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Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color on Cognitive Task Performances
Abstract
Existing research reports inconsistent findings with regard to the effect of color on cognitive task performances. Some research suggests that blue or green leads to better performances than red; other studies record the opposite. Current work reconciles this discrepancy. We demonstrate that red (versus blue) color induces primarily an avoidance (versus approach) motivation (study 1, n = 69) and that red enhances performance on a detail-oriented task, whereas blue enhances performance on a creative task (studies 2 and 3, n = 208 and 118). Further, we replicate these results in the domains of product design (study 4, n = 42) and persuasive message evaluation (study 5, n = 161) and show that these effects occur outside of individuals' consciousness (study 6, n = 68). We also provide process evidence suggesting that the activation of alternative motivations mediates the effect of color on cognitive task performances.
... A common feature of the above applications is that they displayed the contaminated areas and infectious particles in red. Although the authors did not justify their color choice, there is evidence that red color is associated with danger and mistakes and can induce vigilance, risk-aversion and compliance [25]. It can also increase arousal [26,27], attention, enhance memory [28] and performance on detail-oriented tasks [25]. ...
... Although the authors did not justify their color choice, there is evidence that red color is associated with danger and mistakes and can induce vigilance, risk-aversion and compliance [25]. It can also increase arousal [26,27], attention, enhance memory [28] and performance on detail-oriented tasks [25]. To the contrary, blue helps memory retention [27,29], induces calmness [27] and may enhance performance on creative tasks [25]. ...
... It can also increase arousal [26,27], attention, enhance memory [28] and performance on detail-oriented tasks [25]. To the contrary, blue helps memory retention [27,29], induces calmness [27] and may enhance performance on creative tasks [25]. Most research on the effect of color on cognitive task performance focuses on red versus blue (or green on occasion) but the evidence remains conflicting [25]. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic created the need to educate the public on both its transmission and protection measures. Science has confirmed that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is primarily airborne and transmitted mainly through respiratory particles. More specifically, larger particles are called droplets and settle out of the air within seconds after following a short trajectory. Smaller particles are called aerosols and can remain suspended in the air from minutes to hours travelling long distances depending on air currents. An immersive Augmented Reality (AR) application was developed for Magic Leap 1 AR glasses with the aim to visualize as a first person experience the airborne COVID-19 transmission route, in addition to the distinct behaviors of drop-lets vs. aerosols. Forty-eight educators empirically evaluated the AR applica-tion in terms of learning outcomes. The study also investigated the role of the AR particle’s color, i.e., red or blue spherical shapes, on knowledge. A sig-nificant learning gain on virus transmission was identified using the pre and post-test method, which also revealed that the color of particles did not sig-nificantly affect participants’ test scores. This suggests that both colors, red and blue, are equally effective in representing virtually observed particles for significant learning gains. Learning outcomes were not correlated with gen-der, age or self-reported awareness of COVID-19 transmission. The partici-pants also commented on the pleasant nature of the activity and highlighted its experiential nature, since it made an invisible phenomenon much easier to understand, in terms of its transmission and protection measures.
... Regardless of its broad applications, numerous studies have examined the effect of color on sleepiness and performance in the work environment (Lucas et al. 2012;Vandewalle, Maquet, and Dijk 2009). Mehta and Zhu 2009 have suggested that the blue color enhances function on a creative task, while the red color increases performance on a detailoriented task and can induce avoidance. Some studies have reported that color does not affect performance (Küller, Mikellides, and Janssens 2009;von Castell et al. 2018). ...
... Some studies have reported that color does not affect performance (Küller, Mikellides, and Janssens 2009;von Castell et al. 2018). In general, the effect of color on cognitive performance is dependent on other factors (e.g., task type) and conditions beyond individuals' consciousness (Mehta and Zhu 2009). However, in most color studies, the effect of different light sources has not been considered (Elliot 2019). ...
... Therefore, in this study, the effect of red (650 nm) or blue (500 nm) color on correlated color temperature of light was investigated. These issues have been addressed in studies of Mehta and Zhu 2009;Figueiro et al. 2009;Figueiro et al. 2009;and Mehta and Zhu 2009. Table 1 presents the color coordinates of the partitions. ...
This study investigated the combined effect of correlated color temperature and wall color on subjective sleepiness and cognitive performance in a simulated workplace. Six combined conditions were designed by partitioning a room into three booths with the same dimensions in three colors of blue, red, and white and two cool and warm light: color temperatures of 6000 and 3000°K (Red × 3000, Red × 6000, Blue × 3000, Blue × 6000, White × 3000, and White × 6000) during the day. Thirty-three healthy males aged 21-35 were recruited. They were asked to conduct cognitive tests in three workload levels and finally estimate the subjective sleepiness level. The findings indicated that cool light had a more significant effect on reducing sleepiness when compared to warm light, particularly in white and blue colors. However, this effect was not observed in the case of red color. The rate of sleepiness was higher in the cool light and red color compared to warm light. The blue color slightly decreased sleepiness compared to the white and red colors. The mean correct responses of the cognitive tests in cool light and white color were more than in other conditions. Moreover, the effect of blue and red were higher in the correct response percentages, compared to white in warm and cool light. There were no significant differences in reaction time between two different lights in all colors. However, reaction time was better in blue than in two other colors. To conclude, designing a work environment with a combination of cool light and blue-colored walls may improve employee alertness and performance.
... Prior studies on colors that enhance concentration have shown mixed results. Red color has been reported to improve performance in tasks requiring attention to detail, suggesting that concentration may be better in red environments [36]. However, contrasting results have been reported, showing that the effect of concentration (concentration index in EEG) was lower in red environments than in green environments [19]. ...
... Blue and red accent lighting were found to indirectly improve creative performance by providing motivation during task completion and answering questions [40]. Blue was also found to initiate approach motivation and encourage the acceptance of new ideas; furthermore, it enhanced performance in creative tasks [36]. ...
... The results of this study on traditional frontal furniture arrangements related to concentration align with research suggesting that traditional furniture arrangements help students maintain their attention on the teacher [32]. The finding that red enhanced attention more than the reference stimulus of white supports previous research indicating that warm colors (yellow, red) enhanced attention more than cool colors [9] and that red was more effective in improving attention to detail [36]. Warm-colored walls, such as yellow and red, have shown to improve attention and enhance learning outcomes [9]; however, contrasting reports have suggested that dark red led to the lowest concentration [19]. ...
Electroencephalograms (EEGs) can be used to study the influence of environmental elements on human emotions, cognition, and behavior. EEGs can reveal unconscious responses and fill in the gaps left by subjective responses provided in survey questionnaires or interviews. EEG research on the impact of classroom design elements on concentration and creativity is scarce; the design elements studied have not been diverse enough. In addition, no researchers have examined the brain and subjective responses to multiple indoor environmental elements regarding concentration and creativity. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore how the human brain responds to different indoor environmental elements as shown by objective EEG signals related to concentration and creativity, and their similarities and differences to subjective self-reported responses. The experimental stimuli included 16 images combining four indoor environmental elements—classroom space shape, furniture arrangement, ceiling height, and color—along with images of white walls, a full-window wall with a view of nature, and a windowless scenario, totaling 19 images. The brainwaves of 20 people collected from eight channels were analyzed to determine the concentration index (CI) for concentration and relative theta (RT) for creativity. As a subjective response, participants were asked to choose the stimuli in which they felt they could best concentrate and be most creative in a self-report format. The results showed the following tendencies: (a) More brainwaves in the parietal and occipital lobes than in the prefrontal or frontal lobes; (b) a higher CI with rectilinear shapes, traditional frontal furniture arrangements, and red walls; (c) a higher RT with curvilinear shapes, collaborative furniture arrangements, white walls, and a full view of nature; and (d) participants selected white walls and a front-facing furniture layout as supportive of concentration and a full view of nature, curvilinear shape, and collaborative furniture layout for creative thinking. The results showed that similarities in brain and subjective responses were related to furniture layout and shape, whereas differences existed in color. This study contributes to the understanding of the characteristics of indoor environments that appear to enhance the manifestation of concentration and creativity.
... On the other hand, blue enhances performance of a creative task. If creativity and imagination are required (for example, in the development of a new product or in a brainstorming session) blue is more beneficial than red (Mehta and Zhu 2009). ...
... Experiments exposing participants to hues of equal saturation and lightness show that green -with its connotations of growth, development and success-has a positive influence on creative performance (more than white , grey , blue and red) (Lichtenfeld et al. 2012). Blue has also a positive impact on creativity when compared to red (Mehta and Zhu 2009). ...
