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In Vitro and In Vivo Effects of Two Coconut Oils in Comparison to Monolaurin on Staphylococcus aureus: Rodent Studies
Abstract
Abstract Since monolaurin, a monoglyceride formed in the human body in small quantities, has proven effective both in vitro and in vivo against certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus, an important question arises whether consuming a substance high in lauric acid content, such as coconut oil could increase intrinsic monolaurin production to levels that would be successful in overcoming staphylococcal and other microbial invaders. Both a cup plate method and a microdilution broth culture system were employed to test bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects of the test agents in vitro. To test effectiveness in vivo, female C3H/he mice (10-12 per group) were orally administered sterile saline (regular control), vancomycin (positive control), aqueous monolaurin, or two varieties of coconut oil (refined, bleached, deodorized coconut oil and virgin coconut oil) for 1 week before bacterial challenge and 30 days after. A final group received both monolaurin and vancomycin. In contrast to monolaurin, the coconut oils did not show bactericidal activity in vitro. In vivo, the groups receiving vancomycin, monolaurin, or the combination showed some protection-50-70% survival, whereas the protection from the coconut oils were virtually the same as control-0-16% survival. Although we did not find that the two coconut oils are helpful to overcome S. aureus infections, we corroborated earlier studies showing the ability of monolaurin to do such.
... Health advisors claim that this sensational food has notable functional properties such as hypocholesterolemic, antiobesity, antihepatosteatotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and HIV preventive activities and cardioprotective effect (Table 1). [15][16][17] Moreover, CNO exerts antidiabetic property by balancing blood sugar levels. Marten et al. 18 showed that medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) present in CNO improve insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity. ...
... A series of studies reported in the 1970s that MCFAs with 6-12 carbons are responsible for potent activity towards Gram-positive bacteria, lipid-coated viruses as well as fungi and protozoa. 16,[102][103] The presence of 12-carbon lauric acid makes the oil potent towards microbes. 13 According to multiple reports, particularly lauric acid (C12:0) in its monoglyceride form (monolaurin or ML) was found to be responsible for antimicrobial properties. ...
... CNO was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus subtilis. 72 Manohar et al. 16 conducted a comparative rodent study using two types of coconut oil, namely refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) CNO and VCO, and found that these two types of CNO were less effective than pure ML towards Staphylococcus organism. However, Oyi et al. 17 formulated a cream using CNO which was found to exhibit both antibacterial and antifungal properties. ...
Coconut oil is an integral part of Sri Lankan and many South Asian diets. Initially, coconut oil was classified along with saturated fatty acid food items and criticized for its negative impact on health. However, research studies have shown that coconut oil is a rich source of medium-chain fatty acids. Thus, this has opened new prospects for its use in many fields. Beyond its usage in cooking, coconut oil has attracted attention due to its hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, antihepatosteatotic, antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and skin moisturizing properties. Despite all the health benefits, consumption of coconut oil is still underrated due to a lack of supportive scientific evidence. Even though studies done in Asian countries claim a favorable impact on cardiac health and serum lipid profile, the limitations in the number of studies conducted among Western countries impede the endorsement of the real value of coconut oil. Hence, long-term extensive studies with proper methodol-ogies are suggested to clear all the controversies and misconceptions of coconut oil consumption. This review discusses the composition and functional properties of coconut oils extracted using various processing methods.
... Health advisors claim that this sensational food has notable functional properties such as hypocholesterolemic, antiobesity, antihepatosteatotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and HIV preventive activities and cardioprotective effect (Table 1). [15][16][17] Moreover, CNO exerts antidiabetic property by balancing blood sugar levels. Marten et al. 18 showed that medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) present in CNO improve insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity. ...
... A series of studies reported in the 1970s that MCFAs with 6-12 carbons are responsible for potent activity towards Gram-positive bacteria, lipid-coated viruses as well as fungi and protozoa. 16,[102][103] The presence of 12-carbon lauric acid makes the oil potent towards microbes. 13 According to multiple reports, particularly lauric acid (C12:0) in its monoglyceride form (monolaurin or ML) was found to be responsible for antimicrobial properties. ...
