Content uploaded by John D. Alexander
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by John D. Alexander
Content may be subject to copyright.
DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS: BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN
SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT
JOHN D. ALEXANDER,1,4 JAIME L. STEPHENS,1 GEOFFREY R. GEUPEL,2 AND THOMAS C. WILL3
Abstract. Within a Partners in Flight conservation strategy Decision Support Tools (DSTs) provide a
mechanism for the transfer of science-based information to communities who implement strategies
that benefi t birds and their habitats. DSTs link priority land management challenges and bird conser-
vation objectives using audience-specifi c delivery approaches to convey the best available scientifi c
information through synthesis and interpretation of bird monitoring data. Effective DST develop-
ment should be driven by a collaborative process between scientists, decision makers, and educators,
through which the decision maker is involved in most, if not all, phases of data collection and deliv-
ery. This will assure monitoring results better target and inform the specifi c decisions managers face.
We considered characteristics that describe and enhance development of effective DSTs that serve
to integrate bird monitoring within management and conservation practices. Careful consideration
of these characteristics will enhance the use of bird monitoring within the adaptive management
framework, improving decision-making and evaluation of management effects with regards to bird
conservation.
Key Words: Decision support tool, monitoring, adaptive management, conservation objectives, matrix.
HERRAMIENTAS DE APOYO EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES: SALVANDO
EL ESPACIO ENTRE LA CIENCIA Y LA GESTIÓN
Resumen. Dentro de la estrategia de conservación de Compañeros en Vuelo (Partners in Flight), las
Herramientas de Apoyo en la Toma de Decisiones (DSTs), proveen un mecanismo para la transferen-
cia de información de basamento científi co, a las comunidades que implementan estrategias en ben-
efi cio de las aves y sus hábitats. Las DSTs conectan los desafíos priorizados en la gestión de terrenos,
con los objetivos de la conservación de aves. Utilizan para ello enfoques de orientación a audiencias
específi cas, transmitiendo la mejor información disponible a través de la síntesis y la interpretación
de datos del monitoreo de aves. El desarrollo efectivo de las DST, debe estar impulsado por un pro-
ceso colaborativo entre los científi cos, los tomadores de decisiones y los educadores; donde quienes
deciden el curso de acción están inmersos en la mayoría, sino en todas, las fases de la obtención y la
entrega de datos. Esto asegura que los resultados del monitoreo se orienten e informen mejor, sobre
las decisiones específi cas que los gestores deben enfrentar. Se tomaron en cuenta características que
describen y amplían el desarrollo efectivo de las DSTs y que sirven en la integración del monitoreo de
aves, dentro de las prácticas de gestión y conservación. La consideración especial de estas característi-
cas, amplía el uso del monitoreo de aves dentro de la estructura de gestión adaptativa, mejorando la
toma de decisiones y la evaluación de los efectos de la gestión con respecto a la conservación de aves.
Proceedings of the Fourth International
Partners in Flight Conference: Tundra to Tropics
283–291
INTRODUCTION
Integrating bird monitoring within manage-
ment and conservation practices was recently
identifi ed as a primary goal to improve bird
monitoring by the North American Bird
Conservation Initiative (U.S. North American
Bird Conservation Initiative Monitoring Sub com-
mittee 2007). The authors suggest that monitoring
should contribute more to decision-making and
evaluation of management effects within the
adaptive management process. In response,
Partners in Flight (PIF) has set as a high priority
the effective transfer of science-based information
to communities of conservation actors who can
implement strategies that benefi t birds and their
habitats. Decision Support Tools (DSTs) provide
a mechanism for achieving this goal.
1Klamath Bird Observatory, 1497 East Main Street, Ashland, Oregon 97520, USA;
2PRBO Conservation Science, 3820 Cypress Drive #11, Petaluma, California 94954, USA; and
3U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1 Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, Minnesota 55111-4056, USA
4 E-mail: jda@klamathbird.org
Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference
284
In this paper we considered the characteris-
tics that describe the effective development of
useful DSTs and discuss the audiences and deci-
sions for which DSTs should be developed.
DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS
A Decision Support Tool (DST) is an instru-
ment used for conveying scientifi c information
that informs decision-making through syn-
thesis and interpretation of quantifi able and
repeatable scientifi c data. DSTs can be broadly
defi ned as the process through which decisions
are made (e.g., adaptive management itself) or
more narrowly defi ned as something used in
the process. To inform specifi c land manage-
ment related decisions from a bird conservation
perspective DSTs consider management alter-
natives through analysis, prediction, and visu-
alization of bird and habitat monitoring data
and other knowledge sources. Conservation
focused DST’s deliver the best available scien-
tifi c information to target audiences and iden-
tify bird conservation opportunities within land
management challenges. To support a decision
making process DSTs should organize a deci-
sion problem, formulate alternatives, and ana-
lyze future consequences, assisting decision
makers in their ability to explain and reproduce
decisions (Rauscher 1999).
DSTs can be broadly applicable to an array of
decisions, some of which are currently unknown
and will emerge from future conservation needs
or opportunities. Alternatively, DSTs developed
to address specifi c decisions facing a targeted
audience are advantageous. Within this range,
there is a great variety of DSTs that deliver sci-
ence to decision makers. DSTs are produced in
various formats (e.g., conceptual designs, inter-
active computer programs, brochures and pam-
phlets, white papers). Korscghen et al. (2005)
describe DSTs along a continuum defi ned by
the inverse relationship between ease of use and
functionality for target audiences. Simple DSTs
that are easy to use likely have limited function;
however, they are often well-targeted for wide-
ranging yet specifi c audiences. DSTs that incor-
porate more complex models have increased
functionality; however, they are often diffi cult
to use and are only applicable to a limited audi-
ence (e.g., researchers and technical analysts).
Data visualizations often comprise an impor-
tant component of DSTs. These visualizations
can be generated through interactive computer
packages (i.e., decision support systems) that
provide guidance for decision makers who
interactively explore a set of questions related
to management alternatives. In contrast to this
dynamic approach, static visualizations deliv-
ered on a one-page pamphlet briefl y relate sci-
entifi c results to a decision that a given manager
faces. Within the range of visualization deliv-
ery options the critical questions are, “what is
the validity of a data visualization systems and
what level of data visualization is suffi cient for
environmental planning and management?”
(Daniel 1992). Analysts need to remember that
data visualizations are “suffi cient to the extent
that adding detail, higher resolution, color
fi delity, animation or other features does not
improve the match between representation-
based and direct responses” (Daniel 1992).
COLLABORATION—SCIENTISTS, DECISION MAKERS,
AND EDUCATORS
The development of effective DSTs requires
purposeful attention to the relationships
between potential science providers and tar-
get audiences. With such attention we will be
better able to identify information gaps and
transfer points that require the development of
new tools. Development of DSTs has often been
driven by technology, not by needs and require-
ments of decision makers (Rauscher 1999). We
suggest that to be effective, DST development
must instead be driven by a collaborative pro-
cess between scientists, decision makers, and
educators. As communications specialists, man-
agement and conservation oriented educators
can facilitate effective DST development by
helping to identify issue driven links between
science and management challenges. Through
collaboration scientists, decision makers, and
educators should: 1) identify information needs
relative to priority land management challenges
and conservation opportunities; 2) develop the
questions that become the foundation of moni-
toring efforts designed to fi ll such information
needs; 3) deliver the results of monitoring efforts
in formats that meet the information needs of
both the science and management communities;
and 4) use the information to make educated
land management decisions that effectively tar-
get bird conservation needs.
