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The food system: A stranger to the planning field
Abstract
Planning lays claim to being comprehensive, future-oriented, and public-interest driven, and of wanting to enhance the livability of communities. It is concerned with community systems-such as land use, housing, transportation, the environment, and the economy-and their interconnections. The food system, however, is notable by its absence from most planning practice, research, and education. We present evidence for the limited presence of the food system in planning's list of concerns by scanning leading journals, texts, and classic writings, and by reporting on a survey of 22 U.S. city planning agencies. We analyze this low level of attention and discuss reasons and ideas for planning involvement to strengthen community food systems.
... However, these comprehensive, often utopian visions could not easily be imposed on the spatial complexities of industrial cities and conflicted with many different interests. In addition, the central place of agriculture in the visions of foundational planning thinkers had been lost over a number of decades to the point that, by the end of the 20th century, agriculture and food systems were deemed a "stranger to the planning field" [22]. Key food system components such as public markets or production sites were deliberately zoned out of cities or hidden by dominant aesthetic ideologies such as the City Beautiful movement [18,22]. ...
... In addition, the central place of agriculture in the visions of foundational planning thinkers had been lost over a number of decades to the point that, by the end of the 20th century, agriculture and food systems were deemed a "stranger to the planning field" [22]. Key food system components such as public markets or production sites were deliberately zoned out of cities or hidden by dominant aesthetic ideologies such as the City Beautiful movement [18,22]. With the resurgence of interest in urban agriculture and food systems, planners and designers have had to reconstruct a historical discourse around the planning of food and productive spaces in the city that does not build on these foundational figures. ...
... In addition to the spatial approach of "scaling up" urban agriculture, the strategy of "scaling out" links sites of production to other sectors of the food system-aggregating distributing, processing, marketing, eating places, and post consumption-expanding the scope and impact of individual sites. The increasingly common practice of food system assessments and plans looks at each sector in space and how it functions in relation to other sectors [22]. This systems thinking opens up many points for possible intervention in shaping city and region. ...
The proliferation of urban agriculture on an array of urban spaces is one of the more visible responses to perceived failures of contemporary food systems. This paper seeks to identify fundamental strategies connected to food system change efforts, linking these with diverse attempts at designing and planning the productive city. It first situates the contemporary concept of the productive city within a broader historical dialogue of foundational figures in urban and regional planning, architecture, and landscape architecture for whom food production was a central component of future cities. Recently, a growing number of practitioners have theorized the need for integrating urban agriculture in urban design and planning. Across this spectrum of emerging theory and practice, we identify three approaches to designing productive cities. First, spatial design strategies identify new territories for food production. These offer the potential for systems design thinking that links the individual spaces of production to other sectors of food systems that extend across networks of spaces and multiple scales. Finally, both spatial and systems design involve strategies of designing productive infrastructures of soils, water, nutrients, and other essential flows. The engagement with spaces of production, food systems, and productive infrastructure opens up a range of challenges as well as opportunities for emerging forms of practice and design thinking for the productive city.
... Future trends of food retail modernization must incorporate hybrids of local and international supermarket chains to address the needs of both traditional shoppers and convenience shoppers. The influence of access to transport and distance of residence from supermarkets cited by Goldman, (2000) underscore the role of urban planning in strengthening food systems in communities (Pothukuchi & Kaufman 2000). The food system has vital connections with community systems including contributing to the city's economy, health, waste and transportation systems. ...
... The food system has vital connections with community systems including contributing to the city's economy, health, waste and transportation systems. Despite these interconnections, urban food systems are excluded from urban design and physical planning, social planning, environmental planning and technology planning (Pothukuchi & Kaufman 2000). Reasons for this exclusion include the lack of funding for planning and private market driven food systems (Pothukuchi & Kaufman 2000). ...
... Despite these interconnections, urban food systems are excluded from urban design and physical planning, social planning, environmental planning and technology planning (Pothukuchi & Kaufman 2000). Reasons for this exclusion include the lack of funding for planning and private market driven food systems (Pothukuchi & Kaufman 2000). Failure to integrate urban planning and food systems undermines food security in communities for example creation of food deserts (Guthman 2008 andShort, 2008 in Table 1). ...
The study of urban food security has evolved dramatically over the past few decades. This evolution has been punctuated, and catalyzed, by insights into the dynamic transformation of food systems in cities. The evolution of this field, as revealed by its scholarly writings, provides an important vantage point for understanding both the dynamic transformation of the urban food system as well as the lens through which that transformation has been understood. This investigation adopted a bibliometric methodology, blending quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques, to assess the dynamic evolution of the literature over time. This methodology included a quantitative analysis of the metadata for 162 publications on urban food security. The results of this analysis provided an overview of research progress, historical and evolutionary trends, geographic disparities, keyword distribution, networks of collaboration, and key thematic foci. The quantitative analysis is complemented with a qualitative examination of top publications in the field. The results present a historical narrative of the evolution of urban food security research. In particular, the results indicate that the field has diversified its foci along key distinctions in food access and supply. The findings also identify common strategies and challenges inherent to the governance of urban food systems. In summary, this investigation provides a unique vantage point for discovering the evolution of urban food security and the perspectives that have defined that evolution.
... Households with income near or below the poverty level also reported higher rates of food insecurity (Coleman-Jenson et al. 2018). As food supply issues have great relevance to urban areas, there has been a call for policies that enhance food security (Pothukuchi and Kaufman 2000). ...
... Planning departments can also integrate planning functions into a framework of existing municipal responsibilities. For example, the planning department can provide direction to a housing authority or social services department in identifying ways their projects can promote urban agriculture practices (Pothukuchi and Kaufman 2000). ...
... While China's unparalleled economic growth has done much to reduce poverty and alleviate food insecurity challenges at the national level, the challenges of ensuring the food security of new urban populations necessitated the development and adoption of new national and local food policies and governance structures. While food security has been and will continue to be a challenge for Chinese cities, many local governments have gradually developed and integrated comprehensive food security policies into city planning [51], although the trajectory and substance of policy development has varied between different regions and cities. Planning for food security has not been particularly strong or effective in other countries undergoing rapid urbanization which makes the Chinese case of particular interest and relevance in other jurisdictions, particularly at the local government level. ...
... Food waste management in China is largely separated from food system governance, although it has been a critical component of central regulations and policies such as the 12th and 13th Five-Year Plan. In recent years, several Chinese cities have started to formalize their food waste management system to foster the non-hazardous treatment and reuse of food waste [51,70]. In 2015, Nanjing has also developed a food waste management system including household recycling [71,72], but it has not been integrated into comprehensive food system planning. ...
Food system planning is important to achieve the goal of “zero hunger” in the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN, 2016). However, discussion about comprehensive planning for food security is scarce and little is known about the situation in Chinese cities. To narrow this gap, this study collected and analyzed four medium-term plans and two annual plans for the “vegetable basket project” in Nanjing, China. This study examines the strategies for urban food security in Nanjing to shed light on how the city developed a comprehensive approach to food system planning over the past three decades. The evolution of incremental food system planning in Nanjing provides valuable lessons for other cities facing food security challenges and shortages of financial resources. Reducing food insecurity is an ongoing challenge for the city governments in the Global South and comprehensive planning is a useful tool for addressing the challenge of urban food insecurity.