This book explores the profound, yet often overlooked, role of color in healthcare and bioethics, arguing that color is far more than a visual or aesthetic element—it actively shapes human experience, perception, and ethical reasoning.
Traditionally regarded as secondary to objective medical observations or rational ethical debates, color has been marginalized in these fields, considered subjective and inconsequential. However, this book reveals that color is critical in diagnostic and therapeutic practices and that it subconsciously influences moral interpretations in bioethics. Through examples like the ‘blue hour’—a time of day associated with melancholy and creativity—readers are invited to consider color not just as a physical phenomenon explained by wavelengths and visual physiology, but as a medium rich with emotional and metaphorical meaning. From ‘feeling blue’ to seeing the world in ‘black and white’, color conveys complex messages that inform our perceptions of health, morality, and identity.
By bridging the gap between science, emotion, and ethics, this book illuminates how colors impact our worldviews, urging readers to consider the subtle yet significant ways that color influences our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.
... foliage and water) have been found to support cognitive function and mental well-being (White et al., 2021), and Lichtenfeld et al. (2012) proposed that the green colour could facilitate creative performance. Other research by Mehta and Zhu (2009) suggested a link between the colour blue and enhanced creative task performance. These studies suggest a beneficial link between natural nuances (reminiscent of blue skies, water, green plants and vegetation). ...
... These studies suggest a beneficial link between natural nuances (reminiscent of blue skies, water, green plants and vegetation). Some studies have proposed that viewing blue or green may be particularly beneficial for creative performance (Lichtenfeld et al., 2012;Mehta & Zhu, 2009;Küller et al., 2009). Another well-studied colour is red, a poignant colour in biology and nature often associated with arousal and warning signals. ...
... However, some studies suggest otherwise. For example, the participants' emotional value assigned to red, orange, yellow, and green increased, while their emotional value to green and blue decreased [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. A possible explanation proposed by these studies is that bright and warm colors may provide emotional comfort and positive psychological stimulation, making them more popular. ...
... This study speculates that FUCHSIA may be similar to dark RED. Similar studies suggest that deep RED is seen as a "warm" and "energetic" color, which may elicit emotional responses of excitement and uplift [19]. WHITE is "bright" but also "dark". ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted human psychological and emotional states, influencing behaviors, including color preferences. This study aimed to explore how the pandemic affected people’s color preferences and emotional responses, shedding light on the broader implications for psychological well-being. A total of 231 participants were divided into two groups based on the depth to which they were affected by the pandemic, considering factors such as personality, family, friends, work/lessons, relationships, and consumption. The findings revealed four key results: (1) participants’ preference for cooler colors such as blue and green increased, reflecting a need for calmness and stability during heightened stress, while their preference for warm colors decreased. (2) Personal consumption was identified as the most severely impacted area. (3) The pandemic reduced people’s overall preference for warm colors. (4) The pandemic triggered strong negative and contradictory emotions. These results highlight the significant shift towards cooler colors, which are associated with calmness, and suggest important applications in design, marketing, and mental health initiatives. Understanding the psychological effects of the pandemic on color preferences provides valuable insights across multiple fields and emphasizes the importance of adapting to the reshaped aspects of human behavior in the face of future challenges.
... The red and blue color appears to be the main focus of many studies on this topic. [19] This intense attention might be caused by the fact that blue and red are made up of two of the three primary colors, and that blue has short waves while red has long waves [20]. Children are born with some potential skills, and the majority of these skills develop into active skills after being acquired. ...
The educational environment includes many educational and architectural factors. The current study investigates the effect of colors on the efficiency and quality of the learning process. The physical environment should be a living and dynamic factor in the quality of students' education. The study aims to enhance and support the findings of previous relevant studies, which emphasized the effect of colors as a means of conveying meanings that affect students’ behavior and understanding. The study used the quantitative survey method and questionnaire as a means of collecting information in secondary schools, with 175 male and 175 female students. A questionnaire was made for nine colors, six monochromatic colors Yellow, Orange (Yellow orang), Green, Blue, White, and Grey, and three colors with complementary movement, Blue + Yellow, Greenish yellow + Blue, and Reddish yellow + Greenish blue. The results showed that cold colors with a complementary color, such as blue + yellow, green yellow + blue, and reddish yellow + green blue, are preferred and are the most used in the educational environment, followed by single cold colors such as green and blue, as these colors are considered comfortable and soothing to the eyes due to their short wavelength, which helps... Increasing focus and attention for longer periods without feeling bored, meaning that it is likely to be used in educational spaces because it positively affects the perception and understanding of recipients and can help create an ideal educational environment that combines focus and psychological and visual comfort. On the other hand, colors with high wavelengths (warm colors), such as red, and neutral colors, such as gray, are the colors of anxiety, fear, and boredom, and can create an atmosphere charged with tension, lack of concentration, and boredom in educational environments, which negatively affects students’ performance.
... Previous research has shown that color affects people's psychology, influencing their behavior. Specifically, it was found that red induces an avoidance motivation, while blue induces approach motivation (Mehta and Zhu 2009). Findings from this study suggest that consumer behavior can be influenced by marketers who use colors strategically. ...
Consumers infer an organization's identity from visual cues to form judgments about its purpose. This study shows that logo color lightness serves as a signal of organizational orientation: consumers perceive lighter‐colored logos as representing nonprofits, and darker‐colored logos as representing for‐profits. Further, consumers are less willing to donate when lighter‐colored logos are paired with luxury positioning, due to visual‐conceptual incongruence. This study highlights the importance of subtle design elements such as logo color lightness in shaping consumer inferences about organizational identity and willingness to donate.
... In addition, in an f MRI-based study, participants performed detail-oriented tasks while being exposed to red light. The observations from this study revealed that red stimulated avoidance motivation-related regions in the brain (left fusiform gyrus) (Mehta & Zhu, 2009). Another possible reason can be the higher number of Long wavelength cones in the human retina. ...
... A few research addresses how nomenclature of color is used and associated on social media platform. As consumers are utilizing digital platforms to communicate contents, this paper searches consumers' perceptions on color and its application from social platformshow people associate color and words, and the connotation of color in consumers" minds [8]. ...
Background/Objectives: This study finds conceptual map of associated words on six major colors in human brain. It also delivers insight into color and its possible application of these findings to commercial fields such as advertisements. Methods/Statistical analysis: To find associated words on six major colors and relationships among colors, social network data sets are collected and analyzed with the techniques of text mining, association analysis, and data visualization. A survey on people"s perception on six colors are also conducted and analyzed. Network analysis of textual data on colors and applications are performed to find the best color for an application such as advertisement on travel and insurance companies as examples. Findings: This study shows that each color has associated words, and colors are associated together. The color concepts can be represented with colors and their associated words graphically. These can be applied to find the best color images for words. Improvements/Applications: The findings from this study can be applied to diverse areas such as an advertisement, marketing, and design. This study proves that cognitive enhancement using color perception is possible.
... Although their results showed that the negatively-framed messages combined with red worked best, they noted that while red is commonly used as a warning symbol in some health-related contexts, it may not always arouse feelings of danger. According to Mehta and Zhu [36] individuals who were exposed to red were able to recall more accurate items than those who were exposed to blue, suggesting that red could improve recall task performance. Red is the best colour to use in coloured VMS, according to another study, especially when showing crowded traffic times [37]. ...
Utilising Variable Message Signs (VMS) for road safety campaigns, beyond their primary role of displaying traffic conditions, can contribute significantly to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. A notably high percentage of driver fatalities occur due to the failure to wear a seat belt, which prompted this study to investigate the effectiveness of VMS in Leeds. This research, which had not previously been conducted, explored the impact of pairing message framing and colour priming to encourage seat belt use. This study was conducted using an online questionnaire-based experiment, with four groups of participants based on the combination of positive vs. negative framing and red vs. blue priming. The results revealed that knowledge significantly influenced message recall and contradictory combinations like negative framing with red were found effective. This combination enhanced recall and heightened participants’ perceived efficacy regarding seat belt use, potentially reducing severe injuries and fatalities, aligning with the goals of SDG 11.
... Первое связано с разнонаправленным характером воздействия красным цветом (стимуляция аккомодационной мышцы) по сравнению с зеленым цветом (расслабление). Проведенный анализ литературы свидетельствует лишь об одиночных исследованиях, рассматривающих, как правило, изучение влияния цвета на выполнение когнитивных задач [14][15][16]. Полученные ранее данные (как правило, в литературе по психологии восприятия) указывают в целом на стимулирующее влияние красного цвета и расслабляющее -зеленого, хотя механизмы данной динамики, безусловно, требуют дополнительного изучения [17]. Важно также отметить, что в литературе отсутствуют конкретные данные, указывающие на количественное влияние цвета на состояние аккомодационной системы глаза. ...