Within this collaborative framework decision
makers become increasingly involved in most
phases of data collection and delivery, assur-
ing the results of hypothesis-based monitoring
efforts better target and inform the specifi c deci-
sions managers face. Such collaboration will
also help scientists and conservation planners
better understand their audiences, the types of
decisions that challenge them, the environment
within which they make decisions, and the scale
at which these decisions infl uence conservation
actions. Given the different motivations and
information needs of alternative audiences, a
Decision Support Tools—Alexander et al. 285
number of questions must be considered at the
outset of a collaborative DST development pro-
cess:
• Are the decision makers aware of the
data and information formats that are or
could be made available that would help
them effectively integrate a conservation
action within their decision?
• What kind of decisions (e.g., policy or
management action), and what specifi c
decisions, are to be supported?
• Who is making the decision?
• At what scale is a decision being made?
• Who might most effectively deliver a DST
to a given decision maker?
• How does the DST need to be delivered to
be most effective?
With the high rate of turnover in land man-
agement agency personnel the relationship
between the scientist and the decision maker
becomes even more relevant. Documentation
of monitoring schemes and the delivery of
monitoring results as DSTs are necessary to
assure that the new agency personnel making
decisions are aware of ongoing data collection
and DSTs designed to support future decisions
(Geupel and Nur 1993).
MATRICES
We present three matrices that address three
foci: 1) scale, 2) alternative DSTs, and 3) con-
servation design. In designing matrices that
guide in development of DSTs, we fi rst consider
matrix structure. The rows defi ne the subjects of
the matrix and the columns defi ne the variables
that compare each subject.
The fi rst matrix is built around the subject
of scale, (i.e., the rows of the matrix) (Table 1).
The matrix identifi es target audiences, the deci-
sions that they need to make, related research
questions, conservation actions, and measures
for evaluating conservation and management
actions (i.e., the columns of the matrix) for each
scale and contrasts them across scales. Table 1
shows that there are some characteristics that
persist within each variable across scales (e.g.,
decisions about monitoring), while other char-
acteristics are scale-dependent (e.g., aspects of
planning decisions).
The target audience for a given DST depends
on scale, including policy makers at the conti-
nental scale, regional program managers who
remain involved at all scales, and project man-
agers involved at landscape and local scales
(Table 1). At the continental scale decisions
about management program directions are
made. Management objectives and monitoring
strategies are infl uenced at both broad and nar-
row scales. At the broader scale, questions will
be long-term in nature and will focus on conti-
nental and regional response variables, whereas
at the local scale questions might be both long-
and short-term in scope. DSTs should attempt
to integrate conservation objectives with pol-
icy direction planning at the continental and
regional scales, and project implementation at
the landscape and local scales, while consider-
ing scale appropriate monitoring and evalua-
tion measures (Table 1).
To further illustrate this matrix, we devel-
oped a second matrix to contrast three DSTs
(Table 2). We used three of the same variables
(i.e., the columns of the matrix) (Audience,
Information Need/Decision, and Conservation
Issue/Opportunity), with the addition of Scale
to identify characteristics of each DST and the
decision they support. The DST presented by
Geupel et al. (2007, 2008) specifi cally targets
agencies involved in federal-aid programs for
private landowners within California’s Central
Valley Joint Venture administrative bound-
ary. This DST prioritizes watersheds and proj-
ects that maximize the effectiveness of limited
conservation dollars on species of concern, as
well as PIF focal species that represent a range
of important ecosystems processes (Chase and
Geupel 2005). Tautin et al. (this volume) are
targeting a wider audience who decides where
Purple Martin conservation efforts should be
focused. Stephens and Alexander (2008), target-
ing local land managers, developed a DST that
supports decisions about the type of fuel treat-
ment that best satisfi es local bird habitat conser-
vation needs (Table 2).