... Food systems considerations are an increasingly indispensable focus in urban planning. Resilient food systems, the systems and infrastructures needed for food production, processing, distribution, consumption and disposal (Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000), are required to ensure food security for residents, and the ability of cities and regions to cope with the potential food supply chain disruption effects from climate change (Zeuli et al., 2018). Environmental impacts from climate change are amplified in the urban context as complete reliance upon long-distance food transport in urban areas can easily be disrupted by extreme flooding, heat waves, and ice storms (Zeuli et al., 2018). ...
... The food system planning literature has grown by leaps and bounds since the publication of Pothukuchi and Kaufman's (2000) seminal paper, "The Food System: A Stranger to the Planning Field", which identified a major gap in the planning field. Until that point (with a few exceptions see Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow, 1965;Parham, 1990) food considerations were not seen as an important part of the planning domain and planners often made land use and policy decisions that directly or indirectly negatively impacted or ignored community food security. ...
Food asset mapping is an emerging tool to promote food security and food resiliency in Canadian cities. It provides a baseline of a city’s food assets and identifies local food infrastructures that can support community food security. Mainstream food asset maps predominantly focus on the built environment, giving less consideration to the natural environment and social assets. Moreover, in the absence of community perspectives, informal, and racialized food spaces might not even be considered. Drawing upon the findings from a community focus group and food asset mapping workshop, we engaged diverse community members from the City of Vancouver (n=20) to further define and identify key food assets in Vancouver. Of note, several participants raised their discomfort with the term “asset”, especially within the context of colonialization in Vancouver, and raised the question of who gets to define what is and what is not a “food asset.”
... Throughout the twentieth century, planning theory and planning practice paid little attention to the spatial footprint of the food system (Pothukuchi and Kaufman 2000). Today, however, food production is a fast-developing guiding principle in contemporary paradigms on urban design and planning; Agricultural Urbanism (De La Salle and Holland 2010), Food Urbanism (Verzone 2012), Agrarian Urbanism (Waldheim 2018), and Agroecological Urbanism (Tornaghi and Dehaene 2020) are the names of the game. ...
Following the renewed attention for food production near cities, multiple concepts propose the creation of spaces for food production at the rural-urban fringe (RUF). The RUF is an area of multiple policy domains and, as a consequence, those new concepts are confronted with complexity when put into practice. Local planning history is part of the complexity as it casts shadows on contemporary planning debate and practice. This paper explores how past policies at the RUF impact the current and future policy work on spaces for local food production via comparative study of the postwar planning histories of the RUF's in Copenhagen and Brussels. The paper addresses both policies within the urban realm, e.g. the planning of urban open spaces at the border of the city, and policies within the rural realm, e.g. the land-use rights in agricultural land and land consolidation projects. The comparative study identifies some key challenges with regards to the supply of space for local food production at the RUF in Copenhagen and the RUF in Brussels. Moreover, the paper stresses that a thorough understanding of the planning history is a prerequisite for effective food planning near the city to avoid repeating errors of the past.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Explains why we need to look beyond agriculture and trade and embrace a holistic food systems perspective
Broaches an array of issues relating to resilience and food security, including gender, climate change, and COVID-19
Appeals to a broad audience, from academics to policymakers, students to practitioners
This book is open access, which means that you have free and unlimited access
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Climate change poses significant risks to our food systems, thus jeopardising the food security of millions of people worldwide. The concept of resilience is increasingly being proposed as a framework to find solutions to these challenges. In this chapter, we assess how resilience has been integrated in discussions about climate change and food security by both academics and practitioners. We performed a targeted review of the academic literature on climate change, food security, and resilience and found that despite a growing body of literature on the subject, the pathways through which actions translate into resilience and then into food security remain unclear. An examination of a sample of projects implemented through the Adaptation Fund revealed that many good practices with potential for resilience-building are used but also that suitable indicators and methods to monitor and evaluate resilience and its outcomes are lacking. Based on our findings, we conclude that while the concept of resilience has accompanied and may have favoured a transition towards more integrated approaches and interventions in work related to climate change and food security, further efforts are needed to identify an efficient and rational sequence of interventions to improve food security in response to climate threats.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Linking the concepts of food systems and resilience offers the opportunity to strengthen our understanding of these concepts, the potential they hold for more informed policy discussions, and the design and implementation of interventions that will better deliver on food security outcomes. This chapter outlines how these twin concepts can be linked conceptually and empirically. It argues that while we know much about certain elements of the food system, specifically production and consumption, our understanding of the processing and distribution components of the food system are weak. For example, market structure in the processing sector and market integration can contribute to food system resilience, but these are rarely measured at a country level. This makes efforts to measure resilience at the system-level challenging. Understanding what can make a resilient food system has important implications for policy and intervention design. Building resilient food systems requires that policymakers grapple with trade-offs and tensions such as those between the benefits of diversification versus gains from specialization; and how openness to trade reduces vulnerability to domestic shocks to the food system while exposing it to external shocks. How best to manage these will be an important challenge to address.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
The aim of this introduction chapter is twofold. First it will set the scene, frame the overarching problem and present the central question of this volume: How does the concept of resilience help in improving our general understanding of the development process, in particular around the issue of food (in)security, and how does it influence the way development interventions around this question of food security are now programmed and implemented? To address this ambitious question, the entire series of chapters will adopt a food system approach. The second part of the introduction chapter will then ‘kick-start’ the discussion, first by providing some initial element of definition for the three concepts under consideration and then by highlighting some of the main discussions, debates or even contradictions that emerge in the literature around the definition, interpretations and application of those concepts.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Food systems have outcomes related to three goals: food and nutrition security; livelihoods and economic inclusion; and environmental sustainability. Place-based approaches help to delineate the adequate territories in which coalitions of actors can address such goals. In the case of food, they facilitate food system resilience through identifying opportunities for adaptation to change and offer risk management to deal with external shocks. In many countries, local authorities and communities were central in the early response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The South African experience is illustrative of their potential roles in a time of crisis. Although South Africa’s provinces have restricted competency for food system governance, the Western Cape Province adopted a pro-active approach and developed from 2014 a food security strategy where it commits to a wide range of interventions. Related and following local debates provided a fertile context which allowed further engagement about ways to improve food governance. It facilitated the emergence of multiple community-led initiatives to address the loss of livelihoods and food insecurity during the crisis. This experience illustrates the potential to produce polycentric forms of governance that can progressively result in collaborative governance; it also reveals how embryonic territorial approaches addressing food system issues can emerge.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
The concept of resilience within urban food systems has gained significant academic and policy focus in recent years. This aligns with the increased global awareness of the problem of urban food insecurity, and increased focus on sub-national policies for sustainable development. COVID-19 demonstrated a series of vulnerabilities in the food system and the urban system. Academic work on urban food system resilience is wide ranging, however particular areas of focus dominate, focusing on urban agriculture, localized food systems, resilient city region food systems and the water-energy-food nexus. Renewed interest in resilience policy at the local government level has been amplified by global networks, whose framing of urban food systems resilience is embedded within the SDGs and the New Urban Agenda. Using findings from cities in five African countries, we argue for a re-framing of urban food system resilience that is inclusive of a wider set of factors shaping the form and function of the food system; that the urban system, specifically infrastructure, shapes the functioning of the food system and the ability of consumers to use the food system; and that the agency of urban food system users needs inclusion in understandings of, and efforts to increase, food systems resilience.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Achieving food security for the global population of 8 billion will be a challenge without functional, equitable, and resilient food systems. This chapter examines the history of how food security has been framed and addressed in international development, and the importance of a food systems approach and mindset in tackling food security. While this new food systems framing is important in bringing together the myriad of actors and components that food touches upon, food security has become more complex in the modern, challenged world, and functional food systems do not necessarily equate to improved food security. As international goals and commitments are made, policymakers must consider how food systems engage with other systems, and the failures and successes that history has taught us in efforts to achieve food security for all.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Resilience offers a useful lens for studying how human well-being and agri-food systems absorb and recover from a range of shocks and stressors, including the COVID-19 pandemic. Looking beyond the direct effects of observable shocks to the mechanisms that shape their impacts can guide our understanding of COVID-19 and leverage findings from the pandemic to better understand resilience to future shocks. We develop a conceptual framework for the multiple paths through which observed shocks interact with systemic mechanisms to influence resilience. We illustrate this framework with reference to the pandemic and policy responses as they unfolded in three rural areas in Malawi, Madagascar, and Kenya. Consistent with this framework, we find multiple pathways through which the pandemic affected household food security and resilience. Our findings highlight that, in some settings, the direct effects—in this case severe illness and mortality from SARS-CoV-2—may impact fewer people than the indirect impacts that arise as behaviors, markets, and policies adjust. We illustrate that although COVID-19 is a new shock, its massive, broad-reaching impacts manifest through familiar stressors and uncertainties that frequently burden poor rural populations in much of the low- and middle-income world.
