds, as well as examination of trigeminal and tactile pain thresholds. Significantly enhanced odor sensitivity in socially agreeable people, significantly enhanced trigeminal sensitivity in neurotic subjects, and a tendency for enhanced pain tolerance in highly conscientious participants was revealed. It is postulated that varied sensory processing may influence an individual's perception of the environment; particularly their perception of socially relevant or potentially dangerous stimuli and thus, varied with personality.
The purpose of this study was to explore a possible season of birth effect on big five personality traits, taking into account also gender and circadian typology variables. A sample of 419 healthy young adults (249 females and 170 males) was administered the self-report version of the Big Five Observer (BFO) and the Morningness -- Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) to determine, respectively, personality features and circadian preference. Participants were subdivided into four season groups, according to their birth date. No significant season of birth effect was observed as regards personality traits even if summer-born participants tended to score lower on the conscientiousness dimension. In regard to the conscientiousness domain, there was a significant interaction between gender and season of birth. Males presented greater conscientiousness variation with summer born participants scoring lower. On the basis of a multiple regression analysis, MEQ score proved to be a better predictor of conscientiousness than gender, age, and season of birth. The results provide no clear evidence for a season of birth effect on the big five personality traits. It is possible that circadian preference may modulate the season of birth effect on personality traits.
Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality Inventory data from 26 cultures (N = 23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.
This article evaluates theories of the origins of sex differences in human behavior. It reviews the cross-cultural evidence on the behavior of women and men in nonindustrial societies, especially the activities that contribute to the sex-typed division of labor and patriarchy. To explain the cross-cultural findings, the authors consider social constructionism, evolutionary psychology, and their own biosocial theory. Supporting the biosocial analysis, sex differences derive from the interaction between the physical specialization of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies. This biosocial approach treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent given the evolved characteristics of the sexes, their developmental experiences, and their situated activity in society.
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This chapter discusses the openness which cannot be understood as the culture that is acquired through education or good breeding, not as intellect or any other cognitive ability. Openness must be viewed in both structural and motivational terms. Openness is seen in the breadth, depth, and permeability of consciousness and in the recurrent need to enlarge and examine experience. Openness also suggests a passive or uncritical receptivity, which is clearly inappropriate. Open people actively seek out experience and are apt to be particularly reflective and thoughtful about the ideas they encounter. A structural account of openness may be necessary, but it does not seem to be sufficient. Open people are not the passive recipients of a barrage of experiences they are unable to screen out; they actively seek out new and varied experiences. Openness involves motivation, needs for variety cognition sentience, and understanding. The heritability of openness might be explained by the heritability of intelligence. Psychologists have spent more time and effort studying intelligence, than any other trait by adopting the term “Intellect.” Personality psychologists could claim this vast literature as their own. Openness could be construed as intelligence itself or as the reflection of intelligence in the personality sphere.
Evolutionary psychologists have hypothesized that men and women possess both long-term and short-term mating strategies, with men's short-term strategy differentially rooted in the desire for sexual variety. In this article, findings from a cross-cultural survey of 16,288 people across 10 major world regions (including North America, South America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa, Oceania, South/Southeast Asia, and East Asia) demonstrate that sex differences in the desire for sexual variety are culturally universal throughout these world regions. Sex differences were evident regardless of whether mean, median, distributional, or categorical indexes of sexual differentiation were evaluated. Sex differences were evident regardless of the measures used to evaluate them. Among contemporary theories of human mating, pluralistic approaches that hypothesize sex differences in the evolved design of short-term mating provide the most compelling account of these robust empirical findings.
Evolutionary psychologists have hypothesized that men and women possess both long-term and short-term mating strategies, with men's short-term strategy differentially rooted in the desire for sexual variety. In this article, findings from a cross-cultural survey of 16,288 people across 10 major world regions (including North America, South America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa, Oceania, South/Southeast Asia, and East Asia) demonstrate that sex differences in the desire for sexual variety are culturally universal throughout these world regions. Sex differences were evident regardless of whether mean, median, distributional, or categorical indexes of sexual differentiation were evaluated. Sex differences were evident regardless of the measures used to evaluate them. Among contemporary theories of human mating, pluralistic approaches that hypothesize sex differences in the evolved design of short-term mating provide the most compelling account of these robust empirical findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a self-report measure designed to assess the high-order personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, the BFI was translated from English into 28 languages and administered to 17,837 individuals from 56 nations. The resulting cross-cultural data set was used to address three main questions: Does the factor structure of the English BFI fully replicate across cultures? How valid are the BFI trait profiles of individual nations? And how are personality traits distributed throughout the world? The five-dimensional structure was robust across major regions of the world. Trait levels were related in predictable ways to self-esteem, sociosexuality, and national personality profiles. People from the geographic regions of South America and East Asia were significantly different in open- ness from those inhabiting other world regions. The discussion focuses on limitations of the current data set and important directions for future research.
