An examination of the training profiles and injuries in elite youth track and field athletes

Abstract

Abstract Australian track and field has a strong focus on State and National elite youth programmes as the development pathway to elite senior international competition. Yet, there are no clearly defined parameters for appropriate training volumes, training intensities or competition schedules for youth athletes. This study sought to examine the training profiles of, and injuries suffered by, elite youth track and field athletes between the ages 13 and 17 years. The participants were 103 elite NSW athletes (age 17.7±2.4 years, 64% girls) who recalled, through a questionnaire, their training profiles (frequency, volume and intensity) and injuries (type, site and severity) at three age groups: 13-14 years, 15-16 years and at 17 years of age. Eighty-one athletes (78.6%) sustained 200 injuries (time loss > 3 weeks) that were predominantly classified as overuse (76%) with 17.3% of athletes retiring due to injuries prior to turning 18 years. The results, analysed using t-test, one-way analysis of variance and chi-square analysis, showed that injured athletes trained at a higher intensity at 13-14 years (p < 0.01), completed more high-intensity training sessions at 13-14 years (p < 0.01) and 15-16 years (p < 0.05) and had a higher yearly training load at 13-14 years (p < 0.01). There was a significant relationship between forced retirement and having sustained an overuse injury (p<0.05). These findings suggest that monitoring by coaches and athletes of training loads, intensity and the number of hard sessions completed each week is warranted to minimise injuries sustained by 13-16 year old athletes.

Full text

This article was downloaded by: [Dianne Huxley]
On: 19 June 2013, At: 03:52
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
European Journal of Sport Science
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20
An examination of the training profiles and injuries in
elite youth track and field athletes
Dianne J. Huxley
a
, Donna O'Connor
a
& Peter A. Healey
b
a
Faculty of Education and Social Work , University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
b
Australian Sports Management Group , Sydney , NSW , Australia
Published online: 19 Jun 2013.
To cite this article: Dianne J. Huxley , Donna O'Connor & Peter A. Healey (2013): An examination of the training profiles and
injuries in elite youth track and field athletes, European Journal of Sport Science, DOI:10.1080/17461391.2013.809153
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2013.809153
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
An examination of the training profiles and injuries in elite youth track
and field athletes
DIANNE J. HUXLEY
1
, DONNA O’CONNOR
1
, & PETER A. HEALEY
2
1
Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia,
2
Australian
Sports Management Group, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Abstract
Australian track and field has a strong focus on State and National elite youth programmes as the development pathway to
elite senior international competition. Yet, there are no clearly defined parameters for appropriate training volumes, training
intensities or competition schedules for youth athletes. This study sought to examine the training profiles of, and injuries
suffered by, elite youth track and field athletes between the ages 13 and 17 years. The participants were 103 elite NSW
athletes (age 17.792.4 years, 64% girls) who recalled, through a questionnaire, their training profiles (frequency, volume
and intensity) and injuries (type, site and severity) at three age groups: 1314 years, 1516 years and at 17 years of age.
Eighty-one athletes (78.6%) sustained 200 injuries (time loss 3 weeks) that were predominantly classified as overuse
(76%) with 17.3% of athletes retiring due to injuries prior to turning 18 years. The results, analysed using t-test, one-way
analysis of variance and chi-square analysis, showed that injured athletes trained at a higher intensity at 13 14 years
(p B0.01), completed more high-intensity training sessions at 1314 years (p B0.01) and 1516 years (p B0.05) and had a
higher yearly training load at 1314 years (p B0.01). There was a significant relationship between forced retirement and
having sustained an overuse injury (p B0.05). These findings suggest that monitoring by coaches and athletes of training
loads, intensity and the number of hard sessions completed each week is warranted to minimise injuries sustained by 1316
year old athletes.
Keywords: Athletics (or track and field), elite youth, training profile, injuries
Introduction
The sport of track and field in Australia has a
strong focus on State and National elite youth
programmes and a growing emphasis on global elite
youth competition as the development pathway to
elite senior international competition (Athletics
Australia, 2011). However, there are no clearly defined
parameters for appropriate volumes and intensities
of training youth athletes (Mountjoy et al., 2008)
or research into the long-term effects of rigorous
training of, and competitive schedules for, these
athletes (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011). In
addition, there is sparse research on injury rates,
prevalence, type and severity affecting these athletes
(Coulon, Lackey, Mok & Nile, 2001; Orava &
Sareela, 1978; Requa & Garrick, 1981; Watson &
Dimartino, 1987). Understanding the training
and injury profiles of elite youth track and field
athletes may assist in providing some guidance for a
more effective athlete development programme and
encourage further research in this area.