... They need to be put in perspective with processes of decentralization, which have spread worldwide at different paces since the 1980s, with differences depending on the characteristics of the state and the political regime (Beard et al., 2008;Faguet, 2014). Roles attributed to local governments are heterogeneous, but food and food systems' related issues are generally not in their mandates, even if local food system planning was identified as requiring 331 attention two decades ago (Buchan et al., 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
The published narratives on food resilience of 16 development agencies are analysed. Using a rapid appraisal method, their positions and conception of resilience as a factor in food security are scrutinised. The study provides a snapshot of thought in 2020 and 2021. The COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, biodiversity loss and a policy focus on food systems have made resilience prominent in food policy. Firstly, concerns are raised that resilience may follow food security in its plasticity, blunting its critical edge. Secondly, the methods are explained. Thirdly, the findings are presented and organised by agency type. Fourthly, the findings are discussed. A fractured consensus around food resilience is noted. Despite broad agreement that resilience is a useful dimension for food security, there is no mutually agreed systematic conceptualisation or framework. Agencies use different definitions, approaches and measurements in their discourse, with varying levels of complexity. Some agencies adopt resilience as a buzzword, while others make it central to their institutional approach. The chapter concludes that, although resilience is emerging as core concept, its value would be strengthened with interdisciplinary attention paid to how food resilience is measured; unless this occurs, the risk is that resilience will be diluted as it becomes ubiquitous.
... This special issue originates in the (re)emergence of the food question in urban contexts in North America and Europe over the first two decades of the twenty-first century (Pothukuchi and Kaufman, 2000;Steel, 2009;Morgan, 2009;Perrin and Soulard, 2014;Brand, 2015;among others). Previously neglected as a planning issue, food has been put firmly back on the territorial agenda by urban movements and the issues raised by urbanisation (including sustainable development, urban nature, urban farming and alternative food systems). ...
... Twenty years ago, it was already concluded that the food system is not commonly included in spatial planning (Pothukuchi, 2000), but vis-à-vis in food system research and policies spatialization cannot be taken for granted, neither strategized. Just recently, different approaches are emerging that underline the importance. ...
As food systems are highly complex, so is the spatial dimension. The act of spatialization is an act that challenges you. It is not just about the results. It is especially the journey that counts. The act of spatialization will support you and all food system actors to better grasp the food system and better target strategies and solutions. A continuous process, in which spatialization helps to build a better common understanding of current food systems and strategizing future food systems in a broader perspective. In this brochure we take you along a journey and hope to inspire you to improve the Act of Spatialization in your work. It’s not an A to Z-guidance, but aims at initiating thoughts and actions.
... In the mid-twentieth century, agricultural systems expanded and moved further away from cities, while the growth of supermarket distribution chains reduced reliance on local food markets and effectively removed food and farming from the remit of urban planning (Donofrio, 2007). Although most cities, including Melbourne, have long histories of urban food production, the food system is now "a stranger to the planning field" (Pothukuchi and Kaufman, 2000). That agricultural activities have long been regarded as separate and distinct from urban life (and zoned accordingly) is a cultural barrier that remains embedded in local and state planning frameworks, despite growing community and government interest in the benefits of urban agriculture. ...
Despite the diverse benefits of urban agriculture, there is limited research into urban agriculture as a sector in Victoria. This report presents findings from a survey of urban agriculture practitioners in Melbourne, Bendigo, Ballarat and Geelong. The findings include the sector’s composition, activities, market channels, challenges, needs and aspirations, as well as opportunities for sector support and growth. The report also proposes a roadmap for addressing critical challenges that face the sector and for building on the strength of its social and environmental commitments.
These findings and recommendations are of relevance to policymakers at all levels of government, especially as food security, climate change, human and ecological health and urban sustainability emerge as key interconnected priorities in this challenging decade.
... Thus, after a period during which these issues were neglected, cities now seem to be increasingly interested in food issues, driven by citizens' enthusiasm and by rising concerns including increasing urban food insecurity (Brand et al., 2019;Pothukuchi et al., 2000;Steel, 2013). This situation is even more acute in times of conflict and global trade disorders as the Russo-Ukrainian War revealed in 2022. ...
To better understand policy integration dynamics, this paper analyses the early implementation of three urban food policies in France (Montpellier, Rennes, Strasbourg). A key challenge of food policies is their intersectoral nature, while policy design is usually meant to be sectoral. This article seeks to understand both levers and brakes to the implementation of effective integrated policies at the urban level. To explore the making and “everydayness” of the three policy case studies, we collected empirical data based on a multi-faceted methodology comprising a wide review of the grey literature, 29 in-depth interviews, and several series of participant observations on the ground. Our analysis indicates that dedicated organisational resources, including assigned units, trained staff and appropriate financial resources, are keys to the deployment of integrated food policies. We argue that such organisational resources should be more systematically studied in the policy integration literature. Local food policies should also be assessed more critically by putting the organisational resources they receive into perspective with the massive use the local government can make of them for communication purposes.
... Cities constitute specific scales of action for food systems in urban food planning (Morgan, 2009(Morgan, , 2013Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). Urban areas are recognised as key actors in food policies through the planning of local food systems at the urban and metropolitan scales (Moragues-Faus & Morgan, 2015) and from a city's regional perspective (Blay-Palmer et al., 2018). ...