... CNO was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus subtilis. 72 Manohar et al. 16 conducted a comparative rodent study using two types of coconut oil, namely refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) CNO and VCO, and found that these two types of CNO were less effective than pure ML towards Staphylococcus organism. However, Oyi et al. 17 formulated a cream using CNO which was found to exhibit both antibacterial and antifungal properties. ...
... Among them, medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), considered fatty acids with a chain length of 6-to 12-carbon atoms, have been proposed as a potential alternative to antibiotics based on their long-known antibacterial activity [3]. In contrast to antimicrobial agents, MCFA have not shown evidence of acquiring resistance [4,5]. Besides this, MCFA are an immediate source of energy due to their rapid passive absorption and digestion, which is of particular interest for the nutrition of young animals [6,7]. ...
... The antibacterial effect has also been widely demonstrated in vitro [3,17], particularly against Salmonella or enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), among other pathogens [18,19]. However, to our knowledge, most of the in vivo studies testing the effect of MCFA against pathogens were performed in rodents [5,20] and chickens [21]. Only two studies have tested the potential of MCFA in challenged pigs; one tested the control of Salmonella in fatteners under commercial conditions [22] and the other assessed the efficacy against an LPS challenge in an experimental trial with weanlings [23]. ...
... As stated in the introduction, a higher antibacterial activity has been described for MCFA than other free fatty acids [53]. Most recent studies have demonstrated their in vitro activity against a wide range of pathogenic bacteria [5,11,53,54]. Lauric acid (C12) has been shown to have the highest antimicrobial activity among the fatty acids present in coconut oil [54,55]. However, other mediumchain fatty acids, caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10), showed the highest antimicrobial activity against different E. coli and Salmonella strains tested [3]. ...
Background:
The search for alternatives to antibiotics in pig production has increased the interest in natural resources with antimicrobial properties, such as medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) as in-feed additives. This study evaluated the potential of a novel blend of MCFA salts (DIC) from distilled coconut oil with a lauric acid content to reduce enteropathogens and control intestinal diseases around weaning. Two experimental disease models were implemented in early-weaned piglets, consisting of two oral challenges: Salmonella Typhimurium (1.2 × 108 CFU) or enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) F4 (1.5 × 109 CFU). The parameters assessed were: animal performance, clinical signs, pathogen excretion, intestinal fermentation, immune-inflammatory response, and intestinal morphology.
Results:
The Salmonella challenge promoted an acute course of diarrhea, with most of the parameters responding to the challenge, whereas the ETEC F4 challenge promoted a mild clinical course. A consistent antipathogenic effect of DIC was observed in both trials in the hindgut, with reductions in Salmonella spp. plate counts in the cecum (P = 0.03) on d 8 post-inoculation (PI) (Salmonella trial), and of enterobacteria and total coliform counts in the ileum and colon (P < 0.10) on d 8 PI (ETEC F4 trial). When analyzing the entire colonic microbiota (16S rRNA gene sequencing), this additive tended (P = 0.13) to reduce the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and enriched Fibrobacteres after the Salmonella challenge. In the ETEC F4 challenge, DIC prompted structural changes in the ecosystem with increases in Dialister, and a trend (P = 0.14) to increase the Veillonellaceae family. Other parameters such as the intestinal fermentation products or serum pro-inflammatory mediators were not modified by DIC supplementation, nor were the histological parameters. Only the intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) counts were lowered by DIC in animals challenged with Salmonella (P = 0.07). With ETEC F4, the IEL counts were higher with DIC on d 8 PI (P = 0.08).
Conclusions:
This study confirms the potential activity of this MCFA salts mixture to reduce intestinal colonization by opportunistic pathogens such as Salmonella or E. coli and its ability to modulate colonic microbiota. These changes could explain to some extent the local immune cell response at the ileal level.
... Fat can prevent dental caries by different mechanisms. [14,30,31] The fatty acids and monoglycerides can show antimicrobial effects. [30,31] Fat can also have a physical effect, reducing the contact of carbohydrates with microorganisms of plaque and saliva. ...
... [14,30,31] The fatty acids and monoglycerides can show antimicrobial effects. [30,31] Fat can also have a physical effect, reducing the contact of carbohydrates with microorganisms of plaque and saliva. It may play a preventive role as a barrier, reducing the fermentation process. ...