We articulate an evolutionary perspective on cultural variation, centering on the con- cept of evoked culture. We then demonstrate how the framework of evoked culture has been used to predict and explain cultural variation and report new tests of hypotheses about cultural variation in mate preferences. These tests demonstrate the predictive power of ecological variables such as parasite prevalence that are implicated by evo- lutionary psychological theories. New empirical tests provided little support for the predictions advanced by competing social role theories (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1999), with some findings running opposite to those predicted by such theories. We propose that a well-articulated evolutionary perspective on cultural variation may be particu- larly useful because it can specify how variation in cultural practice itself may emerge. We conclude that discussions of cultural variation should move beyond false dichotomies of social versus biological and suggest that evolutionary psychology pro-
Rensch's rule states that sexual size dimorphism (SSD) increases with body size (hyperallometry) in taxa in which males are the larger sex and decreases with body size (hypoallometry) in those in which females are larger. We use the independent contrasts method to assess the validity and generality of Rensch's rule within 21 independent animal taxa. Allometry is estimated as the slope of the major axis regression of contrasts for log(female size) versus contrasts for log(male size). Allometry consistent with Rensch's rule is significant in 33% of the taxa examined across a diverse range of invertebrate and vertebrate taxa. Significant allometry inconsistent with Rensch's rule occurs in only one taxon. Meta-analysis of these results reveals that Rensch's rule is general and highly significant. Only owls have allometry inconsistent with this trend. Rensch's rule is also shown to be associated with male-biased SSD, which is consistent with the hypothesis that sexual selection acting on male size drives the evolution of this pattern of allometry.
Sexual selection is a well established evolutionary process based on preferences for specific traits in one sex by members of the other sex. It is important in the evolution of morphological traits, and several sexually dimorphic traits in humans, such as facial hair and facial shape1, are assumed to be the outcome of such a process. Here we demonstrate that taller men are reproductively more successful than shorter men, indicating that there is active selection for stature in male partners by women.
As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, 16,954 participants from 53 nations were administered an anonymous survey about experiences with romantic attraction. Mate poaching- romantically attracting someone who is already in a relationship-was most common in Southern Europe, South America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe and was relatively infrequent in Africa, South/Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Evolutionary and social-role hypotheses received empirical support. Men were more likely than women to report having made and succumbed to short-term poaching across all regions, but differences between men and women were often smaller in more gender-egalitarian regions. People who try to steal another's mate possess similar personality traits across all regions, as do those who frequently receive and succumb to the poaching attempts by others. The authors conclude that human mate-poaching experiences are universally linked to sex, culture, and the robust influence of personal dispositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This engaging text presents the latest scientific findings on gender differences, similarities, and variations--in sexuality, cognitive abilities, occupational preferences, personality, and social behaviors. The impact of nature and nurture on gender is examined from the perspectives of genetics, molecular biology, evolutionary theory, neuroanatomy, sociology, and psychology. The result is a balanced, fair-minded synthesis of diverse points of view. Dr. Lippa’s text sympathetically summarizes each side of the nature-nurture debate, and in a witty imagined conversation between a personified “nature” and “nurture,” he identifies weaknesses in the arguments offered by both sides. His review defines gender, summarizes research on gender differences, examines the nature of masculinity and femininity, describes theories of gender, and presents a “cascade model,” which argues that nature and nurture weave together to form the complex tapestry known as gender. Gender, Nature, and Nurture, Second Edition features: *new research on sex differences in personality, moral thought, coping styles, sexual and antisocial behavior, and psychological adjustment; *the results of a new meta-analysis of sex differences in real-life measures of aggression; *new sections on non-hormonal direct genetic effects on sexual differentiation; hormones and maternal behavior; and on gender, work, and pay; and *expanded accounts of sex differences in children's play and activity levels; social learning theories of gender, and social constructionist views of gender. This lively “primer” is an ideal book for courses on gender studies, the psychology of women, or of men, and gender roles. Its wealth of updated information will stimulate the professional reader, and its accessible style will captivate the student and general reader.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
Evolutionary social psychology is the study of how people think about, feel about, and behave toward others, as viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology. This approach to social psychology synthesizes developments in several fields, including zoology, ecology, cognitive neuroscience, and anthropology. The beginning premise is that all recurrent human social behaviors reflect the influence of physical and psychological predispositions that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. The evolutionary approach is a perspective that can be utilized to generate hypotheses about a wide range of human thoughts and behaviors. Here, we provide a brief synopsis of the theory and research generated by this perspective.
Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely to be injured in accidents and fights than women? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book "Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences", author David Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Using the principles of sexual selection such as female choice and male-male competition, the author systematically reviewed and discussed the evolution of sex differences and their expression throughout the animal kingdom, as a means of not just describing but explaining the same process in Homo sapiens. Now, over ten years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g. DNA finger printing to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and, genetic, hormonal, and socio-cultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework (introduction in the first edition and expanded in "The Origin of Mind", 2005), Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition, with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is an even better book than the original - a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world.