This paper focuses on the research pathway related to the drafting of a strategic Agri-Food Plan of Rome. The paper highlights the theoretical background and investigates the strategic vision and actions, as well as the role played by the Covid-19 Pandemic by changing priorities. The merging between two strands of study is identified: urban food strategies and sustainability in the debate on post Covid-19 food planning studies and the analysis of local agri-food systems for economic development. This work shows that in the case of urban and metropolitan areas around the Mediterranean, agriculture, the cultural dimension of food, logistics, research and innovation, and tourism marketing can be included within a single planning and policy tool. In the case of Rome, the place-based approach allowed us to consider the specificities of social and spatial contexts with interactions of market drivers with public institutions. This approach may constitute a promising path of research for the future of sustainable planning, particularly in Mediterranean cities. The results have interesting policy implications that should be more explicitly considered in addressing urban agendas, and in particular, the role of food to promote local development by integrating economic, social, and environmental and spatial values at a regional scale.
... In North America, the discussion about food systems as part of the planning portfolio can be traced back to the early 2000s. Pothukuchi and Kaufman [1], [2] were among the first to address the absence of food systems from planning practice. At that time, community food security was the primary driver behind Pothukuchi and Kaufman's work which revealed that few planners in America viewed food systems as part of the planning portfolio and, more concerningly, that few planners perceived "food system issues to be particularly problematic" [1]- [3, p. 5]. ...
... Ongoing trends, however, indicate that there is little difference in the demand for supermarket items across low to high income terciles in Africa and Asia with regards to the consumption of non-staple and processed food (Reardon et al., 2019). Despite this shared demand for supermarket products across income groups, the neglect of low-income communities as sites for supermarket locations may mean that the food security of such communities will be undermined by urban planning (Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). This trend may result in the creation of urban food deserts. ...
As an indicator of a potential broader nutrition transition, the supermarketization of urban food systems in the Global South has become a growing area of research interest. While the rising dominance of supermarkets in urban food systems has been noted in several global cities in the Global South, there have been fewer investigations into the spatial and demographic characteristics that may govern the patronage of supermarkets in smaller secondary cities. This paper assesses this supermarketization trend via an investigation of supermarket patronage in a secondary city through a 2014 household survey of Matola, Mozambique ( n = 507). Using a combination of descriptive statistics and decision tree learning algorithms, the findings suggest a strong geographic pattern to supermarket patronage among the surveyed households in Matola. Further analyses comparing frequent and infrequent supermarket patrons confirms the observation that spatial distance may be a more significant determinant of supermarket patronage than household wealth among the surveyed households in Matola. These findings suggest that the spatial availability of supermarkets may play a greater role in defining the supermarketization of Matola’s food system than household entitlements. These findings also have implications for the evolving concept of urban food deserts in secondary cities, recognizing the role of spatial location in determining household access to supermarkets.
... Alongside countless social practices and a decisive increase in food-related social movements, this has led to several parallel but strongly interrelated developments in the policy, planning and research fields. Planning scholars have transformed the topic of food from being 'a stranger in the planning field' (Pothukuchi and Kaufman 2000) into the dedicated academic field of sustainable food planning (Cabannes and Marocchino 2018;Ilieva 2016;Morgan 2009Morgan , 2013van der Valk and Viljoen 2014). Local and regional actors have produced a broad range of food-related vision documents, strategies and policy initiatives (Calori et al. 2017;Candel 2020). ...
The development of urban food policies has shed light on the strategic role of public landownership for strengthening farmers capacities in the context of rising land values. Despite attention on a few pioneering farming initiatives promoted by local authorities on public farmland, however, there is often little understanding of the extent of public landownership and the modus operandi of public institutions within urban land markets. This makes it hard to assess how representative these ‘pioneering’ projects are, and whether or not they are embedded in coherent urban agendas. The city region of Ghent (Belgium) offers an exemplary case: internationally celebrated for its innovative urban food policy, its administration is at the centre of controversies with farmers and grassroots movements who denounced the large-scale sell-off of historical public farmland in the city region. Using Belgian Land Registry data, this paper constructs a unique, empirically grounded, cartography of public landownership and public land transaction for the Ghent city region. The results expose deep contradictions in public policy and demonstrate the continuation of an urbanism disconnected from agricultural concerns. They also provide tools for reshaping the management of public land aligned to urban food policy goals, in and beyond the Ghent city region.
... Whilst politicians and urban planners are sensitive to the multiple benefits of UA (such as fighting climate change and increasing biodiversity and green spaces in cities, amongst others), the food system was, for very long, 'a stranger to the planning field' (Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). This made community gardens and other UA sites 'politically contested spaces' between gardening residents, municipal government, private developers and community and grassroots organisations, particularly as they often have competing interests and differing degrees of power on how urban land is allocated and managed. ...
A luta contra as mudanças climáticas é uma longa batalha que está longe de ser vencida. Negociações e acordos formais sobre mudanças climáticas vêm sendo conduzidos há décadas e metas foram estabelecidas para impor reduções nas emissões de gases de efeito estufa a governos e grandes indústrias. Além disso, os cidadãos começaram a explorar maneiras de participar. Depois de focar em protestos para tentar pressionar stakeholders e estados que são os maiores poluidores, eles reconheceram que a luta contra as mudanças climáticas levará a melhores resultados se mudarmos os nossos sistemas económicos e produtivos também no nosso quotidiano, mudando os nossos estilos de vida. Este artigo explora três tipos de ativismo de mudança climática expressos por meio da agricultura urbana (AU). Através de ‘proximidades’, ‘dissidência disruptiva’ e ‘governança urbana participativa’, este artigo analisa como a AU, como forma de ativismo de mudança climática no terreno, pode ajudar a agir, tomando exemplos ilustrativos de duas capitais verdes europeias: Bristol no Reino Unido e Lisboa em Portugal. Recebido: 24/1/2022 Aceite: 21/6/2022
... La faim et la malnutrition, censées être des problématiques réservées aux pays en développement, sont en effet réapparues dès les années 1980 dans les villes d'Amérique du Nord paupérisées par la crise et le reflux des politiques fédérales. Face au retour de l'insécurité alimentaire, il s'agit alors de lutter contre la précarité alimentaire (Pothukuchi et Kaufman, 2000) et les food deserts caractéristiques des banlieues pauvres (Cummins et Macintyre, 2002). Les villes nordaméricaines (comme Toronto ou Baltimore) ont mis en place des food policy councils (Stierand, 2012) dès les années 1990 pour répondre à des objectifs d'accès à la nourriture des populations les plus démunies. ...
The participation of farmers to the urban food policies is a new issue. Urban and periurban municipalities are facing the discrepancies
between various agricultural and urban stakeholders carrying new environmental and food expectations. This article offers a comparative
study of three sequences of natural and agricultural land allocations to new farmers in the periurban area of Montpellier (France).
Our results show various forms of farmers’ participation to the urban agri-food policy. A geography of farmers’ participation to the urban
food policy is sketched. It highlights the role of the farmers’ lived spaces in shaping their pathways of participation to the local governance.