Purpose . Clinical and physiological substantiation of the use of ophthalmochromotherapy in the complex restorative treatment of patients with visually intense work (VIW) with accommodative asthenopia (AA). Methods . We observed 22 volunteer test subjects (males aged 22–24 years, average age 22.2 ± 0.4 years) with the following inclusion criteria for the study: no visual organ pathology, normal color perception, microfluctuation coefficient of the ciliary muscle of the eye (CMF) according to objective accommodation data (on the Righton Speedy-I device, Japan) from 53.0 to 58.0 relative units, which corresponds to the “norm” and indicates the absence of habitual excess accommodation tension (HEАT) or asthenic form of accommodative asthenopia (AFAA), absence of subjective manifestations of AA. Each of the test subjects underwent a CT session on the ADFT-4 RAINBOW device. The variable parameters during the study were color (red, yellow, green, blue) and stimulus presentation time (10, 20, 30 min.), a total of 12 single impacts performed on different days, while the time and color parameters of the stimulus were changed randomly. The CMF index was recorded before and after each single impact (monocularly). Results . Pronounced, statistically significant changes were found in relation to stimulation with red and green colors. It was determined that stimulation with red color increases CMF, while stimulation with green color decreases this indicator, and in both cases a very high frequency of occurrence (91–95 %) of the revealed dynamics in specific patients is noted. Conclusion . The results indicate the prospects for the use of CT in the complex restorative treatment of patients with VIW with AA phenomena. A multidirectional nature of the effect of red color (stimulation of the accommodative muscle) was established compared to green color (relaxation). In the framework of further studies, it is advisable to evaluate the use of green color in patients with HEАT and, accordingly, red color in patients with AFAA. In this case, the exposure time (taking into account the time of the traditional approach to restorative treatment and the general principles of the impact of physical factors on the body) should not exceed 20 minutes.
... Cognitive abilities are essential in information-rich environment nowadays, where maintaining cognitive health is increasingly important due to varying challenges across populations (Levitin 2014). Recent research underscores the significant influence of colour on cognitive performance, such as, red enhances detail-oriented tasks and blue boosts creativity (Mehta and Zhu 2009). Additionally, highly saturated colours affect arousal, memory retention, and children's cognitive abilities (Xia et al. 2021;Kuhbandner and Pekrun 2013;Brooker and Franklin 2016). ...
There has been a significant increase in available information, in the current global context. In this trend, there is a growing need for people to improve their cognitive abilities in order to effectively process and manage the vast amounts of information they encounter. Colour, as a key element of the human cognitive system, has demonstrated a notable impact on information processing. However, the effects of background colour on human cognitive performance remain underexplored. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to investigate whether different reading background colours affect human performance on cognitive functions and the specific mechanisms of this effect. To address these objectives, eight low-saturation colours with a standard white have been selected in the CIE LAB space. Forty participants (20 males and 20 females) were recruited, and the task response times, accuracy rates, brain activities data (fNIRS), and eye-tracking data were collected to assess participants' cognitive performance across different reading background colours. The results showed that there were gender differences in human cognitive performance under different reading background colours. Specifically, the cognitive data indicated that gender had a considerable impact on the response times of participants (p = 0.003, 2 = 0.206), female participants had faster response times than males. The physiological data of the FNIRS showed that there was a significant gender-colour interaction (p = 0.027, 2 = 0.055) in the FPA-L region associated with higher cognitive functions, male participants exhibited higher activation on orange backgrounds (p = 0.001). In the DLPFC-R region related to executive power and attention, the interaction between gender and colour was significant (p = 0.022, 2 = 0.057). Furthermore, the eye-tracking data suggested that male participants had more difficulty with task searches on grey, blue, and purple backgrounds (p < 0.035). Cognitive load is higher in females as evidenced by average pupil diameter.
... Current circumstances evoke increasing concern when we specifically examine students' cognitive processes, which can be delineated as a broad set of brain activities that transpire independently of socio-affective mechanisms, as identified in the existing literature [17]. While a multitude of research on environmental colour, traditionally perceived as such, such as those aggregated by Quiles-Rodríguez et al. [1], has established correlations between physical colour and cognitive performance, as shown by the in-depth studies of Mehta et al. [18] (colours such as red and blue have different incidences on cognitive tasks such as avoidance, concentration or creativity), Duyan et al. [19] (establishing the influence of classroom wall colour on attention), Tuszyńska-Bogucka et al. [20] (establishing the goodness of dim classroom colours for students' emotionally positive response) and Pourbagher et al. [21] (students' concentration is affected by classroom wall colour), there is a conspicuous deficiency in specific research on the tangible effects of coloured lighting on cognitive processes. A sparse number of studies, exemplified by the research conducted by Kombeiz et al. [5] that examined the influence of coloured lighting on creativity within an academic environment at a German university, along with previous research conducted in primary education settings [11], have endeavoured to address this fundamental question. ...
Featured Application
A potential application of this study is the implementation of AI-assisted dynamic colour lighting systems in primary school classrooms to enhance learning, cognition and emotional well-being. By adjusting lighting conditions based on real-time student needs, this technology could improve attention, impulse control, creativity and fundamental skills like reading and mathematics. The findings suggest that specific coloured lighting (e.g., orange for motivation and purple for cognitive engagement) can be integrated into adaptive, cost-effective and sustainable educational environments, supporting teachers in optimizing classroom conditions for improved academic performance and student satisfaction.
Abstract
Numerous studies have explored the role of colour in classroom environments and its effects on learning, cognition and motivation. However, research on coloured lighting remains limited, with most studies focusing only on correlated colour temperature (CCT). Addressing this gap, our study examines various chromatic lighting conditions that enhance learning outcomes while allowing for dynamic applications in educational settings. Conducted over three academic years in six primary classrooms, this quasi-experimental study employed a pretest and a control group to assess the effects of three chromatic lighting scenarios (orange, green and purple) on cognitive processes, emotional responses and basic instrumental learning. Descriptive, variance and comparative analyses revealed conclusive evidence of coloured lighting’s impact, though effects varied across different variables. The study highlights the potential of dynamic lighting approaches to support learning and suggests that AI-assisted lighting adjustments could aid teachers. The findings support the broader implementation of coloured lighting in primary classrooms, advocating for cost-effective, sustainable and adaptive solutions beyond conventional lighting. Such advancements are expected to enhance students’ learning, cognition and motivation while providing greater flexibility in educational environments.
... adverse effects 11,12 . Different color combinations can also have a significant impact on people's physiological and psychological comfort in a space 13 . Additionally, color design within spacecraft can influence astronauts' spatial orientation, information acquisition, and judgment 14,15 . ...
Considering the living environment, appropriate color adjustment has a positive effect on improving the visual comfort of astronauts, promoting their physical and mental health, and enhancing work efficiency. This article takes the Chinese space station experimental module as a prototype, and through simulation experiments, uses a method that combines physiological signals with subjective evaluation to compare the differences in the impact of 9 different color matching schemes on human visual comfort. The results showed that using 2–3 colors for pairing resulted in the highest visual comfort for people, and people were more willing to choose cool, white, or cool, warm, and white combinations. Among them, spaces using blue, green, and white combinations could help alleviate visual fatigue, while spaces using yellow, green, and white combinations could help people maintain or form a good psychological state. Finally, the experimental results were discussed, and prospects for the future development and construction of space stations were discussed.
... Here we observed that greater vividness was associated with incorrect hue decisions, but specifically for negative images that were originally blue and positive images that were originally red. Red hues are generally perceived as congruent with negativity/avoidance, while blue hues are perceived as congruent with positivity/approach (Mehta & Zhu, 2009;Schloss et al., 2020). Participants may therefore have been biased toward what they perceived as the congruent option when vividness was high, even if that option was incorrect. ...