The second tier of columns in this matrix
(Format, Input, Measure, # of Species, and
Resulting Decision) (Table 2) further describe
each DST. The fi rst two DSTs are interactive
computer decision support systems. Geupel
et al. (2007, 2008) developed a web-based sys-
tem that uses count and spatial data to model
predicted species occurrence and existing and
potential population abundance. The result-
ing outputs are used to predict and evaluate
riparian restoration projects’ relative contribu-
tion to basin-wide targets of the Central Valley
Joint Venture (Central Valley Joint Venture
2007). Tautin et al. (2008) described their use of
Breeding Bird Survey data (Sauer et al 2007) to
compare Purple Martin trends at smaller scales
within the species’ range to determine where
conservation programs are most needed. In con-
trast, the Stephens and Alexander (2008) DST is
a brochure that describes and translates results
from two management-related bird and habitat
monitoring projects (Alexander et al. 2007 and
Seavy et al. 2008) to inform decision makers
Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference
286
TABLE 1. A MATRIX USING SCALE AS A FRAMEWORK FOR DESCRIBING DECISION SUPPORT TOOL TARGET AUDIENCES, DECISION TYPES, AND RELATED MONITORING QUESTIONS, CONSERVATION
ACTIONS AND MONITORING/EVALUATION TOOLS.
Target Audience Decision Monitoring
Question Conservation Action Monitoring/Evaluation Measure
Continental
(e.g., North
America,
United Sates)
W ashington/Regional-
• Policy makers
• Leadership
• Program managers (e.g.,
wildlife, fi re, forestry,
education)
Program planning-
• Direction
• Management
objectives
Monitoring strategy
Long-term
continental
population
response?
Integration: PIF & policy
direction-
• Conservation objectives
• Monitoring tools
(continental)
Policy
• Direction
• Objectives
Focal species (continental)-
• Trends (BBS)
• Population estimates (BBS)
• Vital rates (Constant-effort
with banding)
Regional
(e.g., Western
US, Bird
Conservation
Region,
Bioregion)
Regional/Management
unit-
• Leadership
• Program managers
Management planning-
• Objectives
• Alternatives
Monitoring strategy
Long-term
regional
population
response?
Integration: PIF &
planning-
• Conservation objectives
• Monitoring tools
(regional)
Policy & management plan-
• Direction
• Objectives
Focal species (regional)-
• Trends (BBS, extensive point counts)
• Population estimates (BBS,
extensive point counts)
• Vital rates (Constant-effort with
banding)
Landscape
(e.g., Bioregion,
Watershed)
Regional/Management
unit-
• Leadership
• Program managers
• Project managers
Management planning-
• Objectives
• Alternatives
• Program design &
implementation
Monitoring strategy
Long-term
landscape
population
response?
Integration: PIF, planning
& project implementation-
• Conservation objectives
• Monitoring tools
(landscape)
Policy, management plan & project -
• Direction
• Objectives
• Implementation
Focal species (landscape, project)-
• Trends (extensive/intensive point count)
• Population estimates (extensive/
intensive point count)
• Vital rates (constant-effort with banding,
spot mapping/nest search/behavior)
Local
(e.g., Watershed,
Project Area)
Management unit-
• Leadership
• Program managers
• Project managers
Management planning-
• Objectives
• Alternatives
• Program design &
implementation
Monitoring strategy
Project-level
population
response?
Integration: PIF, planning
& project implementation-
• Conservation objectives
• Monitoring (effectiveness
monitoring)
Project-
• Implementation
Focal species (landscape, project)-
• Trends (intensive point count)
• Population estimates (intensive point
count)
• Vital rates (constant-effort with banding,
spot mapping/nest search/behavior)
(1) Attributes of each variable that change as one moves down the matrix from broad to narrow scales are identifi ed by changing the font style. Those attributes that are newly added at each scale are underlined, while
those that are dropped in the following scale are italicized.
Decision Support Tools—Alexander et al. 287
TABLE 2. A MATRIX COMPARING THREE DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS (DST) PRESENTED DURING THE 4TH INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS IN FLIGHT CONFERENCE. THIS MATRIX DESCRIBES THE BASIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH DST AS WELL THE TARGET AUDIENCE AND THE ASSOCIATED DECISION BEING SUPPORTED.