... Authors such as Cina (2015), who have worked on a much needed shift towards sustainable food urban planning, deplore the fact that such shift "is impeded by a strongly limiting obstacle: the powerful prevalence of building land values on agricultural land values and the consequent preference to plan as developable large peri-urban agricultural areas (PAA)" (2015:57). The defence for urban sprawl relegated the PAA to the role of reserve for new urbanisation, and most city planning literature, at the start of the 21 st c., ignored food issues (Pothukuchi and Kaufman 2000). The rise of the urban food question in the global North (Morgan 2014) has boosted an extensive system of networks, associations, research centres and training institutes, and regulations are being developed. ...
In 2018, Lisbon won the title of Green capital of Europe 2020. It was described by the Expert Panel as an inspirational city which had started its journey towards sustainability during a period of economic crisis. A year later, Covid-19 had become a global pandemic. Imposed confinements highlighted the extent to which globalisation has spread the virus, as well as the particular fragility of places like cities where people, living together, were asked to not physically interact anymore. Exploring further that very particular global crisis can help to identify the faults in our economic systems and to ask why Lisbon was neither resilient nor sustainable in the face of that adversity. In addition to highlighting how weak our health is, Covid-19 has exacerbated vulnerabilities in Lisbon such as job losses (especially in the touristic sector), food supply (Portugal imports 70% of its food) and food waste. This paper explores how the activity which, ‘par excellence’, meets the most basic of our needs (food), through the example of Urban Agriculture (UA), could contribute to discussions on what makes a city sustainable. A literature review on UA in Lisbon highlights its various benefits, complemented by a broader literature review which converges to showing how UA can help to address the vulnerabilities generated or exacerbated by Covid. Having shown its potential contribution to addressing crises, this article then suggests to examine how systems approaches could help to incorporate UA further in a new type of more participatory urbanism aimed at creating sustainable cities.
... In North American cities, urban agriculture was already recognised in the early 1970s, but its planning did not develop on a wider scale until the late 1990s (Pothukuchi, and Kaufman, 2000). The issues of urban agriculture and food production in cities started to become a subject of more extensive research, but also cooperation between e.g. ...
... Several public health nutrition programs have attempted to address food insecurity and associated nutritional inadequacies in northern and northern Indigenous communities. These include strategies such as Healthy Foods North, the Ontario Diabetes Prevention program, and the federal Nutrition North program (34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39). These strategies have attempted to improve food security by addressing the issue of store-bought foods with some, although quite limited, attention to traditional food access. ...
... Researchers define the food system as the chain of activities connecting food production, processing, distribution, consumption, and waste management, as well as all the associated regulatory institutions and activities [3] . Based on the food flow and the priorities assigned, we propose a linear and ...
According to UN FAO, global food production in 2019 reached 2.722 billion tons, showing high profitability and efficiency levels [1] . However, while we enjoy fresh and nutritious food, people in Africa and Central Asia are suffering from starvation and nutritional deficiencies. Despite the high profitability and efficiency levels, the existing food systems are challenged by equity and sustainability problems. In order to assess the current food system and propose a rational optimization approach, we propose a linear and hierarchical food system based on the priorities of food flow and distribution. To quantify food security based on food systems, we develop the AAQN Index system to measure the affordability, availability, quality& safety, and natural resources& resilience of a food system based on the Global Food Security Index (GFSI). We select 68 indicators and calculate the indicator weights by combining the entropy weight method (EWM) with GFSI. By systematically clustering the calculated results, we classified the food systems of 113 countries/regions into: excellent, normal, and poor. Then, we adjust the priorities of the Indian food system, a poor food system, to reveal the differences before and after optimization. Finally, by predicting the future AAQN Index of Indian through Grey Relational Analysis.
... The strategic vision of food is replaced by an approach of economic development of a sector of activity, or other arguments for intervention linked to commercial, tourism, social, economic, sustainable development or urban requalification policies. This disconnection leads to a loss of knowledge of the functioning of the system that feeds the territory (Hedden, 1929) and the absence of the food issue from land use and territorial planning policies (Brand, 2015;Pothukuchi & Kaufman, 2000). ...
Our contribution aims at pointing out how the food issue challenges metropolitan areas while at the same time identifying potential for sustainable urban planning. To that end, we investigate to what extent taking into account agricultural and food-related issues enables to rethink urban planning which is usually qualified as sustainable. Our analysis will be based upon the two French urban regions of Grenoble and Caen where participatory research was conducted through collective and prospective walks. These urban explorations, which provide insights on metropolitan spaces and the interrelations that underlie them, underly the disconnections of contemporary urban planning with the inhabitants, their vital needs and, more generally, the soil, while highlight working paths for a more nourishing, meaningful and rooted urban planning. By considering urban planning through the scope of agri-food stakes, we contribute then to the renewal of urban concepts and thus highlight three workshops aiming at further developing sustainable urban planning issues and tools.
Until recently, urban planners have paid little attention to food systems This paper aims to give an account of the provisions concerning the sale of foodstuffs contained in urban planning within Spain, with particular attention to the city of Madrid. Consumption is obviously not an urban function, but it has implications that planners should foresee, especially in connection with the use of public spaces. Previously, various reflections are included about the importance of food markets in urban development.KeywordsUrban planningFood marketsHealthy food
This review paper draws on a multidisciplinary body of literature to consider how planning can foster food security in Indonesia. In the last decades, the international planning discourse has been increasingly attentive to a range of food security issues such as food deserts, urban agriculture, rural agricultural land conservation and resilient food systems. The existing studies mainly explore how planning can be more sensitive to food issues. However, to what extent Indonesian studies are attentive to the intersection of food and planning has not been clarified yet. This paper addresses this gap by reviewing 38 published studies in Indonesia to investigate how the existing studies in Indonesia link food security with planning. Food, as one of three primary needs, should be the concern of planners, especially in this era of uncertainties and global environmental change. Establishing food security should involve multidisciplinary research, including planning which can potentially contribute to managing the spatial dimensions of food production, distribution and utilisation.
This paper explores the idea of “squeezing” as a way of integrating the space of cooking for commercial practice and other domestic-related activities within a limited setting. Such integration of the traditional fish curing space observed in this study arguably demonstrates squeezing as a spatial strategy, which invites further operations. This paper believes that squeezing operates not only temporally but also spatially, expanding the idea of the kitchen as a space constituted of multiple ministrategies. This paper investigates such spatial strategy of a smokehouse in Central Java, Indonesia, that performs traditional fish curing and simultaneously other domestic needs as their everyday practice. Observations and interviews were conducted to map the changes and movement of activities and stuff during the fish curing activity in a limited setting. The squeezing is characterized by the ministrategies and generates a cooking space with layered and nested spaces. These findings urge further discussion of everyday spatial organization as well as enriching the idea of functional flexibility and adaptability, particularly of the traditional food production setting.