Episodic memories are characterized by the vividness of their recollection. Recent findings show that low-level visual properties can quickly fade from memory and that more vivid memories are associated with less fading. However, further work is needed to clarify this effect over longer delays and how it may shift based on the emotional valence of a stimulus, as well as one’s age. Here, participants (n = 307, aged 19–78, recruited in 2023–2024) incidentally encoded positive, negative, and neutral images shown at different levels of color saturation, contrast, and hue. At a next-day recognition test, images identified as old were rated on subjective vividness and then reconstructed based on the remembered visual information from encoding. More arousing images were recollected with more subjective vividness, and vividness ratings were primarily associated with biases in reconstructed color saturation, but in both instances, the coherence between these measures diminished with increasing age. Negative and neutral images showed memory fading (color saturation underestimations) at lower levels of subjective vividness, and neutral images additionally showed evidence of fading via contrast reconstruction. Positive images did not show evidence of fading and were reconstructed with inflated color saturation and contrast at all levels of vividness relative to negative and neutral images. Our findings show that subjective vividness is not uniformly related to remembered low-level visual information but differs depending on the visual information reconstructed, the emotionality of an experience, and individual differences such as age.
... Babin suggests that in a medical environment context, cool tones such as blues or greens, balanced with a natural element, should be used as these hues help create a calm and comfortable environment [37]. Some also discuss the use of red if a task requires vigilant attention and describe blue as having an approach motivation effect, encouraging the use of creative processes to complete a task compared to red which has an avoidance motivation effect for detail-oriented tasks that require full attention [38]. Other studies also emphasize the effectiveness of pictorial health information as valuable visual aids, especially for patients with low literacy [30,39]. ...
This scoping review examines the visual design elements of written patient information (WPI), specifically focusing on imagery, colour, layout and content presentation, and their impact on health information communication, understanding, behaviour and preferences among patients. Understanding patient preferences allows for patient-informed WPI design, which is important for Māori (Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand) living in a colonial society. Nine studies were analysed, primarily investigating the integration of visual illustrations within WPI. Participants generally favoured the inclusion of images alongside text, finding them instrumental in enhancing comprehension and making health information more approachable. The preference for simpler and less detailed visuals, such as cartoons, was highlighted, although there was variability depending on literacy levels and cultural backgrounds. The use of colour, layout features (e.g. font type and white space) and content framing (e.g. positive versus negative framing of risk information) were explored for their effects on information reception and behavioural outcomes. Currently, there is a paucity of literature on Māori preferences and requires further research. Overall, this scoping review highlights the importance of designing WPIs with visual elements that cater to diverse literacy levels and cultural preferences to optimize communication effectiveness and patient engagement.
... By using visual elements like charts, graphs, and maps, data visualization is an accessible way to see and understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. Our eyes are drawn to colors and patterns [10]. We can quickly identify red from blue, square from circle. ...
We present a guide on how to analyze Steam gaming network using a data-warehouse method with open-source tools. With hundreds of thousands of data comprising the app's information and the historical data of the app's active session, we want to examine user behavior across the dimensions of game's developers and publishers, genres affinity, and money expenditure. Gamer behavior is highly tied with a wide diversity and characteristics by distributions. Thus, finding out how to build the right data warehouse will give a significant impact on almost everything such as query performance, ease of analysis, and maintenance.
... Moreover, it tends to diminish convergent thinking and analytical performance while fostering divergent thinking (De Dreu et al. 2015). These cognitive changes are likely conducive to more original ideation and creative problem-solving (Mehta andZhu 2009, Fletcher andBenveniste 2022). However, an inconsistent result in the effects of OT on creativity was observed among different individuals. ...
Oxytocin, a neuropeptide pivotal in social and reproductive behaviors, has recently gained attention for its potential impact on cognitive processes relevant to creativity. Yet, the direct intricate interplay between oxytocin and creativity, particularly in the context of individual differences in motivational orientations, remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated the effects of intranasal oxytocin on creative thinking in individuals characterized by varying levels of approach and avoidance motivations. The initial study, involving participants with high approach or avoidance motivation, employed the Alternative Uses Task (AUT) to assess creativity under oxytocin administration. Subsequently, the second study induced different motivational states through a recall task, aiming to validate and extend observed effects. Results revealed a significant enhancement of creativity in individuals with approach motivation following oxytocin administration, while no parallel effect was discerned in those with avoidance motivation. Aligning with behavioral findings, functional connectivity and graph theory analyses of neural data illuminated the coordinated effects of oxytocin on creativity-related neural networks. These outcomes collectively suggest that oxytocin exerts a dissociable influence on creativity contingent upon an individual’s motivational tendencies, providing insights into the intricate relationship between oxytocin and human creative behavior.
... Textual cues also vary in their influence on perception depending on cognitive factors, aligning with insights into visual working memory [71]. Similarly, the effectiveness of color in cognitive tasks is closely related to cognitive demands and motivational states [61]. Participants did not consciously recognize the blur cue but still found it demanding, indicating a significant cognitive load and complex perceptual processing in VR. ...
... Visual perception is a fundamental element of human sensation, and color is an important component of vision, an element that also affects people's perception of time. Most research on this topic has focused on two of the three primary colors-red and blue [12]. Previous findings have shown that the color of a screen affects people's time perception (red screens are more likely to be perceived as longer than blue screens) [13,14].According to pacemaker-accumulator model theory [15][16][17], the color red, which consists mainly of longer wavelengths, elicits higher levels of arousal [18][19][20], and the color red elicits higher levels of arousal than the color blue when brightness and saturation are equal [21]. ...
Background
Intertemporal choices are the process by which people make choices about losses or gains at different points in time (near or far). To explore the relationship between font color and intertemporal choice and to examine the serial mediation of time perception and intradimensional difference comparison on the association between font color and intertemporal choice on the basis of attribute-based choice models.
Methods
We randomly assigned subjects to the intertemporal choices questionnaire in a specific font color (blue vs. red) condition. The Intertemporal Choice Task, the Subjective Duration Judgment Task and the Intradimensional Difference Comparison Task were administered to a sample comprising 210 college students (103 males accounting for 49.05%). Multivariate analysis and latent variable analysis were used to explore the separate mediating roles of time perception and intradimensional difference comparison in the association between font color and intertemporal choice, and their serial mediation was also investigated. The bootstrap method was employed to test the significance of these mediating effects.
Results
Compared with red font, blue font can encourage students to choose more-farsighted intertemporal choices (i.e., LL). Students who use the blue font are more likely to have shorter durations and can choose the more farsighted intertemporal choice (i.e., LL) than those who use the red font. Students using blue fonts are more likely to perceive the difference between the two options chosen across time (∆payoff A, B) to be greater than the difference between the two options in the payoff dimension (∆time A, B), leading to farsighted choices compared with those using red fonts. Serial mediation was also found.
Conclusion
The findings revealed why font color influences intertemporal choice. This study revealed the mediating role that time perception and intradimensional difference comparison play in the association between font color and intertemporal choice.
... Visual perception is a fundamental element of human sensation, and color is an important component of vision, an element that also affects people's perception of time. Most research on this topic has focused on two of the three primary colors-red and blue (Mehta and Zhu, 2009). Previous ndings have shown that the color of a screen affects people's time perception (red screens are more likely to be perceived as longer than blue screens) (Gorn et al., 2004;Shibasaki and Masataka, 2014). ...
Background Intertemporal choices are the process by which people make choices about losses or gains at different points in time (near or far). To explore the relationship between font color and intertemporal choice and to examine the serial mediation of time perception and intradimensional difference comparison on the association between font color and intertemporal choice on the basis of attribute-based choice models. Methods We randomly assigned subjects to the intertemporal choices questionnaire in a specific font color (blue vs. red) condition. The Intertemporal Choice Task, the Subjective Duration Judgment Task and the Intradimensional Difference Comparison Task were administered to a sample comprising 210 college students (103 males accounting for 49.05%). Multivariate analysis and latent variable analysis were used to explore the separate mediating roles of time perception and intradimensional difference comparison in the association between font color and intertemporal choice, and their serial mediation was also investigated. The bootstrap method was employed to test the significance of these mediating effects. Results Compared with red font, blue font can encourage students to choose more-farsighted intertemporal choices (i.e., LL). Students who use the blue font are more likely to have shorter durations and can choose the more farsighted intertemporal choice (i.e., LL) than those who use the red font. Students using blue fonts are more likely to perceive the difference between the two options chosen across time (∆payoff A,B ) to be greater than the difference between the two options in the payoff dimension (∆time A,B ), leading to farsighted choices compared with those using red fonts. Serial mediation was also found. Conclusion The findings revealed why font color influences intertemporal choice. This study revealed the mediating role that time perception and intradimensional difference comparison play in the association between font color and intertemporal choice.