With significant increases in personal rewards and
national and international recognition for both
athlete and coach, incentives to train harder are
even greater today (Engebretsen et al., 2010). This
can create an environment where young athletes
specialise in one sport and train and compete at adult
volumes and intensities all year-round subsequently
increasing their risk of injury (Brenner, 2007;
Difori, 2010) and in particular, overuse injuries
traditionally seen in adults (Gerrard, 1993). Numer-
ous studies involving a range of sports indicate
training loads (Caine, DiFiori, & Maffulli, 2006),
level of competition (Watson & DiMartino, 1987),
Correspondence: D. J. Huxley, Faculty of Education and Social Work, Education Building A35, University of Sydney, NSW 2006,
Australia. E-mail: dhux1468@uni.sydney.edu.au
European Journal of Sport Science, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2013.809153
# 2013 European College of Sport Science
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

coach experience and coach education (Schulz
et al., 2004), may be injury risk factors in youth
athletes.
It has been acknowledged that many elite youth
track and field athletes in Australia do not transition
into elite senior athletes (Bennie & O’Connor,
2006). This trend was also found in English athletes
where only 7% of the top 20 U15 athletes (N560)
were ranked in the top 20 ten years later (Shibli &
Barrett, 2011). While some attrition can be attrib-
uted to competing interests such as work, study,
family and other sports (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006),
other studies have reported that inappropriate train-
ing and competition loads at a young age has led to
higher injury rates (Brenner, 2007; Difori, 2010)
which contributed, in some cases, to premature
retirement (Dixon & Fricker, 1993). A common
reported reason for English athletes to drop out was
the repeated injury and inability to recover to
previous levels of attainment (Shibli & Barrett,
2011). The purpose of this study was to examine
the training load (frequency, volume and intensity)
and injuries (type, site and severity) sustained by
elite youth athletes in New South Wales (NSW)
when aged 1317 years.
Method
Data were obtained from members of the New South
Wales Institute of Sport Emerging Talent Squad
(ETS) who participated in the programme between
the years 2005 and 2010. Letters of invitation
together with the self-reporting paper-based ques-
tionnaire and participant information was distribu-
ted by postal mail to the last known address of all
athletes over 18 years and to the parents of athletes
under 18 age years (N476). Parents of athletes
under 18 were requested to assist their daughter/son
complete the questionnaire in an effort to reduce the
recall bias normally associated with children and
adolescents (Soberlak & Cote, 2003). The study was
approved by the University of Sydney Human
Research Ethics Committee and the New South
Wales Institute of Sport.
Development of the questionnaire was based on
protocols used in previous studies (Helsen, Starkes, &
Hodges, 1998; Memmert, Baker, & Bertsch, 2010)
that retrospectively collected data using a one-week
training diary for various age groups. A reasonable
level of accuracy (r0.73) has been reported for
athletes recalling their practice history (Baker,
Cote, & Abernethy, 2003; Memmert et al., 2010).
Face and content validity of the questionnaire were
assessed using a pilot test with 10 similar-aged
athletes and seeking advice and feedback from experts
in both youth sport and education. Subsequent
modifications were made based on athlete feedback
and experts’ recommendations.
The questionnaire gathered information regarding
the athletes’ participation in track and field between
the ages of 13 and 17 years and covered athlete
demographics, training specifics (frequency, inten-
sity, hours and modality), frequency and nature of
injuries. Data were collected in relation to three
different age groups: 1314 years, 1516 years and
at 17 years of age.
For the purpose of this study, an injury was
defined as one resulting in the athlete missing more
than three weeks of athletics’ training or competi-
tion. To analyse the perceived intensity of training,
athletes were asked to rate the intensity of each
training session for one ‘average’ week at each of the
three age groups using a simple scale; easy 1,
medium difficulty 2, hard 3 and very hard 4.
To calculate the weekly intensity of an athlete’s
training, the number of sessions of each rating was
multiplied by the assigned number (14), the sum
of which gave an overall weekly intensity measure
[e.g. (12)(2 3)(1 4) 12 (weekly inten-
sity)]. To be able to investigate more thoroughly
the link between intensity and injury in youth
athletes a further measure of intensity (high inten-
sity) was also calculated by using the same method
for the hard and very hard sessions [e.g. 23
14  10 (weekly high intensity)]. To investigate
links between training volumes (hours), intensity and
injury incidence, annual training load was calculated
by multiplying the number of weeks of training in a
year by the weekly training intensity. A cumulative
training load for each athlete was also calculated by
adding together the total annual training load at each
age group.
Means9standard deviations (sd) and percentages
were calculated for all variables (SPSS version 18).
Differences between injured and uninjured athletes
as well as gender effects were analysed using a t-test.
One-way analysis of variance was used to compare
training and injury profiles among age groups and
discipline groups. Chi-square analysis was employed
to compare the observed and expected ‘counts’ of
categorical variables. The significance level set at
p B0.05 was used for determining statistical signifi-
cance between the groups.