In Nigeria, fresh fruits and vegetable shops (FFAVS) belong to the informal land use category with a gap of poor spatial and administrative management. Due to these lapses, Nigeria cities, particularly Birnin Kebbi, have been unable to standardize and maximize the operations of these shops—for the achievement of access, nutritional quality, and spatial balance. Using desk studies, spatial data, questionnaire administration and personal communication with food marketers, residents, and other stakeholders in different neighborhoods of Birnin Kebbi Metropolis, it was discovered that, due to petty buying informed patronage, there are more FFAVS in the high-density areas compared to medium and low. Despite this, only about 5% of the residents can access FFAVS within a 5–10 min’ walk—thereby informing exclusion. With X2 = 124.20, p = 0.03; there is a relationship between the type of fresh fruits and vegetables consumed by residents and those available in the FFAVS. However, about 75% of the respondents reported that goods obtained from the FFAVs, which are relatively expensive, would have at the time of purchase reduced in appearance. Unfortunately, products in FFAVs stands, even informal grocery stores, are not evaluated for safety by the Community Health Department of the metropolitan government. This paper, therefore, among others, recommends the establishment of a multidisciplinary department for the management of the location, activities, and operations of the FFAVS in the metropolis.KeywordsNutritionHealthy cityInformal land useBirnin Kebbi
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted multiple vulnerabilities and issues around local and regional food systems, presenting valuable opportunities to reflect on these issues and lessons on how to increase local/regional resilience. Using the Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD) in Canada as a case study, this research employs integrated planning perspectives, incorporating comprehensive-systems, regional, place-based, and temporal considerations, to (1) reflect upon the challenges and vulnerabilities that COVID-19 has revealed about local and regional food systems, and (2) examine what these reflections and insights illustrate with respect to the needs for and gaps in local/regional resilience against future exogenous shocks. The study used a community-based participatory approach to engage local and regional government, stakeholders, and community members living and working in the FVRD. Methods consisted of a series of online workshops, where participants identified impacts related to the food production, processing, distribution, access, and/or governance response components of the local and regional food systems and whether these impacts were short-term (under 3 months), medium-term (3 to 12 months), or long-term (over 1 year) in nature. Findings from the study revealed that food systems and their vulnerabilities are complex, including changes in food access and preparation behaviours, lack of flexibility in institutional policies for making use of local food supply, cascading effects due to stresses on social and public sector services, and inequities with respect to both food security impacts and strategies/services for addressing these impacts. Outcomes from this research demonstrate how including comprehensive-systems, regional, place-based, and temporal considerations in studies on food systems vulnerabilities can generate useful insights for local and regional resiliency planning.
Studying and teaching Architecture and Design is a versatile endeavour where
creativity can channelise into Design and Form. This paper will be outlining the
first Exercise of Basic Design which is the antecedent to all other exercises of the
Architecture Undergraduate Program in India. As part of Semester 1 Design Studio,
various studies were made on a Natural Object, which includes: Analyses, Abstraction and Design. These activities are meant to open the minds of the students and
further enhance the learning process. The analyses covers the main components
that make up Design: the Principles and Elements of Design. The Abstraction is
limited to the way this Object can be disintegrated and re-imagined as Abstract Art
or Abstract Design. The Design of it includes the final creativity factor put to work,
arriving from the Abstraction to a usable product. An illustrated example has also
been documented in the words of a student for visual understanding. The interplay
between architectural studies and student psychology is significant and creativity is
a critical skill that can be taught, nurtured and increased.
Des processus de crises économiques et sociales apparaissent dans les villes europééennes. Elle se caractérise par des situations de précarités des citadins urbains. Ces derniers mettent alors en place toute une série de stratégies pour répondre à leurs besoins. La pratique agricole constitue l'une des stratégies possibles pour se réapproprier la ville. En partant de l'hypothèse que les crises urbaines constituent autant d'espaces d'opportunités pour penser la ville durable et la ville égalitaire, nous cherchons ici à analyser les fonctions sociales, économiques, écologiques et politiques des jardins des villes en crise. Nous faisons la double hypothèse que les jardins répondent à des besoins économiques, mais que cette fonction est indissociable de toute une série de motivations allant du bien être citadin au droit politique de se réapproprier la ville et de participer à sa création. Dans cette perspective, les jardins et plus généralement les projets environnementaux peuvent être pensés comme des outils d'égalité sociale pour et par les sociétés urbaines. Ils permettent enfin à une échelle plus importante, de repenser les fonctionnalités des villes moyennes dans les métabolismes territoriaux.
Les conséquences du régime socio-écologique industriel sur le climat et la biosphère sont connus depuis de nombreuses années et ont été rappelées au cours de l’été 2021 au sein du dernier rapport du Groupe Intergouvernemental d’Experts sur le Climat (GIEC). Pour maintenir les conditions qui permettent aux êtres humains de vivre, il est nécessaire d’engager une transition socio-écologique dont l’objectif serait de rendre compatible le fonctionnement des sociétés avec celui de la biosphère. Sa mise en œuvre fait l’objet de différents scénarios. Parmi ces derniers, plusieurs auteurs esquissent celui d’une relation renouvelée entre villes et campagnes qui permettrait de maîtriser les flux matériels et énergétiques. Si nous constatons un contexte favorable au développement de ces relations villes-campagnes par les acteurs locaux en France, son effectivité et sa contribution à la mise en œuvre de la transition socio-écologique restent à appréhender, c’est ce à quoi s’attèle cette thèse. En portant notre attention sur les flux de matières et d’énergie, et en ancrant notre travail dans le champ de l’écologie territoriale, nous proposons une approche renouvelée de l’étude deces relations villes-campagnes matérielles et énergétiques via la notion de métabolisme territorial. Deux échelles d’analyses sont mobilisées dans lesquelles différents matériaux de recherche ont été collectés. A l’échelle nationale, nous avons constitué et analysé un corpus de 2 641 documents, puis défini une typologie des relations villes-campagnes métaboliques. A l’échelle locale, nous avons étudié trois de ces relations en réalisant des entretiens avec les parties prenantes et en analysant les documents de projets associés. A la lumière de ce travail, les relations villes-campagnes métaboliques n’apparaissent pas comme une modalité d’action dominante pour les acteurs locaux en réponse aux enjeux de la transition socio-écologique. De plus, la majorité de ces relations répondent aux besoins des villes et peu se matérialisent sous la forme d’un mutualisme, c’est-à-dire d’une mobilisation conjointe des ressources renouvelables des villes et des campagnes pour satisfaire leurs besoins. Enfin, les relations villes-campagnes métaboliques ne contribuent qu’à la marge à la transformation du métabolisme territorial. Loin d’observer un chemin vers la transition socio-écologique selon ces relations villes-campagnes métaboliques, nous observons plutôt la résistance et la permanence du régime socio-écologique industriel.
Rapid urbanization has left cities with shrinking vegetative and green cover. This study first outlines the role of urbanization in creating heat stressed cities including urban heat islands and health effects. Urban agriculture (UA) practices are an undervalued and untapped counter resource for such ill-effects. Various food and non-food UA systems help engage (1) marginal workers and unemployed, (2) youth and elderly, and (3) business or hobby seekers for family sustenance, economy growth, environmental sustainability, and increased happiness. UA integration has the potential for increasing building efficiency and thermal comfort, enhancing aesthetic value and urban biodiversity, and providing fresh food.This chapter highlights past and projected land use land cover (LULC) changes in Delhi (India). Urban area has expanded from 7.7% (1977) to 39.3% (2014), and is projected to cover 53.8% in 2030. Likewise, rapid decrease in agriculture, allied activities, and green cover is noted. The current status of UA in the capital city is discussed. It is encouraging that the government is supporting farmers to switch to profitable food based UA systems, e.g. vegetable and flower farming. Businesses utilizing soil-less farming techniques, zero-acreage farming, etc. are on the rise. Vertical gardens, green walls, and other non-food UA strategies are being promoted. However, the city lacks impact based studies of UA systems. Further research is needed to maximize UA benefits to the society.KeywordsUrban agriculture (UA)Land use land cover (LULC)UA systemsDelhi
An extensive body of scholarly literature has emerged in the past decade that investigates many aspects of urban agriculture. This chapter provides a review of that literature with a particular focus on topics relevant to this research, namely, sustainability governance, social justice, and land tenure. While the context varies in cities of the global North and South, there are similar political economic systems that influence much urban agriculture practice. In reviewing this literature, I argue that in order to achieve the social justice and sustainability goals pursued by many urban agriculture advocates, it is critical to engage with long-standing questions of land valuation and tenure in marginalized urban areas.