... Divergent thinking is particularly critical when solving creative problems, which usually do not have a single correct answer but require individuals to propose multiple solutions or ideas, emphasizing exibility and innovation rather than precision. In a study by Mehta & Zhu (2009), participants were asked to come up with as many creative uses for a brick as possible within one minute, while in Sun & Liu's (2016) study, native Chinese speakers were instructed to write down as many uses for a newspaper as possible within 90 seconds. Results from both studies showed that participants in the blue background group performed signi cantly better on creative tasks than those in the red background group, with shorter task completion times. ...
In teaching practice, color is a common and significant stimulus that can influence learners' cognitive load and learning outcomes through the mediating effects of attention and emotion. Given the challenges faced by CSL learners in mastering and memorizing Chinese characters, this study explores the impact of the background color of learning materials—one aspect of the physical learning environment—on the memory retention of Chinese characters among CSL learners. The study employs four background colors (white, red, blue, and green) and adopts a combination of E-Prime psychological experimentation, questionnaire surveys, and semi-structured interviews to examine the recall performance of 30 participants with similar working memory capacity and no particular color preference. The participants' ability to recall Chinese characters was assessed through written recall tasks under the four different background colors. The collected data were then analyzed using SPSS 26.0, with the p -values adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser method and multiple comparisons corrected using the Bonferroni method. The results indicate that the background color of the learning materials has a significant effect on the memorization of Chinese characters. Specifically, the red background was found to facilitate the completion of focused memory tasks and demonstrated a robust memory enhancement effect. In contrast, the blue background may be more suitable for creative tasks, as it exhibited a certain degree of memory suppression effect in focused memory tests. Moreover, the effects of white and green backgrounds on character recall were similar, falling between the effects observed for red and blue backgrounds. These findings partially validate the revised cognitive load model proposed by Choi et al. (2014) and highlight that color, as an independent factor, plays a crucial role in influencing learning outcomes. This study thus contributes to the theoretical understanding of background color and its implications for enhancing the efficacy of learning materials.
... Because it can influence how backers process information, this style also moderates the effect of cues on pitch material evaluation but in a very different way. While both costly and costless cues may influence investment, evaluators who prefer experiential thinking may be more influenced by costless cues that are easy to understand and judge (Chan & Park, 2013;Mehta & Zhu, 2009), and serve as mental shortcuts for evaluators who seek to form snap judgments. Some empirical evidence supports this line of reasoning. ...
Most entrepreneurial finance studies have treated funders as a monolithic group and ignored individual differences in tastes. This overlook is complicated by prior studies demonstrating how entrepreneurs would utilize either costly to be acquired cues (e.g. patents) that signal venture quality or costless cues that are easily fabricated (e.g. company name fluency) in their pitches to influence investors. We thus investigate how cognitive styles influence heterogeneous crowdfunding backers’ evaluations of pitches in the presence of costly and costless cues. Based on Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory, we illustrate that a rational thinking style moderate the contrast effect, i.e. costly cues overpowering costless cues, on pitch evaluations and performance predictions for crowdfunded ventures, while an experiential thinking style will attenuate such contrast effect. Findings from two experiments support the moderating effect of a rational thinking style. We demonstrate backers are not monolithic and call for future studies to understand how heterogeneous backers make decisions.
... Similarly, associations with red and avoidance motivation lead individuals to perform better on detail-oriented tasks but worse on creative tasks when red (vs. blue) is present (Mehta & Zhu, 2009). In summary, research in this stream shows that context influences the effects of red. ...
This research examines how red ambient color in restaurants/cafeterias influences food choices. Prior research shows that red directly related to a food product (such as on nutrition labels or plates/cups) leads to avoidance of unhealthy foods. Yet, many successful fast‐food restaurants (e.g., McDonald's and Dairy Queen) use red in their ambiance, suggesting that in the context of food/eating, ambient red may have a different meaning than product‐related red. Indeed, the current research shows that consumers associate ambient red (e.g., wall color) with unhealthy restaurants. The presence of ambient red (vs. blue, gray, or white) leads to greater preference for unhealthy (i.e., high calorie, high fat, and indulgent) food options because consumers draw on ambient factors to make inferences about products sold in a retail establishment and then choose contextually appropriate products. The effect is moderated by the extent to which a consumer associates red with unhealthy restaurants. This research highlights how, in the context of food/eating, the placement of red influences its meaning and ultimately whether consumers approach or avoid unhealthy foods.
... 57 The muššaru-stone probably refers to a banded agate or sardonyx (of a redbrown and white color). The turminabandû stone has been identified as striped redwhite breccia through inscribed pavement stones from Nebukadnezzar's procession street interfere with some cognitive tasks and alter one's perception of the envi ronment (e.g., room temperature) and of other people [Elliot, Maier, Moller, Friedman, and Meinhardt 2007;Mehta and Zhu 2009]. The physiology of emotional responses may contribute to a few coloremotion associations; thus, the crossculturally common association expressed by the phrase "to be red with anger" seems to be a metonymic reference to the reddening of the facial color observed during outbursts of rage [Allan 2007;Valdez and Mehrabian 1994;Fugate and Franco 2019]. ...
This article applies approaches from current emotion research on material affective scaffolds—objects made and used to enhance, and more generally transform, affective states—to the emerging field of study focusing on emotions in ancient Near Eastern societies. Its main goal is to extend the framework of 4E cognition—with its central notion that human cognition is embodied, embedded, enactive, and extended—to the realm of affective states, emphasizing that through our bodily interactions with material objects we transform not just our cognitive processes but also our emotions, moods, and so forth. Thereby, the present study seeks to contribute to the exploration of the relationships between sensory experiences, emotions, moods, and the material world by investigating the affective meanings that material things acquire through people’s entanglements with them. The study focuses on one particular class of objects—Mesopotamian amulets from the first millennium BC, which served as bodily adornments but were also understood to have the power to evoke affective responses through their activation in ritual performances. Referring to scholarly compendia in Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, this study demonstrates that these objects were recommended by healing experts to influence different affective states, both in oneself and others. It examines the connection between affective states and specific material features of the amulet components (consisting of minerals, metals, and plant and animal substances). Finally, Mesopotamian views of affective states and their management are compared with those of contemporary cognitive-affective science. This comparison shows that although there are some analogies, there are also important differences that depend mainly on different understandings of the human mind and agency. byUlrike SteinertJohannes Gutenberg University Mainzusteiner@unimainz.deandGiovanna ColombettiUniversity of ExeterG.Colombetti@exeter.ac.uk
In this article, we studied how the design of safety signs affects how quickly and accurately people understand them. Signs with bar patterns were found to be the easiest and quickest to recognize, while square and irregular patterns took longer and caused more mistakes. The study shows that simple designs, like bars, help reduce confusion and improve safety in emergencies, roads or workplaces. These findings can guide designers to create clearer and more effective safety signs that work well in busy or stressful environments.
Background
Heat-related illness is a significant occupational hazard requiring effective prevention. The World Health Organization emphasizes that reducing a worker's ability to perform tasks due to extreme heat or cold is a “health effect” of climate conditions. This study proposes a novel safety management approach in construction to prevent heatstroke among workers using thermochromic fibers that change color in response to body temperature, enabling the visual detection of rising heat levels.
Objective
This study evaluated the visibility and contrast of blue and pink (red spectrum) fibers at different distances. The hypothesis was that workers could help prevent heat-related illnesses by monitoring the color changes in their clothing.
Methods
The study involved visibility and contrast tests of garments dyed with thermochromic pigments, observed at different distances. Data analysis was conducted using ANOVA and regression analysis.
Results
The findings indicate that while blue fibers initially have higher visibility, their visibility diminishes more rapidly with distance than pink fibers. Owing to psychological associations, pink fiber may be more effective in heat stroke safety management.
Conclusions
Selecting appropriate colors for thermochromic fibers enhances their effectiveness as safety indicators. Additionally, empowering workers to monitor each other through visual cues may improve safety outcomes, representing a shift from traditional management methods.
The present study of mixed approach and quasi-experimental technique, had the general purpose of evaluating the effects of color on creative capacity and on creative products made by students of Architecture and Design of the Autonomous University of Baja California (UABC), in a virtual learning environment (VLE) designed in green and gray interfaces. As specific objectives, it was sought to establish the possible relationships generated between the demographic and emotional characteristics of the student, how color influenced the creativity shown in a tangible way in a creative product, a story, different uses of an object and a drawing; all carried out in a virtual context.