Results
One hundred and three athletes (17.792.4 years;
34 males, 66 females, 3 unidentified) completed the
questionnaire with the majority (70.6%) being
members of the 2009 and 2010 ETS. A large
percentage (94.2%) of athletes had participated in
Little Athletics (LA) with 77.7% for five years
or more. The mean start age of athletes in LA was
2 D. J. Huxley et al.
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

7.692.3 years with an average participation of
6.992.3 years. Participants specialised in the follow-
ing events: distance run/walk (32), sprints/hurdles
(24), multievents (20), jumps (15) and throws (12).
All athletes had competed to at least national level
with 44% competing at international level. A large
percentage of the athletes’ coaches (76%) were
qualified through the Australian Track and Field
Coach Association (ATFCA) and held either, a level
4/5 (51%) or level 13 (25.3%) qualification.
Table I provides an overview of the training
profile of athletes during the ages of 1317 years.
There was a significant increase in the number of
training sessions completed (p B0.01) and the num-
ber of hours spent training each week (pB0.001) as
an athlete moved through the three age groups.
When comparing the training profiles of athletes at
the various age groups significant increases were
recorded in terms of weekly intensity and high-
intensity training sessions, and annually with respect
to training hours and the amount of high-intensity
training completed. Thirteen- to fourteen-year-old
athletes on average rated at least one session per
week very hard with 53.8% of training sessions rated
as ‘hard’ or ‘very hard’ annually. More than half
(64.7%) were training between 10 and 12 months of
the year. By 1516 years 63.5% of training sessions
were deemed ‘hard’ or ‘very hard’ and the majority
of athletes (76%) trained between 10 and 12 months
of the year. At 17 years 23 sessions (out of 5) were
rated as ‘hard’ or ‘very hard’ with 74.2% training
between 10 and 12 months of the year and 25.8% all
year. There was no significant difference between
gender and any aspect of the training profile.
Eighty-one athletes (78.6%) sustained 200 injuries
with 74% of these athletes injured more than once
and 14.6% requiring surgery. The majority (92%) of
athletes recalled receiving sports medicine treatment
for their injury. The most common injury site was
ankle or foot (56.8%) followed by lower leg (34.6%),
upper leg (32.1%), core injuries (27.2%), knee
(23.5%) and upper body (17.3%). There was no
significant difference between gender and injury
site. The most frequent type of injury sustained
was muscle strains (38.8%), followed by bone stress
injuries (33%), tendinopathy (27.2%), ligament
sprains (10.7%), fractures (8.7%), shin pain
(8.7%), avulsions (4.9%) and dislocations (2.9%)
with overuse injuries (i.e., tendonitis, bone stress
injuries) sustained by 60.2% of the athletes.
There was no significant difference between the
incidences of injury sustained by athletes from the
various event disciplines. There was no significant
relationship between gender and sustaining an in-
jury. However, there was a trend for females to be
more likely to sustain an overuse injury (p0.058).
Table II compares the training profiles of injured
and uninjured athletes. Analysis revealed that injured
athletes trained at a significantly higher weekly
intensity and completed a significantly higher yearly
training load at 1314 years compared to uninjured
athletes. In addition injured athletes subjectively
recalled that training was ‘harder’ each week than
uninjured athletes at 1314 years and at 1516 years
for more months of the year.
Table II also compares the training profiles of
athletes that sustained an overuse injury and those
that did not. There was no significant difference in
the number of training sessions between injured
(overuse) and uninjured (overuse) athletes. How-
ever, athletes that sustained an overuse injury self-
reported they had a significantly higher weekly and
yearly training load during the ages of 1316 years.
During this age span athletes sustaining an overuse
injury also reported training significantly ‘harder’
(pB0.01). There was no significant difference in any
aspect of training profiles between injured and
uninjured athletes at the age of 17 years.
Table I. Training profile of athletes during age groups
13 14 years 15 16 years 17 years
Training profile N Mean9sd N Mean9sd N Mean9sd
Sessions/week* 100 3.3691.28 97 4.3791.70 66 5.0692.20
Weekly training hours** 100 5.6992.53 97 7.3093.30 66 8.9293.69
Weekly intensity
a
** 100 7.7893.23 96 10.5294.08 65 13.3795.72
Weekly high intensity
b
** 100 4.0193.73 96 6.5494.64 65 9.7196.05
Annual training hours 100 244.119128.88 93 334.709154.51 63 409.849181.99
Annual training load
c
** 100 336.579170.62 97 468.049227.20 64 604.869311.62
Annual high intensity** 100 180.999175.68 97 297.399223.04 64 447.369295.07
a
The self-reported level of the perceived intensity of each training session using the scale; easy 1, medium difficulty  2, hard  3 and
very hard 4, multiplied by the number of those training sessions completed in a week.
b
The hard and very hard sessions using the perceived intensity of training scale multiplied by the number of those training sessions
completed in a week.
c
The number of weeks of training in a year multiplied by the weekly intensity.
*p B0.01 between each group; **p B0.001 between each group.