Over the past several decades, cities worldwide have attempted to reconfigure their food systems to improve public health, advance social justice, and promote environmental resilience using diverse municipal policies, often with the support of stakeholder-led governance mechanisms such as food policy councils. This article reviews the roles that cities have played in creating healthful urban food systems and the effects of those policies on public health. It explains that despite wide-ranging policy initiatives, disparities in food insecurity and malnourishment persist. It concludes by describing several promising pathways for urban food policy: engaging in food-focused urban planning to create equitable food environments; treating policies to address inequality and social justice as upstream food policies; considering the effects of new business models such as online food retail in urban food policy making; and using food procurement as a lever to influence regional, national, and global food systems.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health, Volume 43 is April 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
In 2020 and 2021, anthropologists confronted the obstacles of conducting fieldwork during the global COVID-19 pandemic. For months, we endured quarantine with others and grieved the loss what many consider the basis of our professional identity: participant observation. We were unable to predict how much our methodological toolkit would have to stretch and shrink to keep up with public health restrictions during a pandemic. We repeatedly asked ourselves: what, in fact, is ethnography and how can we do our work now? To address such a methodological predicament, this paper presents an ethnographic investigation conducted in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area during the summer of 2020 to show how several small-scale agricultural businesses managed to feed confined city dwellers during lockdown. Although concerns for these farmers’ dealings are practically absent from planning policies, they operate in the territory, changing the food system from within. This article also presents the pros and cons of investigating during a pandemic and the implications of reflexivity in the construction of ethnographic knowledge, even if our research needs to be done digitally and remotely for the time being.
Abstract Modern food systems have achieved great success in efficiency and productivity. Long food chains with many food miles and nodes emphasize food processing, packaging, and marketing. These activities have threatened the sustainability of food systems. Many countries have carried out various urban agriculture activities to respond to challenges such as food security issues and climate change. However, small‐scale farming and local food vending that support the lower socioeconomic population groups in China are ignored by legislation and urban planning. This study aims to improve informal food systems by involving informal food production and marketing in spatial planning. In this paper, informal food systems, which refer to the combination of food chains that contain informal activities, are identified based on the Chinese social background. The spatial typologies of production, marketing, and consumption in informal food systems are summarized. Typomorphology is applied to analyze the typology evolution of spaces for informal food systems in the Qinhuai District in Nanjing. The results show that the morphological regions for food production changed more than construction land in 58 superblocks from 2005 to 2019. Agricultural land decreased, and the most common types of change were from fragmented agricultural land (Type P2) to fragmented and temporary arable land (Type P3) to construction land with isolated vegetable plots (Type P4). In this evolution process, the informal food system reflects the deviation between diversified needs in cities and urban planning. A bottom‐up structure is necessary to protect vulnerable groups, especially those involved in small‐scale urban food production.
This chapter is aimed to analyze the system of green resilience eco-urban land uses oriented in urban social-ecological systems. It reviews and analyses the relevant literature in green social-ecosystem resilience concept and presents a discussion in relation to the sustainable development and ecological sustainability. It further discusses and gives an in-depth overview of the urban social ecosystems as a working structural and functional unit, describes decision support tools that could be applied to sustainable green land uses and development, and offers some strategies for engaging in urban ecosystems, ecological sustainability and adaptive development. It is concluded that the urban land use that through the innovative pro-environmental solutions can, in a natural way, support the system of green resilience eco-oriented urban land uses in urban ecosystems and serve to improve the quality of life in the city.
Oregon's nationally recognized farmland protection program has had some success, but the future viability of commercial farming in Oregon remains in doubt. The recent proliferation of hobby farms threatens that viability by increasing land prices and fragmenting land holdings, thus hindering the expansion of commercial farms and the consolidation of parcels into commercial farm units. To curb the growth in hobby farms, Oregon's legislature and courts have tightened the standards that govern future residential development in agricultural zones. Local governments also have recognized the hobby farm problem and appear to have improved their administration of the state-mandated farmland preservation program.
This article articulates a classification of local farming economies today into strong, moderate, and weak categories. The author suggests that exclusive agricultural zoning is the only effective way to protect a viable commercial farming economy, but that it is realistically feasible only in strong commercial farming areas. The author also recognizes uses for zoning in urban fringe areas where pressure to develop is the strongest. However, such development will ultimately serve only to preserve the 'rural character' of the area, not to protect commercial farming. In moderately strong farming communities, the author believes that the usefulness of cluster zoning is debatable; he suggests it should be used only sparingly, if at all.
Countries differ significantly in their laws and policies for farmland preservation and in the degree of success achieved. This paper compares the policies of the U.S.A. and Canada-two countries with a high rate of farmland per person-with four other democracies on the other side of the Atlantic-Britain, The Netherlands, France, and Israel. The policies of the European Community are also discussed. The paper develops a framework for cross-national comparison of institutional, policy, and contextual factors. The findings show that stringent legal controls are not enough,nor is there a strong correlation between degree of success in farmland preservation and any particular format for planning. The great successes of the Netherlands and Britain-among Europe's most densely inhabited countries-are attributable to other factors. Since farmland preservation is increasingly being challenged by a declining economic rationale and competing collective goals, and since the countries across the Atlantic have had to face these challenges earlier than North America has, unlocking the secrets of success and failure through cross-national comparisons can help American and Canadian planners prepare effectively to meet future challenges.
Food issues are generally regarded as agricultural and rural issues. The urban food system is less visible than such other systems as transportation, housing, employment, or even the environment. The reasons for its low visibility include the historic process by which issues and policies came to be defined as urban; the spread of processing, refrigeration, and transportation technology together with cheap, abundant energy that rendered invisible the loss of farmland around older cities; and the continuing institutional separation of urban and rural policy. Despite its low visibility, the urban food system nonetheless contributes significantly to community health and welfare; to metropolitan economies; connects to other urban systems such as housing, transportation, land use, and economic development; and impacts the urban environment. We examine existing or potential city institutions that could offer a more comprehensive look at the urban food system. These include the city department of food, the food policy council, and the city-planning department.