According to the above, a total of 242 tests were applied, forming two groups: the control group with 121 applications in gray and the experimental group with 121 applications in green. The sample consisted of second semester Architecture and Design students from the three UABC campuses. Within the method, three instruments were applied: the ICBT (Ishihara Color Blind Test), which allowed ruling out color blindness; then the EVEA (Mood State Assessment Scale) was applied, used to measure the transitory state of mind from a psychological perspective; subsequently, the EMUC test (Multifactorial Evaluation of Creativity), a test battery that allowed evaluating verbal, applied and visuomotor creativity; next, a workshop class was simulated in which the students made a creative product. Finally, they were asked some questions regarding their mood and color perception.
The results showed that the color green influenced the mood of the students, with joy being the highest average. The general average of creativity was higher in the gray test than in the green one. However, in particular, the visuomotor creativity and creative product scores were higher in the green test. On the other hand, in the gray test, the highest average was obtained in verbal creativity, applied creativity. In addition, in both tests, women had higher scores than men in creativity; especially in the visuomotor and creative product, where they integrated more aesthetic details. Regarding the average of the faculties, the Ensenada campus was higher, followed by the Mexicali campus, and finally the Tijuana campus; allowing to identify that both the environment, climate, geographical location among other psycho-social factors can influence creative performance within a VLE.
Purpose
Product packaging visually distinguishes products, making it a key determinant of a product’s success. This study examines two highly prominent packaging elements – colour and shape – of hedonic foods and their combined effects on consumers’ sensory expectations, such as the perceived sweetness, and their subsequent purchase intentions.
Design/methodology/approach
Study 1 conducted an experiment to examine the interaction effect between packaging colour (red vs blue) and shape (round vs angular) on consumers’ sweetness expectations and purchase intentions, with product-related perceptions serving as mediators. Study 2 used a survey involving a choice task to examine differences in consumers’ preferences between round-red and angular-red packaging, incorporating shape-related perceptions. A two-way between-subjects ANOVA, moderated mediation and binary logistic regression analyses were employed for data analyses.
Findings
Colour and shape interactively influenced sweetness expectations, with shape’s effect being more pronounced for blue packaging than red packaging. Moreover, the enhanced sweetness expectations triggered by packaging increased purchase intentions by amplifying expected food enjoyment and perceived package attractiveness. Furthermore, consumers preferred the round-red packaging to the angular-red packaging when focusing on sweetness, colour–shape congruency and package attractiveness; the angular-red packaging was favoured when consumers focused on package typicality.
Originality/value
This research advances the body of knowledge on consumer responses to product packaging by providing insights into the combined effects of the colour and shape of packaging for hedonic foods. Our findings highlight the importance of strategic packaging design while considering the combined impacts of colour and shape.
This study analyzed the relationship between colors and various aspects of the work environment, such as emotions, health and productivity. The review of recent scientific articles showed that colors have a significant impact on workers, and can positively or negatively influence their well-being and performance. Warm colors, such as red, stimulate energy but can cause irritability, while cool colors, such as blue, promote calm and concentration. The research also highlighted the importance of combining colors with natural elements and of workers' participation in choosing the colors of the environment. The review concluded that the appropriate choice of colors can optimize the work environment, increasing employee satisfaction and productivity. However, the research identified the need for further studies to deepen the understanding of the complexity of the relationship between colors and human behavior in the work context.
The craving to eat is a complex phenomenon influenced by biological, psychological, and environmental factors. This study investigates the impact of colour on the craving to eat, considering individual factors such as gender, age, body mass index (BMI), and dieting status. The study involved 702 adult participants from two major cities in Turkey who completed questionnaires assessing their craving to eat and their perceptions of various food and tableware colours. The results indicated that women, young adults, individuals with obesity, and those on a diet tend to have a higher craving to eat. The study also found that the colours of food and tableware can significantly affect the craving to eat. For instance, red food increased the craving to eat, while black and grey foods decreased it. Black tableware increased the craving to eat, while yellow and green tableware decreased it. The effect of colour on the craving to eat also varied depending on gender, age, BMI, and dieting status. The study concludes that the craving to eat is a multifaceted phenomenon and that colour plays a significant role in influencing it. The findings of this study have important implications for the development of strategies to promote healthy eating habits and manage weight. The study also highlights the need for further research to understand the complex relationship between colour and eating behaviour.
The seven colours of the rainbow are much more than visually appealing; they possess significant scientific, medical, and psychological importance. These colours appear in the natural world and also resonate within our bodies through the chakra system. In nature, these colours are prominently seen in fruits, vegetables, flowers, animals, and various landscapes. Each colour of the rainbow provides distinct health benefits, and collectively these colours form white light and sunlight. Thus, the diverse benefits associated with each colour are delivered to us by Nature, primarily from the Sun, foods, and the environment. Let us journey through the rainbow to uncover the meanings behind each colour and how they can enhance our well-being. LET'S NOT FORGET THAT THE SUN PROVIDES ALL THESE COLOURS! Red: Energy and Vitality (Base Chakra) The colour red is associated with energy, passion, and life. Psychologically, it may stir the senses, quicken the heartbeat, increase motivation, and evoke feelings of excitement and intensity. Scientifically, red light has also been proven to stimulate the production of adrenaline, enhance energy levels and alertness and therefore improve physical alertness. In medical treatments, red light therapy promotes wound healing and reduces inflammation. Foods coloured red include tomatoes, strawberries, and cherries, all of which contain lycopene and anthocyanins. These are antioxidants that can help reduce inflammation and support the cardiovascular system. Beets, a reddish vegetable, are also a source of nitrates. Nitrates can enhance blood flow and lower blood pressure. In architecture and business decor, red is used in restaurants and retail to stimulate appetite and encourage impulsive buying, creating urgency and excitement.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine whether the use of videoconferencing for communication between the audit committee (AC) and auditors affects the quality of client firms’ audits.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper analyzes the mandatory disclosure information on AC–auditors communication using 1,065 Korean listed firm-years for the fiscal years 2020 and 2021. The details of AC–auditor communication (i.e. the extent of firms’ use of videoconferencing) are manually collected from audit reports.
Findings
This study finds that videoconferencing has a negative impact on audit quality, suggesting that it is not an effective communication medium between AC and auditors. The results are robust to alternative research designs (e.g. entropy-balanced sample, propensity score matching analysis and change analysis) that address endogeneity concerns. This study also finds that while the negative effect of videoconferencing is mitigated by holding more frequent AC meetings, neither AC independence nor expertise mitigates this effect.
Research limitations/implications
This paper suggests that videoconferencing may affect audit quality by hurting the discussion between the AC and auditors.
Practical implications
The findings that videoconferencing impairs the effectiveness of ACs and thus lowers audit quality have practical implications as the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed how AC members and auditors interact. This study offers timely and valuable insights into the potential implications of these pandemic-induced changes on audit environments.
Originality/value
This study provides large-sample empirical evidence that directly examines the effect of videoconferencing on audit quality, enhancing the understanding of the communication dynamics between the AC and auditors. This study also contributes to the literature on the role of ACs in emerging markets by highlighting the information processing role of the AC.
Featured Application
Students’ instructions, creative task performance, different media.
Abstract
Teachers often serve as creators of written instructions that students use to complete assignments. This research investigates whether the speed at which the instructions are read is impacted by different visual designs (such as typeface shape, colour, and layout) and the media through which they are presented (digital or traditional). The objective is to determine if these factors influence reading time; therefore, an experiment was carried out. The experiment employed a 5 × 5 Latin square design, with student participants reading the same task instructions in both digital (near and far) and traditional formats. Each set of instructions was presented in a different typographic solution. Reading times were self-recorded and analysed using ANOVA to assess the effects of typographic solutions and reading media. The study did not reveal any statistically significant differences in reading speed based on the colour of the text and background as well as typographic solutions. However, it did find a statistically significant variation between reading media, with variations between digital and traditional formats. These results are crucial for enhancing the design of instructional materials, suggesting the necessity of carefully considering reading media in educational contexts.
The colours in our daily lives have a profound effect on our emotions and behaviour. Colour psychology has shown that different colours elicit the same emotional responses and behavioural tendencies in people (Elliot and Maier in, Annu Rev Psychol 65:95–120, 2014). This influence can be both on a conscious and subconscious level. From the colours of the environment we live in, to the clothes we choose to wear, the use of colours in brand logos and advertisements, everything quietly influences our psychology and behaviour (Bellizzi and Hite in, Psychol Mark 9:347–363, 1992). This influence can be significant or subtle, and colour plays an important role in shaping our perceptions of the world.