Abstract Infant milk formulas may cause tooth destruction by producing different organic
acids after fermentation by oral microorganisms. The aim of this study was to investigate pH
changes in children's plaque-saliva solutions after fermenting four commonly used infant
milk formulas. Plaque-saliva specimens of 25 children were sampled. Infant milk formulas
including Bebelac 1, Nan 1, Nan 2 and Aptamil 2 were prepared and added to four
respective tubes of saliva-plaque solutions. The pH of samples were measured at 10 min ...
... Due to the restricted safety and reliability of current clinical drugs for long-term use in the treatment of patients with IBD, it is necessary to find a drug that not only alleviates the disease status but also has fewer side effects (10). Glycerol monolaurate (GML), which has a twelve-carbon chain, is a compound naturally found in human breast milk and is also a mediumchain fatty acid that is naturally found in plant products, such as coconut oil (11)(12)(13)(14). GML is often used as an antiseptic (15,16) and anti-inflammatory agent in foods and cosmetics (17,18). ...
Background and aims
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) places a heavy medical burden on countries and families due to repeated and prolonged attacks, and the incidence and prevalence of IBD are increasing worldwide. Therefore, finding an effective treatment is a matter of great urgency. Glycerol monolaurate (GML), which has a twelve-carbon chain, is a compound naturally found in human breast milk. Some studies have shown that GML has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the specific mechanism of action remains unclear.
Methods
Acute colitis was established in mice using 3% DSS, and glycerol monolaurate (500 mg·kg− ¹ ) was administered for two weeks. QPCR and western blotting were performed to examine the inflammatory status. Mice described were subjected to flow cytometry analysis for immune cell activation.
Results
GML treated alleviated macroscopic symptoms such as shortened colons, increased spleen weight, and caused weight loss in mice with DSS-induced colitis. In addition, GML decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory factors (NF-α, IL-1β and IL-1α) and increased the expression of anti-inflammatory factors (IL-10 and TGF-β). GML inhibited the activation of the MAPK and NF-κB signalling pathways, improved tissue damage, and increased the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins. In addition, LPMCs extracted from intestinal tissue via flow cytometry showed that GML treatment led to a decrease of Th17 cells, Neutrophils and Macrophages. 16S rDNA sequencing showed that GML increased the abundance of commensal bacterium such as Akkermansia and Lactobacillus murinus.
Conclusions
We showed that oral administration of GML ameliorated DSS-induced colitis by inhibiting infiltration of Th17 cells, Neutrophils, and Macrophages, protecting the intestinal mucosal barrier and altered the abundance of commensal bacterium. This study provides new insights into the biological function and therapeutic potential of GML in the treatment of IBD.
... It also has an HLB value > 10, which leads to the formation of O/W emulsions. Coconut oil has been used as an emollient due to its extensive reported properties as antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, which have been attributed to its chemical composition rich in saturated medium chain fatty acids, where lauric acid is usually reported as the main [31,32]. ...
This work aims to formulate a new semisolid pharmaceutical form based on clove essential oil and polysaccharides for the treatment of vaginal candidiasis. The nanoemulsions showed excellent colloidal stability with values of zeta potential higher than 30 mV in module, as well as hydrodynamic diameter between 198.8 and 321.0 nm and moderate polydispersity. The nanosystems did not show macroscopic instability phenomena and demonstrated adequate pH values for vaginal use. The presence of clove essential oil in the nanoemulsion was attested by a UV-Vis spectrophotometer with encapsulation efficiency greater than 99%. Emulsions based on carboxymethylcellulose and alginate (Ecmc and Ealgi, respectively) showed ferrous ion chelating ability in a range of 42-62%, with results superior to those of ascorbic acid. Ecmc formulation exhibited a higher inhibitory effect against Candida albicans and higher content of essential oil, being used in the formulation of emulgel. The rheological properties of the emulgel showed a non-Newtonian behavior, pseudoplastic type, with values of G' higher than G”, which characterizes the formation of a gel. The micrographs obtained by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed the incorporation of the nanoemulsion in the polymeric matrix, whose diameters corroborated with the results obtained by dynamic light scattering.