Bridging the Gap Presentation DSTs Discussed Audience Information Need/
Decision Conservation Issue/
Opportunity Scale
The unexpected values of
multi-species monitoring
programs to guide
conservation (Geupel et al.)
Riparian bird
conservation potential
in the California
Central Valley
Central Valley and Riparian
Habitat Joint Ventures Where to spend limited
resourses on riparian
bird conservation
implementation?
Maximize potential of
implanting PIF species
and habitat conservation
objectives
Regional -
management unit
Addressing regional declines
in Purple Martin populations
(Tautin et al.)
Purple Martin
conservation Agencies, NGOs and citizens Where are conservation
actions needed? Purple Martin declines Range wide - region
Integrating research into land
management - KBO works
with the Medford BLM
(Stephens and Alexnader)
Oak woodland fuels
treatment alternative BLM biologists and fuels
managers Which fuels reduction
alternatives? Aligning fi re reduction
with habitat objectives Watershed-
management unit
Author Format Input Measure # of Species Resulting decision
Geupel et al. 2008 Interactive computer decision
support system Point count/GIS habitat
occurrence and potential Population potential (# of
individuals gained from
restoration)
Multi-species Where to fund on the ground
conservation
Tautin et al. this
volume Interactive computer decision
support system (BBS) BBS; Complimentary
surveys Trend Single Establish of regional working
groups
Stephens and
Alexnader 2008 Brochure Point counts Relative abundance Multi-species Choice of treatment alternative
Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference
288
TABLE 3. A MATRIX THAT EVALUATES THE STEPHENS AND ALEXANDER (2008) DECISION SUPPORT TOOL FROM ITS AUDIENCE’S PERSPECTIVE, CONSIDERING THE TYPES OF DECISIONS BEING
INFORMED, AS WELL AS THE FIVE ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION DESIGN (WILL ET AL. 2005) AND THE SCALE ASSOCIATED VARIABLES OUTLINED IN TABLE 1. THE SIMPLE DST PRESENTED BY
STEPHENS AND ALEXANDER (2008) SUMMARIZED TWO STUDIES THAT MEASURED THE BIRD COMMUNITY RESPONSE TO ALTERNATIVE OAK WOODLAND FUELS REDUCTION TREATMENTS (ALEXANDER
ET AL. 2007, SEAVY ET AL. IN PRESS).
Decision Support Tool: Stephens and Alexander (2008)
Design Elements
Landscape Assessment Population Response
Models Opportunities
Assessment Optimal Landscape
Design Monitoring/ Evaluation
Informs condition-specifi c
composition of oak
woodlands at watershed
and sub-regional scale
Responses to management
alternatives for roll up Identifi es benefi cial
management option as
well as detrimental one
Informs balance of cost-
effective fuels treatments
with more expensive
ones that also meet PIF
objectives
Presents effectiveness
monitoring tool that
links PIF and priority
management objectives
Scale Matrix
Scale Target Audience Decision Research Question Conservation Action Monitoring/
Evaluation Measure
Local scale results;
specifi cally informs
planning at the watershed
and sub-regional scale;
demonstrate monitoring
approach that is useful
within the region and
beyond
Program and project level
land managers How to treat a site; how
to confi gure treatments
at the watershed and
sub-regional scale; widely
applicable effectiveness
monitoring tool that
identifi es opportunities to
meet multiple objectives
What are the ecological
effects of alternative
treatments as represented
by bird community
response
Oak woodland treatments
that meet priority fuels
management and bird
conservation objectives
Habitat and bird
community (current
and desired conditions;
oak woodland birds
associated with current
and desired conditions)
Additional Variables
Conservation Issue Targeted Resources
Oak woodland
conservation- fi re
suppression, wide scale
fuels treatments
Oak woodlands; urban
interface
Decision Support Tools—Alexander et al. 289
about how alternative habitat treatments affect
oak woodland focal species. This tool informs
the decision maker who is prescribing fuel man-
agement treatments with information that helps
them meet both priority species habitat objec-
tives and fuel load and wildfi re severity reduc-
tion objectives.