Behavioral strategy has emerged as one of the most important currents in contemporary strategic management. But, what is it? Where does it come from? Why is it important? This Element provides a review of key streams in behavioral, interpreting behavioral strategy as a consistently microfoundational approach to strategy that is grounded in evidence-based insight in behaviors and interaction. We show that there is considerable room for furthering the microfoundations of behavioral strategy and point to research opportunities and methods that may realize this aim. The Element is of interest to strategy scholars in general, and to Ph.D. students in strategy research in particular.
Metaverse virtual reality (VR) technology offers an environment that provides a sense of presence that cannot be achieved through traditional online interactions. Although this technology is used in education and industry, challenges remain to be overcome for further penetration into society. In this study, we conducted an experiment using a risk preference task in blue and red spaces to verify color impressions and their effects in VR environments. Consistent with previous studies, high calmness was observed in the blue space. However, contrary to expectations, the risk preference task results showed risk-averse behavior in red space but not in blue space. Therefore, conventional color psychology may not be applicable to constructing the same space in a virtual environment. Previous studies have shown consistent experimental results regarding emotional responses to color stimuli; however, no consistent outcomes have been reported regarding cognitive performance. This is because the effect of color impressions is thought to depend not only on the color itself but also on what is recalled. The results of this study suggest that red in a VR environment may be interpreted as a warning color, preventing people from losing focus.
Colors and light affect human emotions, and positive emotions encourage human creativity. To enhance student creativity, the appropriate surface colors and light color temperatures in a virtual environment must be determined. This study explores how color and light color temperature in a virtual space impact student creativity. In Experiment 1, color and light color temperature were chosen by surveying 189 architect students who answered questionnaires after watching 10 pictures of a workspace with five different surface colors and two light color temperatures. The workspace with white walls and daylight had the highest mode scores for positive emotion perception. Experiment 2 assessed the creativity of 46 participants using virtual reality (VR) and the alternative uses test (AUT). Participants were divided into two groups of 23. The first group was exposed to white surfaces under daylight. The second group interacted with red surfaces under warm light. The results indicate that a space with white surfaces and daylight significantly enhances creativity compared to a space with red surfaces and warm light. Using light colors and daylight in VR workspace design may promote positive emotions and enhance creativity.
People approach pleasure and avoid pain. To discover the true nature of approach–avoidance motivation, psychologists need to move beyond this hedonic principle to the principles that underlie the different ways that it operates. One such principle is regulatory focus, which distinguishes self-regulation with a promotion focus (accomplishments and aspirations) from self-regulation with a prevention focus (safety and responsibilities). This principle is used to reconsider the fundamental nature of approach–avoidance, expectancy–value relations, and emotional and evaluative sensitivities. Both types of regulatory focus are applied to phenonomena that have been treated in terms of either promotion (e.g., well-being) or prevention (e.g., cognitive dissonance). Then, regulatory focus is distinguished from regulatory anticipation and regulatory reference, 2 other principles underlying the different ways that people approach pleasure and avoid pain.
We argue that environmental cues provide affective information that directly influences processing strategy, with positively valenced (i.e., happy) cues leading to nonsystematic processing and negatively valenced (i.e., sad) cues leading to systematic processing. Two studies addressed this issue. In Study 1, participants were exposed to a set of problem solving tasks printed on either red, white, or blue paper and under the condition of either low or high motivation to process. The results showed that in the low motivation condition the blue and white paper participants outperformed the red paper participants, while in the high motivation condition there were no effects. Further, there were no differences in mood among the groups, although results from a pilot study indicated that the red paper was perceived as communicating happiness relative to the blue paper. These results suggest that an environmental cue, such as color, can directly affect processing strategy in low motivation participants. In Study ...
Different explanations of color vision favor different philosophical positions: Computational vision is more compatible with objectivism (the color is in the object), psychophysics and neurophysiology with subjectivism (the color is in the head). Comparative research suggests tbat an explanation of color must be both experientialist (unlike objectivism) and ecological (unlike subjectivism). Computational vision's emphasis on optimally "recovering" prespecified features of the environment (i.e., distal properties, independent of the sensory-motor capacities of the animal) is unsatisfactory. Conceiving of visual perception instead as the visual guidance of activity in an environment that is determined largely by that very activity suggests new directions for research.
An experiment is reported in which young and elderly adults performed cued-recall and recognition tests while carrying out a choice reaction-time task. An analysis of covariance, with recognition performance as the covariate, showed a reliable age decrement in recall. It was therefore concluded that older people perform more poorly on recall tasks than they do on recognition tasks. Performance on the secondary (reaction time) task showed that recall was associated with greater resource "costs" than was recognition and that this effect was amplified by increasing age. The results are in line with the suggestion that recall requires more processing resources than does recognition and that such resources are depleted as people grow older. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Much research has explained regulatory focus effects via the alternative psychological states (eagerness vs. vigilance) people experience when they adopt different regulatory foci. This article identifies for the first time the cognitive mechanism that underlies regulatory focus effects. We propose that promotion-focus individuals engage in relational elaboration, which entails identifying commonalities or abstract relationships among disparate items. In contrast, prevention-focus individuals engage in item-specific elaboration, which involves focusing on specific attributes of each item independent of others. Results support our theorizing by demonstrating that promotion-focus (prevention-focus) individuals exhibit enhanced performance on tasks that require relational (item-specific) elaboration. (c) 2007 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Across a variety of domains, consumers often choose to act as the designer of their own solution, sourcing the necessary components and assembling the parts to meet their specific goals. While thinking creatively is an integral part in the daily life of every consumer, surprisingly little research in marketing has examined the factors influencing such processes. In our research, we examine how input and time constraints influence the way in which consumers process information during a creative task and how those processes, in turn, influence the creativity of the solution. Paradoxically, we find that input constraints encourage more creative processing, provided the individual is not under significant time constraints. (c) 2005 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
In two studies, the regulatory function of approach-avoidance cues in activating cognitive control processes was investigated. It was hypothesized that avoidance motor actions, relative to approach motor actions, increase the recruitment of cognitive resources, resulting in better performance on tasks that draw on these capacities. In Study 1, error rates on a verbal response mode version of the Stroop task were analyzed. On inconsistent Stroop trials, participants in the avoidance condition made significantly fewer errors than those in the approach condition. In Study 2, performance differences on a task switching paradigm were investigated. Crucially, approach and avoidance motor actions were manipulated within-subjects by alternating between approach and avoidance motor actions on 4 blocks of trials. Temporal switching costs were significantly lower while performing an avoidance, compared to an approach motor action. These results support our hypothesis that avoidance cues, relative to approach cues, lead to improved performance on cognitive control tasks.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
People approach pleasure and avoid pain. To discover the true nature of approach-avoidance motivation, psychologists need to move beyond this hedonic principle to the principles that underlie the different ways that it operates. One such principle is regulatory focus, which distinguishes self-regulation with a promotion focus (accomplishments and aspirations) from self-regulation with a prevention focus (safety and responsibilities). This principle is used to reconsider the fundamental nature of approach-avoidance, expectancy-value relations, and emotional and evaluative sensitivities. Both types of regulatory focus are applied to phenomena that have been treated in terms of either promotion (e.g., well-being) or prevention (e.g., cognitive dissonance). Then, regulatory focus is distinguished from regulatory anticipation and regulatory reference, 2 other principles underlying the different ways that people approach pleasure and avoid pain.
This study tested whether cues associated with promotion and prevention regulatory foci influence creativity. The authors predicted that the "risky," explorative processing style elicited by promotion cues, relative to the risk-averse, perseverant processing style elicited by prevention cues, would facilitate creative thought. These predictions were supported by two experiments in which promotion cues bolstered both creative insight (Experiment 1) and creative generation (Experiment 2) relative to prevention cues. Experiments 3 and 4 provided evidence for the process account of these findings. suggesting that promotion cues, relative to prevention cues, produce a riskier response bias (Experiment 3) and bolster memory search for novel responses (Experiment 4). A final experiment provided evidence that individual differences in regulatory focus influence creative problem solving in a manner analogous to that of incidental promotion and prevention cues.
People experience regulatory fit when they pursue a goal in a manner that sustains their regulatory orientation (E. T. Higgins, 2000). Five studies tested whether the value experienced from regulatory fit can transfer to a subsequent evaluation of an object. In Studies 1 and 2, participants gave the same coffee mug a higher price if they had chosen it with a strategy that fit their orientation (eager strategy/promotion; vigilant strategy/prevention) than a strategy that did not fit. Studies 3-5 investigated possible mechanisms underlying this effect. Value transfer was independent of positive mood, perceived effectiveness (instrumentality), and perceived efficiency (ease), and occurred for an object that w as independent of the fit process itself. The findings supported a value confusion account of transfer.