Training profiles of elite youth track and field athletes 3
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

Fourteen athletes (17.3% of injured athletes)
reported that they were forced to retire due to injury.
Chi-square analysis revealed a significant relationship
between forced retirement and having sustained an
overuse injury [x
2
(1, N81)  5.72, p.017].
Further analysis indicated that bone stress injuries
were associated with forced retirement [x
2
(1, N
81) 6.28, p0.012]. Athletes who were forced to
retire trained at a significantly higher weekly intensity
(rating of 1093.2 vs. 7.893.0, p B0.05) and trained
‘harder’ (6.594.6 vs. 4.193.4, pB0.05) at the age of
1314 years. They completed a significantly higher
yearly training load at 1314 years (444.09214.0 vs.
345.99155.6, pB0.05) and trained at a significantly
higher intensity throughout the year (299.19157.8
vs. 184.89157.8, p B0.05). Figure 1 highlights the
relationship between weekly training intensity, injury
and forced retirement. Athletes forced to retire had
more injuries (3.0 vs. 2.53, pB0.05) and signifi-
cantly longer time off (weeks) as a result of an injury
(30.3927.7 vs. 11.9910.1, p B0.01) suggesting
their injuries were significantly greater than other
injured athletes. There were no other significant
factors across the training profiles of the athletes.
Surgery was not a significant factor in relation to
forced retirement due to injury (p0.05).
Table II. A comparison of training profiles of injured and uninjured athletes and overuse injuries
Age in years No injury Injured No overuse injury Overuse injury
Means9sd Means9sd p-Value Means9sd Means9sd p-Value
13 14 no. sessions/week 3.0591.46 3.4591.22 0.194 3.2091.29 3.4791.28 0.286
13 14 weekly intensity 6.2393.27 8.2293.11 0.010** 6.6392.71 8.5893.35 0.003**
13 14 weekly high intensity 2.1893.14 4.5393.73 0.008** 2.3992.91 5.1493.84 0.000***
13 14 annual high intensity 95.659144.64 205.069176.94 0.009** 105.299135.41 233.609182.13 0.000***
13 14 annual training load 240.719143.34 363.619168.70 0.002** 272.059138.72 381.419177.29 0.001***
13 14 annual training hours 213.329182.65 252.799109.13 0.343 221.689144.34 259.699115.66 0.148
15 16 no. sessions/week 4.5791.89 4.3291.66 0.546 4.3791.81 4.3891.64 0.979
15 16 weekly intensity 9.6793.51 10.7694.21 0.280 9.1793.21 11.5394.38 0.003**
15 16 weekly high intensity 4.7194.33 7.0594.62 0.040* 4.1794.01 7.9194.63 0.001***
15 16 annual high intensity 95.659144.65 205.069176.94 0.009** 212.289178.02 359.709233.31 0.001***
15 16 annual training load 411.149198.82 483.769233.19 0.196 401.119172.02 634.729290.80 0.008**
15 16 annual training hours 303.009169.74 343.949149.79 0.288 300.059138.90 362.029161.89 0.054
17 no. sessions/week 4.9192.05 5.6992.75 0.252 4.7392.59 5.2891.92 0.331
17 weekly intensity 14.5497.43 13.0895.26 0.415 12.2396.80 14.1394.83 0.193
17 weekly high intensity 10.6297.26 9.4895.76 0.549 8.5496.64 10.4995.57 0.205
17 annual high intensity 496.929344.53 434.739283.58 0.502 408.689317.32 472.159281.32 0.405
17 annual training load 635.629393.40 597.029291.38 0.693 558.289342.51 634.729290.80 0.342
17 annual training hours 410.009213.24 409.809175.42 0.997 378.329169.37 430.589189.15 0.268
13 17 annual high intensity 217.189146.34 294.939177.17 0.062 207.199137.07 329.309179.59 0.000***
13 17 annual training load 386.689179.04 460.689183.24 0.095 383.569152.76 488.829192.95 0.004**
13 17 total high intensity 591.919450.85 772.309543.07 0.156 540.339395.82 872.409568.72 0.001***
13 17 total training load 1008.79599.28 1180.09607.67 0.243 966.429499.55 1270.29648.29 0.008**
13 17 average hours 281.329153.51 310.449126.01 0.362 277.889121.14 323.109137.30 0.087
13 17 total training hours 744.689458.92 807.579415.06 0.539 717.219389.02 849.279441.11 0.119
*p B0.05; **p B0.01; ***p 50.001.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
13–14 years 15–16 years
13–14 years 15–16 years
Athletes by age group
No injury
Injury
Overuse
Stress fracture
Forced retirement
Level of weekly training intensity
Weekly training intensity
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Athletes by age group
No injury
Injury
Overuse
Stress fracture
Forced retirement
*
*
**
**
**
*
**
**
*
**
**
**
**
Level of weekly high–intensity training
Weekly high intensity training
Figure 1. The threshold effect of training intensity and high intensity. The graphs illustrate the relationship between weekly intense training
and weekly high intense training to injury, overuse injury, stress fracture and forced retirement for the younger age groups. *p B0.05;