At the center of the United States, between the Rockies and the tallgrass prairies of the Midwest and South, lies the shortgrass expanse of the Great Plains. The region extends over large parts of 10 states and produces cattle, corn, wheat, sheep, cotton, coal, oil, natural gas, and metals. The Plains are endlessly windswept and nearly treeless; the climate is semiarid, with typically less than 20 inches of rain a year. The country is rolling in parts in the north, dead flat in the south. It is lightly populated. A dusty town with a single gas station, store, and house is sometimes 50 unpaved miles from its nearest neighbor, another three-building settlement amid the sagebrush. As we define the region, its eastern border is the 98th meridian. San Antonio and Denver are on the Plains' east and west edges, respectively, but the largest city actually located in the Plains is Lubbock, Texas, population 179,000. Although the Plains occupy one-fifth of the nation's land area, the region's overall population, approximately 5.5 million, is less than that of Georgia or Indiana. The Great Plains are America's steppes. They have the nation's hottest summers and coldest winters, greatest temperature swings, worst hail and locusts and range fires, fiercest droughts and blizzards, and therefore its shortest growing season. The Plains are the land of the Big Sky and the Dust Bowl, one-room schoolhouses and settler homesteads, straight-line interstates and custom combines, prairie dogs and antelope and buffalo. The oceans-of-grass vistas of the Plains offer enormous horizons, billowy clouds, and somber-serene beauty. During America's pioneer days and then again during the Great Depression, the Plains were a prominent national concern. But by 1952, in his book The Great Frontier, the Plains' finest historian, the late Walter Prescott Webb of the University of Texas, could accurately describe them as the least-known, most fateful part of the United States. We believe that over the next generation the Plains will, as a result of the largest, longest- running agricultural and environmental miscalculation in American history, become almost totally depopulated. At that point, a new use for the region will emerge, one that is in fact so old that it predates the American presence. We are suggesting that the region be returned to its original pre-white state, that it be, in effect, deprivatized.
Many African cities are currently marked by the decline of the formal urban economy and the simultaneous upsurge of household cultivation by the urban poor. The modernization proponents view urban cultivation as a manifestation of rural habits. The New-Marxist critics blame such activities for contributing to the 'double exploitation of labor' and for maintaining the status quo of capitalist social relations of production. This paper, based on a survey of 250 low-income households in Zambia, attempts to respond to both criticisms. The paper also argues that urban cultivation by the poor reduces their vulnerability to the fluctuations of fortune that currently beset the economies of African cities. -from Author
Metropolitan areas officially defined by the U.S. Census Bureau now encompass 16 percent of land area in the United States, including 29 percent of all farms and almost 20 percent of harvested cropland. Agriculture has adapted to the urbanizing environment through the working of smaller farms, more intensive production, a focus on high-value crops and livestock, and greater off-farm employment. Such adaptations are further advanced in older metro counties than in newer ones. This article shows how the more dispersed settlement pattern in newer metropolitan areas, emerging environmental and lifestyle trends, and recent developments in agricultural policy and the agricultural economy favor the survival of metro farming.
The use of public money to purchase development rights to privately held land has become increasingly popular in recent years as a way to preserve agricultural land and open space. Several states and counties have devoted substantial dollars toward the purchase of development rights (PDR). The majority of PDR programs are found in the Northeast, and are particularly popular in urban fringe areas where farmland and open space are under intense pressure for conversion to urban or suburban uses. It is unlikely, however, that PDR programs alone can preserve a critical mass of farmland. Indeed, a number of states have chosen not to use PDRs among their growth management techniques. Although PDR programs are likely to remain controversial because of the sizable costs involved, they do offer more permanent farmland protection than zoning or property tax breaks and provide private landowners with compensation in return for restrictions on development.
Investigates the attempts being made in the USA to unite the best features of social reforms with available social services. Looks at the growth of the urban settlement, housing and work, identifies new approaches and makes proposals for change in the US. -after Author
This article combines theory and a literature review with empirical and descriptive findings to demonstrate that Oregon's mix of policies is effective in preserving prime farmland in the face of urbanization. Exclusive farm use zones preserve farmland for farming; urban growth boundaries limit urban sprawl; exurban districts accommodate the demand for rural residential development without harming commercial farm operations; farm tax deferral and right-to-farm laws create incentives for farmers to keep farming; and comprehensive plans legitimize the entire package. This article proposes a comprehensive scheme for farmland preservation that expands on the experience of Oregon, including its mistakes.
Long before Betty Friedan wrote about "the problem that had no name" in The Feminine Mystique, a group of American feminists whose leaders included Melusina Fay Peirce, Mary Livermore, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman campaigned against women's isolation in the home and confinement to domestic life as the basic cause of their unequal position in society.The Grand Domestic Revolution reveals the innovative plans and visionary strategies of these persistent women, who developed the theory and practice of what Hayden calls "material feminism" in pursuit of economic independence and social equality. The material feminists' ambitious goals of socialized housework and child care meant revolutionizing the American home and creating community services. They raised fundamental questions about the relationship of men, women, and children in industrial society. Hayden analyzes the utopian and pragmatic sources of the feminists' programs for domestic reorganization and the conflicts over class, race, and gender they encountered.This history of a little-known intellectual tradition challenging patriarchal notions of "women's place" and "women's work" offers a new interpretation of the history of American feminism and a new interpretation of the history of American housing and urban design. Hayden shows how the material feminists' political ideology led them to design physical space to create housewives' cooperatives, kitchenless houses, day-care centers, public kitchens, and community dining halls. In their insistence that women be paid for domestic labor, the material feminists won the support of many suffragists and of novelists such as Edward Bellamy and William Dean Howells, who helped popularize their cause. Ebenezer Howard, Rudolph Schindler, and Lewis Mumford were among the many progressive architects and planners who promoted the reorganization of housing and neighborhoods around the needs of employed women.In reevaluating these early feminist plans for the environmental and economic transformation of American society and in recording the vigorous and many-sided arguments that evolved around the issues they raised, Hayden brings to light basic economic and spacial contradictions which outdated forms of housing and inadequate community services still create for American women and for their families.
Change is consummated in many cases after much argument and agitation, and men do not observe that almost everything has been silently effected by causes to which few people paid any heed. In one generation an institution is unassailable, in the next bold men may assail it, and in the third bold men defend it. At one time the most conclusive arguments are advanced against it in vain, if indeed they are allowed utterance at all. At another time the most childish sophistry is enough to secure its condemnation. In the first place, the institution, though probably indefensible by pure reason, was congruous with the conscious habits and modes of thought of the community. In the second, these had changed from influences which the acutest analysis would probably fail to explain, and a breath sufficed to topple over the sapped structure.
Reimpresión en 1944, 1976, 1978 Incluye bibliografía
Project (M.A.)--University of California, Los Angeles, 1993. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 546-589). Duplicate foliation sequence, different text (Appendix 2: leaves 525-545 following leaf 590).
Between 8% and 16% (2.5 to 4.9 million) of the elder population have experienced food insecurity within a 6-month period. Federal programs to combat food insecurity reach only one-third of needy elders. While hunger and poverty are linked directly to malnutrition, the multifaceted nature of elderly malnutrition cuts across all economic, racial, and ethnic groups. Malnourished patients experience 2 to 20 times more complications, have up to 100% longer hospital stays, and compile hospital costs $2,000 to $10,000 higher per stay. Dietitians can advocate routine nutrition screening to target elders at highest risk and lobby for expansion of appropriate nutrition services in home, community, and institutional settings.
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