This experiment assessed the effects of a red versus a green versus a white office environment on worker productivity and mood. An equal number of males and females completed a mood questionnaire before and after proofreading in one of the three offices. It was predicted that the subjects in the red office would report more tension and possibly make more errors. However, the subjects in the red office made the fewest errors, while the subjects in the white office made the most errors. Females scored significantly better on the proofreading task, and reported more tension and less vigour than males in the experiment. Subjects who worked in the red office found the colour of their office more distracting than subjects who worked in and rated the white office. The subjects in the white office reported that they would like to work in this environment and considered this colour most appropriate for an office. The authors speculate that a sterile, white environment may not be as conducive to work as is believed.
In 4 experiments, participants were led to focus on either the prospect of positive outcomes (approach anticipation) or the prospect of negative outcomes (avoidance anticipation) and were subsequently administered behavioral measures of relative hemispheric activation. It was found that approach, relative to avoidance-related anticipatory states, produced greater relative right (diminished relative left) hemispheric activation. Experiment 3 additionally demonstrated that this pattern of activation was reversed when approach and avoidance states were not merely anticipatory but were also emotionally arousing. Finally, Experiment 4 replicated earlier findings demonstrating an influence of approach and avoidance anticipatory states on creativity and analytical problem solving (R. S. Friedman & J. Forster, 2001, 2003) and provided evidence that such effects are mediated by differences in relative hemispheric activation.
Four experiments explored the effects of mating motivation on creativity. Even without other incentives to be creative, romantic motives enhanced creativity on subjective and objective measures. For men, any cue designed to activate a short-term or a long-term mating goal increased creative displays; however, women displayed more creativity only when primed to attract a high-quality long-term mate. These creative boosts were unrelated to increased effort on creative tasks or to changes in mood or arousal. Furthermore, results were unaffected by the application of monetary incentives for creativity. These findings align with the view that creative displays in both sexes may be linked to sexual selection, qualified by unique exigencies of human parental investment.
This research focuses on the relation between color and psychological functioning, specifically, that between red and performance attainment. Red is hypothesized to impair performance on achievement tasks, because red is associated with the danger of failure in achievement contexts and evokes avoidance motivation. Four experiments demonstrate that the brief perception of red prior to an important test (e.g., an IQ test) impairs performance, and this effect appears to take place outside of participants' conscious awareness. Two further experiments establish the link between red and avoidance motivation as indicated by behavioral (i.e., task choice) and psychophysiological (i.e., cortical activation) measures. The findings suggest that care must be taken in how red is used in achievement contexts and illustrate how color can act as a subtle environmental cue that has important influences on behavior.
In this article, we introduce this special issue by establishing a conceptual foundation for the distinction between approach and avoidance motivation. We do so primarily by explicating several reasons why the approach–avoidance distinction should be viewed as fundamental and basic to the study of human behavior. In addition, we compare and contrast the “approach–avoidance” designation with other designations that have been used in the motivational literature to cover the same or similar conceptual ground. Finally, we conclude by briefly overviewing the other contributions to this special issue, specifically highlighting how they make use of the approach–avoidance distinction.
Perceptions of risk are an inherent part of the decision-making process. What is more, risk perception can be understood as an individual's assessment of risk, and the adequacy of any risk assessment is reliant on the adequacy of the accessible risk information. Consequently, one way to understand the effect of risk perception on decision-making, and the approach taken in this literature review, is to understand how risk information is communicated and received by an individual. A number of factors are identified that have been found to influence perceptions of risk, which are related to the design of risk messages: the message (colour, signal word, surround shape, and the framing effect), the source of the message (credibility and trust), and the target of the message (risk target). It is concluded that, in order to design effective risk communications, and to facilitate decision-making and safe behaviour, these factors need to be considered, in a context-dependent manner.
In two experiments, task type or a break, environmental color, and environmental view were manipulated to determine their effects on mood, satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Mood, specifically negative mood, and performance satisfaction tended to be affected by what one did, not by the environmental design. Individuals working a high demand task reported more negative mood and less performance satisfaction than individuals working a low demand task. As expected, motivation was not affected by any manipulations. Performance appears to be affected by environmental color or view. When performing a low demand task, performance appears to worsen over time in the blue rather than the red environment. When working a high demand task in a red environment, performance was worse unless either a break or a scenic picture were present. These data suggest that blue is a calming color and red is a stimulating color, which may interact with other environmental factors. The impact of a scenic picture may serve a comparative process.
This study tested whether internal nonaffective processing cues independently influence two major varieties of creative cognition: insight problem solving and creative generation. In Experiments 1 and 2, bodily cues associated with positive or negative hedonic states were manipulated by means of arm flexor or extensor contraction, respectively, and the effects of these internal cues on creative insight and generation were observed. In line with our cognitive tuning approach, it was predicted that the “riskier,” more explorative processing style elicited by arm flexion, relative to the more risk-averse, perseverant processing style elicited by arm extension, would facilitate performance on both tasks. These predictions were strongly supported. In addition, Experiments 3 and 4 provided the first direct evidence that the effects of these internal processing cues on creativity are mediated by a memory search-based mechanism. Reported effects were independent of mood, task enjoyment, and the effortfulness of the motor actions.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
Should a marketer adopt a pancultural or a culture-specific approach in using colour in marketing? Colours exercise powerful effects and induce reactions based on both instincts and associations. Colours alter the meanings of objects or situations with which they are associated and colour preferences can predict consumer behavior. This article reviews the psychological and sociocultural associations and meanings of colour(s) in a cross-cultural marketing perspective, and outlines its role as a marketing cue. For the cultural values, marketing objectives and desired customer relationship levels influence the choice of colour in corporate and marketing communications, it is argued that a cross-cultural perspective of colour research and application is imperative for developing global marketing strategies.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13527260500247827#preview
Previous research has examined the connoted hazard of various colour and signal words separately. The purpose of the present research was to examine the interaction of signal words and colours. Two separate experiments examined the influence of colour on perceptions of hazard and on compliance to printed warnings. In experiment 1, a sample of 30 undergraduates rated the perceived hazard of signal words printed in specific hazard colours. Results indicated that the level of hazard varied as a function of the signal word and the colour in which it was presented. Of the colours used, red conveyed the highest level of perceived hazard followed by orange, black, green and blue. More importantly, it was noted that a signal word such as DEADLY connoted less hazard when printed in green than in red ink. Experiment 2 examined the effect of colour on compliance with printed warnings. Sixty-five undergraduates interacted with a pool-water test kit and a two-part adhesive. The warning on each product was factorial for colour (i.e. red, green and black). Behavioural compliance was assessed by indicating if subjects donned protective gloves as directed by the warning. The data indicated that warnings printed in red resulted in a higher proportion of compliant behaviour than green and black combined. Implications for warning design are discussed.
The effects of the color of a personal computer screen on work performance, psychological mood, and autonomic response were investigated. 24 subjects were asked to perform visual tasks presented on the computer display. Three types of computer monitor, which were colored red, blue, or beige, were employed to present visual cognitive tasks. The mood measure, the Japanese Stress Arousal Check List, and heart rate measurement were administered before and after work on each color of computer monitor. Analysis of a low-demand task (Exp. 1) showed that the red computer monitor reduced visual task performance compared to that with the blue, while the blue monitor decreased visual task performance on a high-demand task (Exp. 2). The color of the monitor did not affect mood or heart rate. Based on these findings, the effect of the color of environmental cues on work was discussed.
A promotion focus is concerned with advancement, growth, and accomplishment, whereas a prevention focus is concerned with security, safety, and responsibility. We hypothesized that the promotion focus inclination is to insure hits and insure against errors of omission, whereas the prevention focus inclination is to insure correct rejections and insure against errors of commission. This hypothesis yielded three predictions: (a) when individuals work on a difficult task or have just experienced failure, those in a promotion focus should perform better, and those in a prevention focus should quit more readily; (b) when individuals work on a task where generating any number of alternatives is correct, those in a promotion focus should generate more distinct alternatives, and those in a prevention focus should be more repetitive; and (c) when individuals work on a signal detection task that requires them to decide whether they did or did not detect a signal, those in a promotion focus should have a "risky" response bias, and those in a prevention focus should have a "conservative" response bias and take more time to respond. These predictions were supported in two framing studies in which regulatory focus was experimentally manipulated independent of valence.
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