**p B0.01.
4 D. J. Huxley et al.
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

Discussion
Although the results indicate that the training
frequencies of athletes in this study exceeded the
recommended guidelines of the ATFCA model
(Australian Track and Field Coaches Association
[ATFCA], n.d.) for youth athlete development in
both frequency (1315 years, 2 sessions/week)
and average weekly training hours for 1314 years
(5.69 hours vs. 3.0 hours), the findings were
similar to other youth athletics studies (Henriksen,
Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010; Orava & Saarela,
1978; Watson & DiMartino, 1987). However, the
athletes’ mean weekly training hours were significantly
lower than the training hours of elite youth athletes
in gymnastics, tennis and swimming (Maffulli, King,
& Helms, 1994). Although it is difficult to make
comparisons with other sports given the variation in
sport-specific training modalities, the total training
time was not a significant factor in injury prevalence,
a finding supported by other track and field studies
(Bennell & Crossley, 1996; Watson & DiMartino,
1987). The significant increase in training intensity
does not align with training practices of youth
athletes as reported by several studies ( Henriksen
et al., 2010; MacPhail & Kirk, 2006) emphasising
general development, variety and the correct technique
up to the age of 1516 years.
A number of possible explanations for the intense
level of training of these young athletes may include
participation in LA at a young age, unrealistic com-
petition structures, Australian performance standards
more difficult to achieve than the international
standards and coaches’ lack of knowledge regarding
youth athletes. LA is based on the adult competition
model typically incorporating event specific training.
Given the early commencement age in track and
field of the study cohort, it appears likely that many
of the athletes had acquired several years of athletic
training before they reached 13 years. If this is the
case, high-intensity training at 1314 years may be
accepted as the norm by the athletes, parents and
coaches. This may reflect the ‘catch them when
young’ philosophy of some coaches who prescribe
intensive training before adolescence in order to
achieve success (Baxter-Jones & Mundt, 2007).
Three separate competition pathways for youth
athletes in NSW are organised throughout the year
by sporting bodies independent of each other result-
ing in a year-round competition schedule. This may
partly explain why athletes reported high levels of
‘harder’ training all year. It has been recommended
that young athletes take 23 months off from specific
sport training and competition each year (Brenner,
2007) to ensure there are opportunities for complete
recovery. Between the ages of 15 and 17 years, a major
focus of elite youth squads is representing Australia
at four international competitions (Athletics Austra-
lia, 2011). The International Association of Athletics
Federations (IAAF) generally sets the entry stan-
dards for these competitions; however, Australian
entry standards are more difficult and may necessi-
tate higher intensity and training loads for athletes to
achieve these standards.
Coaches may lack specific knowledge and exper-
tise in coaching young athletes (MacPhail & Kirk,
2006; Shibli & Barrett, 2011) as much of the coach
education curriculum in Australia focuses on
adult training methods (Australian Track and Field
Coaches Association [ATFCA], 2011a). This is
supported by the ATFCA database which lists only
4.8% of coaches in NSW as having completed
the level 4 option ‘coaching the young athlete’
(Australian Track and Field Coaches Association
[ATFCA], 2011b), a course designed to coach 10
15 year old athletes (Australian Track and Field
Coaches Association [ATFCA], 2011a).
The results of this study showed that between the
ages of 13 and 17 years the risk of injury to youth
track and field athletes was high. Although previous
youth track and field studies report significant
variations in the number of athletes that sustain an
injury (Coulon et al., 2001; Orava & Saarela, 1978;
Watson & DiMartino, 1987), it is difficult to make
comparisons due to different injury definitions,
length of observation period and standard of
athletes.
The athletes’ elite status may be a factor in the
high number of injuries sustained as injury incidence
has been linked to higher competition level in youth
athletes (Maffulli et al., 1994). With the competition
demands and expectations of the athletes in this
study, one possible explanation for the occurrence of
multiple injuries maybe premature return to sport
before full rehabilitation (Orchard, 2001).
Consistent with other track and field studies
(Alonso et al., 2009; Bennell & Crossley, 1996;
D’Souza, 1994; Watson & DiMartino, 1987), the
majority of injuries occurred in the lower body, in
particular the foot and ankle. The most common
injuries included those involving muscle and tendon
damage and overuse injuries, again consistent with
the findings of other track and field studies in both
youth (Requa & Garrick, 1981; Watson & DiMartino,
1987) and senior athletes (Alonso et al., 2010;
Bennell & Crossley, 1996).
As with several other studies in track and field
(Bennell & Crossley, 1996; Coulon et al., 2001;
Requa & Garrick, 1981), gender was not a signifi-
cant factor in injury occurrence, although in this
study there was a trend for females to sustain more
overuse injuries.