In a third, more complex analysis of DSTs,
we added a third axis to the previously
described two-dimensional matrices (Table 3).
Here, we evaluate the Stephens and Alexander
(2008) DST by considering the Five Elements
of conservation design (Will et al. 2005) and
the scale-associated variables outlined in Table
1. This additional dimension helps to tie the
management decision back to conservation
opportunities through the Five Elements frame-
work. The Five Elements framework involves
partners working together to determine where
on the landscape suffi cient habitats of differ-
ent types can be delivered to meet bird popu-
lation objectives (Will et al. 2005). Within this
framework of conservation design the Stephens
and Alexander (2008) DST offers information
about comparative bird community responses
to alternative management treatments at local
scales. The results from the monitoring efforts
described in the DST (Alexander et al. 2007,
Seavy et al. 2008) not only address decisions
being made at that scale, they also inform popu-
lation response models at larger scales through
a step-up process (Stockenberg et al. 2008) and
provide an effectiveness monitoring tool that
links bird conservation objectives with priority
management objectives.
CONCLUSIONS
To adequately integrate science and monitor-
ing within management and conservation prac-
tices, DSTs that use current monitoring results
should present bird conservation alternatives
and considerations within an adaptive man-
agement decision-making process. Information
from monitoring programs that are used in
DSTs should also be used to evaluate achieve-
ment of conservation objectives. Scientists and
educators should work together with land man-
agement decision makers in all stages of DST
development. Accordingly, DST target audi-
ences must be identifi ed at the outset of the
development process, including the design of
monitoring efforts that are used to build DSTs.
Working with the target audiences, scientists
and educators can better identify specifi c attri-
butes of the decisions and recognize opportuni-
ties for integrating bird conservation objectives
and monitoring programs within land manage-
ment practices.
Through this collaborative process, more
relevant monitoring programs can be designed
around questions directly linked to manage-
ment challenges. With involvement in devel-
oping hypothesis-based monitoring efforts
managers help to frame questions, assuring the
results better inform the decisions with which
they are challenged. The manager helps to
determine a format for a given DST that is most
appropriate for a given decision making envi-
ronment, increasing the likelihood that the deci-
sions be best informed by science and linked to
conservation opportunities, resulting in more
conservation on the ground. Scientists must fos-
ter strong and ongoing working relationships
with decision makers throughout the process
of implementing monitoring efforts and should
work with educators to assess how information
is best delivered.
As on-going monitoring programs produce
results that are increasingly relevant to land
management issues, scientists should not only
publish, they should also continue to work
with educators to ensure results are delivered
to decision makers through targeted and timely
means. This enables a transfer of information
to inform current decisions and address new
opportunities that are constantly emerging
through the land management decision-making
process. Stephens et al. (this volume) present a
description of the Avian Knowledge Alliance,
a group of non-government organizations
that are dedicated to delivering bird monitor-
ing data via DSTs and the Avian Knowledge
Network (Miller et al. this volume).
Partners in Flight has articulated a conser-
vation planning strategy to advance the inte-
gration of bird conservation objectives and
land management planning that focuses on
the relationships of scientists and conserva-
tion planners with their audience, the manage-
ment decision makers (Alexander et al. 2005,
Alexander in review). A collaborative process in
which scientists, educators, and decision mak-
ers work together to build a common under-
standing of decision challenges is critical to
the development of DSTs that present the link
between specifi c management issues, science-
based results, and bird conservation objectives.
Together, the group delivers the best available
science in a format that supports the transfor-
mation of a decision challenge into a conserva-
tion opportunity.
LITERATURE CITED
ALEXANDER, J. D. In Review. Integrating Partners
in Flight Bird Conservation and Priority
Land Management Objectives, pp. xx-yy.
Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference
290
In J. L. Stephens, K. Kreitinger, C. J. Ralph
[eds.], Informing Ecosystem Management:
Science and Process for Landbird
Conservation in the Western United States.