Societies in which women have substantial control of resources and hold powerful political positions are relatively rare. Among the many circumstances in which women are likely to have resource control and/or political authority, polygyny is not an obvious candidate. However, women's lives are highly variable across polygynous societies. We hypothesized that within polygynous societies, women will have greater resource control and political activity when they have female allies; furthermore, that ecological factors influence women's access to such allies. We examined statistical associations among measures of ecological factors, the presence of female allies, and female power. The results of multiple regression analyses of ethnographic materials demonstrate that, cross culturally, ecological and sociocultural factors interact so that polygynously married women have more resource control and power when they are geographically close to their kin and have sisters as cowives. Additional statistical associations reveal how ecological factors moderate women's access to potential allies, which in turn are associated with resource control, female power/authority, and prevalence of negative attitudes about appropriate female behavior.
Among foragers, men's foods are often shared widely outside the household, undercutting variation in the benefit their wives and children receive. This means polygyny may not be due to variation in household provisioning. Some have even suggested that bonds in general, whether polygynous or monogamous, may have less to do with male provisioning than male-male contest competition. However, an analysis of foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample reveals that male provisioning does affect the mating system. Societies with higher male contribution to subsistence are more monogamous. The author argues that women value male provisioning less where males bring in less food, which results in greater polygyny. Where it is difficult for women to acquire food, they value male provisioning more, forcing males to compete via food acquisition. Food sharing prevents the polygyny threshold from being reached but does not completely erase the benefit of pair bonding with a good forager.
Two traditional perspectives on gender development—the socialisation and cognitive perspectives— are reviewed. It is noted that although they deal quite well with individual differences within each sex with regard to degree of sex-typing, they do not offer satisfactory explanations for some of the most robust gender dimorphisms: namely, gender segregation and the divergent patterns of interaction within all-male as compared with all-female dyads or groups. These patterns are briefly summarised, and their similarity to those found in nonhuman primates and other mammals is noted. It is argued that an ethological perspective, and its modern successor the psychobiological perspective, are needed, along with the more traditional perspectives, to provide a comprehensive account of gender development as it occurs in dyads and groups as well as within individual children.
Extreme response styles (ERS) and acquiescence response styles (ARS) may constitute important sources of cross-cultural differences on survey-type instruments. Differences in ERS and ARS, if undetected, may give rise to spurious results that do not reflect genuine differences in attitudes or perceptions. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis is recommended as the most effective method of testing for ERS and ARS and determining whether cultural groups can be meaningfully compared on the basis of factor (latent) means. A detailed numerical example is provided.
Some argue that cross-cultural variation in sexual dimorphism is associated with marriage practices whereas others suggest it is a function of absolute size. We reject both explanations, noting that the degree of dimorphism in humans is very consistent and the observed variance is mainly a function of sample size.
Although democratic institutions existed long before gender equality, at this point in history, growing emphasis on gender equality is a central component of the process of democratization. Support for gender equality is not just a consequence of democratization. It is part of a broad cultural change that is transforming industrialized societies and bringing growing mass demands for increasingly democratic institutions. This article analyzes the role of changing mass attitudes in the spread of democratic institutions, using survey evidence from 70 societies containing 80 percent of the world's population. The evidence supports the conclusion that the process of modernization drives cultural change that encourage both the rise of women in public life, and the development of democratic institutions.
This article has no abstract
A meta-analysis of 172 studies attempted to resolve the conflict between previous narrative reviews on whether parents make systematic differences in their rearing of boys and girls. Most effect sizes were found to be nonsignificant and small. In North American studies, the only socialization area of 19 to display a significant effect for both parents is encouragement of sex-typed activities. In other Western countries, physical punishment is applied significantly more to boys. Fathers tend to differentiate more than mothers between boys and girls. Over all socialization areas, effect size is not related to sample size or year of publication. Effect size decreases with child's age and increases with higher quality. No grouping by any of these variables changes a nonsignificant effect to a significant effect. Because little differential socialization for social behavior or abilities can be found, other factors that may explain the genesis of documented sex differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Topics include: attachment theory and modern evolutionary theory; life history theory (within-species variation, environmental influences, what about humans); patterns of attachment as (components of) reproductive strategies (relation to Main's conditional-strategy view, limits and assumptions, secure attachment and mating/parenting, avoidant attachment and mating/parenting, resistant attachment and mating/parenting); and enduring theoretical conundrums. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"I hypothesize that the statistical relation between schizotaxia, schizotypy, and schizophrenia is class inclusion: All schizotaxics become on all actually existing social learning regimes, schizotypic in personality organization; but most of these remain compensated. A minority, disadvantaged by other… constitutional weaknesses, and put on a bad regime by schizophrenogenic mothers… are thereby potentiated into clinical schizophrenia. What makes schizotaxia etiologically specific is its role as a necessary condition… . It is my strong personal conviction that… schizophrenia, while its content is learned, is fundamentally a neurological disease of genetic origin." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)