The results indicate a significant association
between high-intensity training and high annual
Training profiles of elite youth track and field athletes 5
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

training load at 1316 years and high-intensity
training at 1516 years and injury, in particular
overuse injuries. This is consistent with findings
of previous studies that have associated overuse
injuries with excessive training loads, increases in
intensity and competition over scheduling (Brenner,
2007; Gerrard, 1993; Orava & Saarela, 1978). The
incidence of stress fractures, higher than some other
studies involving senior athletes, (Bennell & Crossley,
1996) together with the long periods of training and
competition time lost due to injury may also indicate
overtraining. The high percentage of athletes sus-
taining an overuse injury (60.2%) is a major concern
as analysis revealed a significant relationship between
forced retirement and having sustained an overuse
injury a finding supporting that of Ristolainen,
Kettunen, Kujala, and Heinonen (2012).
In this study, 17.3% of the injured athletes were
forced to retire due to injury compared with 8% of
Australian Gymnasts (aged 919 years; similar
sample size) studied over a 10-year period (Dixon
& Fricker, 1993). Track and field is regarded as a late
specialisation sport (Balyi, 2001) with athletes peak-
ing in mid- to late twenties (Shibli & Barrett, 2011),
whereas gymnastics is an early specialisation sport
with a large amount of deliberate practice from an
early age (Balyi, 2001). Based on this comparison, it
may be speculated that early specialisation in LA
from a young age together with intense training
between 13 and 16 years are compounding factors in
premature retirement due to injury.
As shown in Figure 1, there are thresholds in the
amount of intense training younger athletes were
able to cope with. Exceeding these thresholds either
through intense or high-intensity training signifi-
cantly increased the risk of injury, and in particular
stress fractures. Loud, Gordon, Micheli, and Field
(2005) similarly reported a threshold or ‘break point’
in relation to stress fractures in preadolescent and
adolescent girls involved in high impact activities
such as running. Interestingly, the training profile in
relation to injury occurrence at 17 years was not a
significant factor. One possible explanation for this
may be Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’ principle
with the ‘survivors’ by age 17 genetically predisposed
to successfully adapting to the greater training loads
during growth and maturation (Capranica & Millard-
Stafford, 2011). However, as 36% of the athletes
surveyed did not complete details as a 17-year-old
athlete (either they were under 17 years of age or
retired before they reached 17), the sample size may
have been too small to reveal significant differences.
Limitations
As for all studies of this type it is limited by the
reliance on a self-reported retrospective recall of the
athlete’s training and injury history. In an attempt to
minimise recall bias associated with training history,
athletes were questioned on specific habitual experi-
ences as previous research has indicated a better
recall of this type of information (Leite, 2009) with
reliable recall being demonstrated in younger elite
athletes for periods of 2025 years (Baker et al.,
2003). It was hypothesised that because training
activities play such an important part in athletes’
lives recall of such activities may be more accurate
(Moesch, Elbe, Hauge, & Wikman, 2011). The
study is also limited by utilising a subjective rating
of training intensity; however, given that children
younger than 10 years are able to accurately rate
their perceived effort (Eston, Lamb, Bain, Williams,
& Williams, 1994), it is postulated that older
athletes’ perceived rating of effort should be reason-
ably accurate. A prospective longitudinal study using
a weekly training diary is needed to address these
limitations to confirm the findings of this study.
Finally, we utilised a time loss injury definition
(3 weeks) which provides a conservative profile
of injuries sustained. This definition was used
as previous studies (Askling, Lund, Saartok, &
Thorstensson, 2002; Ristolainen et al., 2012) sug-
gest injury recall bias is mitigated in relation to
serious injuries that had longer symptoms and
affected performance and training or required con-
sultation by a physician (Twellaar, Verstappen &
Huson, 1996).
Given the limitations outlined caution must be
exercised in generalising these findings to other track
and field populations. While training intensity
was linked to increased injury occurrence it is
only one of many factors (psychological, behavioural
and environmental) that need to be considered in
understanding injury in youth athletes.
Practical applications
This study has several practical applications for the
training, coaching and competition structure for elite
youth track and field athletes. The high incidence of
overuse injuries and its link to early retirement reflect
a need for specific education programmes targeting
those working directly with youth track and field
athletes. Injury in youth athletes has been attributed
to intense and long competition calendars and
research suggests that the focus in the adolescent
years should be on development rather than results
and competition. The outcome of the study may
raise awareness within the governing bodies of the
sport of the possible injury risks associated with the
current competition structure in Australia for youth
track and field athletes and in turn open up the
exploration of alternate pathways. As exceeding a
training intensity ‘threshold’ led to increased injury
6 D. J. Huxley et al.
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

risk in youth athletes, a simple method in which
athletes rate perceived intensity could be adopted
and implemented to monitor and keep training
intensity below the threshold.