USDI, Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological
Technical Publication, FWS/BTP-XXXXX-
XXXX, Washington, D.C.
ALEXANDER, J. D., B. ALTMAN, B. BRESSON, C. J.
RALPH, J. R. ROBINSON, J. L. STEPHENS, G. R.
GEUPEL, M. T. GREEN, A. L. HOLMES, K.
KREITINGER, AND M. J. PITKIN. 2005. Tools
for bird conservation in conifer forests: A
California and Oregon-Washington part-
ners in fl ight workshop. Klamath Bird
Observatory, Ashland, OR.
ALEXANDER, J. D., N. E. SEAVY, AND P. E. HOSTEN.
2007. Using conservation plans and bird
monitoring to evaluate ecological effects of
management: An example with fuels reduc-
tion activities in southwest Oregon. Forest
Ecology and Management 238:375–383.
STOCKENBERG, E., B. ALTMAN, M. GREEN, AND J. D.
ALEXANDER. 2008. Using GAP in landbird
biological objective-setting: Process and
examples from oak habitats in the Pacifi c
Northwest. Gap Analysis Bulletin 15:34–42.
CHASE, M. K., AND G. R. GEUPEL. 2005. The use of
avian focal species for conservation planning
in California, pp. 130-142. In C. J. Ralph and
T. D. Rich [eds.], Proceedings of the Third
International Partners in Flight conference,
USDA Forest Service Pacifi c Southwest
Research Station General Technical Report
PSW-GTR-191. Albany, CA.
CENTRAL VALLEY JOINT VENTURE. 2006. Central
Valley Joint Venture Implementation Plan
—Conserving Bird Habitat. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Sacramento, CA.
DANIEL, T.C. 1992. Data visualization for deci-
sion support in environmental management.
Landscape and Urban Planning 21:261–263.
GEUPEL, G. R., W. D. SHUFORD, D. STRALBERG,
G. BALLARD, D. JONGSOMJIT, C. J. RINTOUL,
M. HERZOG, D. MOODY, AND C. HICKEY.
2007. Landowner Incentive Program:
California Bird Species of Special Concern
in the Central Valley and Decision Support
Tools. Unpublished report to California
Department of Fish and Game. PRBO
Conservation Science 3820 Cypress Drive #11
Petaluma, CA. [Online.] <http://data.prbo.
org/cadc2/index.php?page=predicted-
bird-species-in-central-valley> (accessed 13
April 2009).
GEUPEL, G. R., G. BALLARD, T. GARDALI, AND N.
NUR. 2008. The unexpected values of multi-
species monitoring programs to guide con-
servation. In J. D. Alexander, J. L. Stephens,
G. R. Geupel, and T. Will. [session chairs],
Bridging the gap between science and man-
agement. Scientifi c session conducted at
the Fourth International Partners in Flight
conference: Tundra to Tropics: Connecting
Birds, Habitats and People. Proceedings
of the 4th International Partners in Flight
Conference, 13–16 February 2008. McAllen,
TX. [Online.] <www.partnersinfl ight.org/
events/mcallen/> (accessed 13 April 2008).
GEUPEL, G.R., AND N. NUR. 1993. Monitoring bird
populations: The role of bird observatories
and non-governmental organizations, pp.
275–279. In D. M. Finch and P. W. Stangel
[eds.], Status and Management of neotropi-
cal migratory birds. USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station General
Technical Report GTR RM-229. Fort Collins,
CO.
KORSCHGEN, C. E., M. G. KNUTSON, T. J. FOX, L.
HOLLAND-BERTELS, H. C. DEHAAN, C. H.
THEILING, J. J. ROHWEDER, K. KENOW, L. LEAKE,
E. LINDA, AND T. WILL. 2005. Natural resource
assessment and decision support tools for
bird conservation planning, pp. 1213–1222.
In C. J. Ralph, and T. D. Rich [eds.], Bird con-
servation implementation and integration
in the Americas: Proceedings of the third
international Partners in Flight conference.
USDA Forest Service Pacifi c Southwest
Research Station General Technical Report,
PSW-GTR-191. Albany, CA.
MILLER, D. A., S. R. CRAWFORD, T. D. RICH,
AND S. KELLING. 2009. Web mapping for
bird conservation: leveraging the Avian
Knowledge Network, pp. 394–395. In T. D.
Rich, C. Arizmendi, D. W. Demarest, and
C. Thompson [eds.], Tundra to Tropics:
Connecting Birds, Habitats and People.
Proceedings of the 4th International Partners
in Flight Conference, 13–16 February 2008.
McAllen, TX. Partners in Flight.
RAUSCHER, H.. 1999. Ecosystem management
decision support for federal forests in the
United States: a review. Forest Ecology and
Management 114:173–197.
SAUER, J. R., J. E. HINES, AND J. FALLON. 2007. The
North American Breeding Bird Survey,
Results and Analysis 1966–2006. Version
10.13.2007. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research
Center, Laurel, MD.
SEAVY, N. E., J. D. ALEXANDER, AND P. E. HOSTEN.
2008. Bird community composition after
mechanical mastication fuel treatments
in southwest Oregon oak woodland and
chaparral. Forest Ecology and Management
256:774–778.
STEPHENS, J. L., AND J. D. ALEXANDER. 2008. Adaptive
management in action: Three examples from
Klamath Bird Observatory and Medford
Decision Support Tools—Alexander et al. 291
District Bureau of Land Management. In J.
D. Alexander, J. L. Stephens, G. R. Geupel,
and T. Will. [session chairs], Bridging the
gap between science and management.
Scientifi c session conducted at the Fourth
International Partners in Flight confer-
ence: Tundra to Tropics: Connecting Birds,
Habitats and People. Proceedings of the 4th
International Partners in Flight Conference,
13–16 February 2008. McAllen, TX. [Online.]
<www.partnersinflight.org/events/mcal-
len/> (accessed 13 April 2008).
STEPHENS, J. L., D. HANNI, J. D. ALEXANDER, G.
BALLARD, G. R. GEUPEL, AND B. L. SULLIVAN.
2009. The Avian Knowledge Alliance: A net-
work of non-governmental organizations
working together on bird conservation, pp.
412–414. In T. D. Rich, C. Arizmendi, D. W.
Demarest, and C. Thompson [eds.], Tundra
to Tropics: Connecting Birds, Habitats and
People. Proceedings of the 4th International
Partners in Flight Conference, 13–16
February 2008. Partners in Flight.
TAUTIN, J., B. COUSENS, K. KOSTKA, S. KOSTKA, AND
D. A. AIROLA. 2009. Addressing regional
declines in Purple Martin populations, pp.
82–87. In T. D. Rich, C. Arizmendi, D. W.
Demarest, and C. Thompson [eds.], Tundra
to Tropics: Connecting Birds, Habitats and
People. Proceedings of the 4th International
Partners in Flight Conference, 13–16
February 2008. Partners in Flight.
WILL, T. C., J. M. RUTH, K. V. ROSENBERG, D.
KRUEPER, D. HAHN, J. FITZGERALD, R. DETTMERS,
AND C. J. BEARDMORE. 2005. The fi ve elements
process: designing optimal landscapes to
meet bird conservation objectives. Partners
in Flight Technical Series No. 1. [Online.]
<http://www.partnersinflight.org/pubs/
ts/01-FiveElements.pdf > (accessed 28 April
2009).
U.S. NORTH AMERICAN BIRD CONSERVATION INI TIA TIVE
MONITORING S UBCOMMITTEE. 2007. Opportunities
for improving avian Monitoring. U.S. North
American Bird Conservation Initiative Report.
Division of Migratory Bird Management, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, VA.
[Online.] <www.nabci-us.org/aboutnabci/
monitoringreportfi nal0307.pdf> (accessed 13
April 2009).