Conclusion
Training intensity and load at 1314 years and high-
intensity training at 1516 years are associated with
sustaining an injury as a 1317 year old athlete.
Injury severity led to significant time loss from
training and competition and in 17.3% of cases to
forced retirement. Training intensely at 1316 years
resulted in a high percentage of overuse injuries but
total training time was not a factor in injury implying
the type, not training duration is the contributing
factor to injury. Possible explanations for the athletes’
high training intensities and loads between 13 and
16 years include year-round competition focus,
elevated Australian standards, early commencement
of training and competition through LA and inade-
quate coach qualifications. However, as the current
study was retrospective, a prospective longitudinal
study with a large sample is required to assess the
causal nature of training intensity and injuries.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Principal Scientist
Kenneth Graham and Research Coordinator Sera
Dogramaci from the New South Wales Institute of
Sport for their support and assistance, and athletes
and parents for their cooperation and participation
in the study.
References
Alonso, J.-M., Junge, A., Renstro
¨
m, P., Engebretsen, L.,
Mountjoy, M., & Dvorak, J. (2009). Sports injuries surveil-
lance during the 2007 IAAF World Athletics Championships.
Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19(1), 2632. doi:10.1097/
JSM.0b013e318191c8e7
Alonso, J.-M., Tscholl, P. M., Engebretsen, L., Mountjoy, M.,
Dvorak, J., & Junge, A. (2010). Occurrence of injuries and
illnesses during the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Champion-
ships. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(15), 11001105.
doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.078030
Askling, C., Lund, H., Saartok, T., & Thorstensson, A. (2002).
Self-reported hamstring injuries in student-dancers. Scandi-
navian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 12(4), 230
235. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0838.2002.00237.x
Athletics Australia. (2011). Junior high performance program.
Retrieved from http://www.athletics.com.au/high_performance/
1827
Australian Track and Field Coaches Association (ATFCA).
(2011a). Coach education. Retrieved from http://www.atfca.
com.au/coacheducation.ews
Australian Track and Field Coaches Association (ATFCA).
(2011b). Find a coach database. Retrieved from http://www.
atfca.com.au/findcoach.ews
Australian Track and Field Coaches Association (ATFCA).
(n.d.). Recommendations and guidelines for parents and coaches
involved in the sports of athletics. Ashmore: Author.
Baker, J., Cote, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Sport-specific practice
and the development of expert decision-making in team ball
sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(1), 1225.
doi:10.1080/10413200305400
Balyi, I. (2001). Sport system building and long-term athlete
development in British Columbia. Burnaby: SportsMed.
Retrieved from http://www.sportdevelopment.info/index.php/
subjects/52-performance/192-sport-system-building-and-long-
term-athlete-development-in-british-columbia
Baxter-Jones, A., & Mundt, C. (2007). The young athlete. In
N. Armstrong (Ed.), Paediatric exercise physiology  Advances in
sport and exercise science series (pp. 299324). Philadelphia, PA:
Churchill Livingston Elsevier.
Bennell, K. L., & Crossley, K. (1996). Musculoskeletal injuries in
track and field: Incidence, distribution and risk factors.
Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 28(3),
69 75. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
8937661
Bennie, A., & O’Connor, D. (2006). Athletic transition: An
investigation of elite track and field participation in the post-
high school years. Change: Transformations in Education, 9(1),
59 68. Retrieved from http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/
2123/4537/1/Vol9No1Article6.pdf
Brenner, J. S. (2007). Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout
in child and adolescent athletes. Pediatrics, 119(6), 12421245.
doi:10.1542/peds.2007-0887
Caine, D., DiFiori, J., & Maffulli, N. (2006). Physeal injuries in
children’s and youth sports: Reasons for concern? British
Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(9), 749760. doi:10.1136/
bjsm.2005.017822
Capranica, L., & Millard-Stafford, M. L. (2011). Youth sport
specialization: How to manage competition and training?
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 6,572
579. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
22174125
Coulon, L., Lackey, G., Mok, M., & Nile, D. (2001). A profile of
little athletes’ injuries and the prevention methods used.
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4(1), 4858.
doi:10.1016/S1440-2440(01)80007-4
Difori, J. P. (2010). Evaluation of overuse injuries in children and
adolescents. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6), 372378.
doi:10.1249/JSR.0b013e3181fdba58
Dixon, M., & Fricker, P. (1993) Injuries to elite gymnasts over
10 yr. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(12),
13221329. doi:10.1249/00005768-199312000-00002
D’Souza, D. (1994). Track and field athletics injuries-a one-year
survey. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(3), 197202.
doi:10.1136/bjsm.28.3.197
Engebretsen, L., Steffen, K., Bahr, R., Broderick, C., Dvorak, J.,
Janarv, P.-M., ...Steen, H. (2010). The international Olympic
Committee high-level consensus statement on age determina-
tion in young athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(7),
476484. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.073122
Eston, R. G., Lamb, K. L., Bain, A., Williams, A. M., & Williams,
J. G. (1994). Validity of a perceived exertion scale for children:
A pilot study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(2), 691697.
doi:10.2466/pms.1994.78.2.691
Gerrard, D. F. (1993) Overuse injury and growing bones: The
young athlete at risk. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(1),
14 18. doi:10.1136/bjsm.27.1.14
Helsen, W. F., Starkes, J. L., & Hodges, N. J. (1998). Team sports
and the theory of deliberate practice. Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 20,1234. Retrieved from http://journals.
humankinetics.com/jsep-back-issues/jsepvolume20issue1march/
teamsportsandthetheoryofdeliberatepractice
Training profiles of elite youth track and field athletes 7
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013

Henriksen, K., Stambulova, N., & Roessler, K. K. (2010).
Successful talent development in track and field: Considering
the role of environment. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine &
Science in Sports, 20(2), 122132. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.
2010.01187.x
Leite, N. (2009). Paths to expertise in Portuguese national team
athletes. Journal of Sports, Science and Medicine, 8, 560566.
Retrieved from http://www.jssm.org/vol8/n4/11/v8n4-11pdf.
pdf
Loud, K. J., Gordon, C. M., Micheli, L. J., & Field, A. E. (2005).
Correlates of stress fractures among preadolescent and adoles-
cent girls. Pediatrics, 115(4), e399e406. doi:10.1542/peds.
2004-1868
MacPhail, A., & Kirk, D. (2006). Young people’s socialisation into
sport: Experiencing the specialising phase. Leisure Studies,
25(1), 5774. doi:10.1080/02614360500116290
Maffulli, N., King, J. B., & Helms, P. (1994). Training in e´lite
young athletes (the training of young athletes [TOYA] study):
Injuries flexibility and isometric strength. British Journal of
Sports Medicine, 28(2), 123136. doi:10.1136/bjsm.28.2.123
Memmert, D., Baker, J., & Bertsch, C. (2010). Play and practice
in the development of sport specific creativity in team ball
sports. High Ability Studies, 21(1), 318. doi:10.1080/
13598139.2010.488083
Moesch, K., Elbe, A.-M., Hauge, M.-L. T., & Wikman, J. M.
(2011). Late specialization: The key to success in centimeters,
grams, or seconds (cgs) sports. Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports, 21(6), e282e290. doi:10.1111/
j.1600-0838.2010.01280.x
Mountjoy, M., Armstrong, N., Bizzini, L., Blimkie, C., Evans, J.,
Gerrard, D., ...Van Mechelen, W. (2008). IOC consensus
statement training the elite child athlete. British Journal of
Sports Medicine, 42(3), 163164. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.
044016
Orava, S., & Saarela, J. (1978). Exertion injuries to young
athletes: A follow-up research of orthopaedic problems of
young track and field athletes. The American Journal of Sports
Medicine, 6(2), 6874. doi:10.1177/036354657800600206
Orchard, J. A. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for
muscle strains in Australian football. The American Journal of
Sports Medicine, 29, 300303. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11394599
Requa, R. K., & Garrick, J. G. (1981). Injuries in interscholastic
track and field. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 9(3), 4249.
Ristolainen, L., Kettunen, J. A., Kujala, U. M., & Heinonen, A.
(2012). Sport injuries as the main cause of sport career
termination among Finnish top-level athletes. European Journal
of Sport Science, 12(3), 274282. doi:10.1080/17461391.
2011.566365
Schulz, M. R., Marshall, S. W., Mueller, F. O., Yang, J., Weaver,
N. A., & Bowling, M. J. (2004). A prospective cohort study of
injury incidence and risk factors in North Carolina high school
competitive cheerleaders. The American Journal of Sports
Medicine, 32(2), 396405. doi:10.1177/0363546503261715
Shibli, S., & Barrett, D. (2011). Bridging the gap ...Research to
provide insight into the development and retention of young athletes.
Retrieved from http://www.englandathletics.org/core/core_
picker/download.asp?id6360
Soberlak, P., & Cote, J. (2003). The developmental activities of
elite ice hockey players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
15(1), 4149. doi:10.1080/10413200305401
Twellaar, M., Verstappen, F. T. J., & Huson, A. (1996). Is
prevention of sports injuries a realistic goal? A four-year
prospective investigation of sports injuries among physical
education students. The American Journal of Sports Medicine,
24(4), 528534. doi:10.1177/036354659602400419
Watson, M. D., & DiMartino, P. P. (1987). Incidence of injuries in
high school track and field athletes and its relation to
performance ability. The American Journal of Sports Medicine,
15(3), 251254. doi:10.1177/036354658701500310
8 D. J. Huxley et al.
Downloaded by [Dianne Huxley] at 03:52 19 June 2013