... [72] Lauric acid, a major fatty acid present in VCO, is reported to the possible compound responsible to antimicrobial activities. [73] In addition, Manohar et al. [74] found that monolaurin compounds, major metabolite of VCO, contributed to antimicrobial activities of VCO activity. ...
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) has emerged as functional food oil due to its capability to provide some biological activities which are beneficial to human health. This is due to the fact that some minor components like tocopherols and phenolics compounds are retained. VCO is prepared from fresh, mature kernel of the coconuts by mechanical or natural means, with or without the use of heat, but specifically without any chemical refining, bleaching and deodorizing (RBD). As a consequence, VCO has slight difference in terms of some physico-chemical properties with RBD coconut oil. Due to phenolics compounds contained, VCO exhibited several pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory, anti-hyperlipidemia, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-bacterial and neuroprotective activities. VCO has commanded high price value in the fats and oils industry, hence, VCO can be target of adulteration with low priced oils. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and chromatographic techniques combined with multivariate analysis has been successfully reported for analysis of adulteration practice involving the substitution or replacement VCO with other oils. This review highlights some techniques for VCO extraction, physicochemical (characterization), biological activities and authentication analysis of VCO.
... Primary metabolites, as fatty acids (FAs) and their derivatives, have been used as general disinfectants for centuries, and the germicidal activity of soaps has been well documented after Robert Koch's work with anthrax bacillus in 1881 (Koch 1881). Even though the clinical use of antimicrobial lipids was suggested more than three decades ago, there are only few examples of their clinical use so far (Sands et al. 1978;Lieberman et al. 2006;Manohar et al. 2013). Free Fatty Acids (FFA's) have gained interest in recent years as antimicrobial compounds. ...
Plant-essential oils have been considered as an important source of bioactive molecules like antimicrobials, analgesics, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogen agents. Biological functions of plant extracts from the genus Capsicum are unknown. In the present work, non-polar fractions of ripe and unripe fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq. Cultivar (cv.) Jaguar and Criollo were obtained by hexane-batch extraction and tested for antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacterial strain Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Gram-positive bacterial strains Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 12228), and yeast Candida albicans (ATCC 90028). Non-polar fractions from ripe fruits for both cv. exhibited greater antimicrobial activity compared to unripe fruits. Implication of numbered FFA’s on observed antimicrobial activity are discussed.
... Possible antimicrobial activities of VCO may be attributed to lauric acid, which forms the main fatty acids of VCO (Nakatsuji et al. 2009). Monolaurin compounds are the major metabolite which is responsible for its activity (Manohar et al. 2013). Peng et al. (2016) studied the effect of enhanced VCO, containing about 57.4% triglycerides, 26.8% diglycerides, 1.51% monoglycerides and 14.1% free fatty acids, against clinical mastitis pathogens [S. ...
The coconut (Cocos nucifera L., family Arecaceae) is an important fruit tree in the world. Copra, the dried kernel, is mainly used for oil extraction. Coconut oil is one of the most important edible oils for domestic use. The oil is rich in medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) and exhibits good digestibility. Different coconut oils are produced from different parts of coconut by different means. Copra as well as refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) oils are produced from dried coconut kernel, with a difference that RBD oil undergoes chemical refinement and bleaching. The brown testa of the coconut is used for the preparation of coconut testa oil (CTO), which is actually a byproduct of coconut oil preparation. Compared to corpa oil (CO) and RBD oils, virgin coconut oil (VCO) is extracted depend on a “wet method” using fresh coconut milk. As there is no specific method of preparation of VCO has been established, all types of preparations that do not involve refinement and alterations in the oil are considered as a virgin. This chapter will cover the preparation of different oils from coconut, chemistry of coconut oils, blending of coconut oil with other edible oils and biological activities of coconut oils.
... While our in vivo study adapted a therapeutic approach to infection control, other in vivo studies investigated the ability of monolaurin to prevent infection, which is against common clinical practice in which antimicrobial treatment is only initiated after the occurrence of infection, as in our therapeutic wound-healing model. In murine studies, preventive oral [44,45] administration of monolaurin successfully reduced bacteremia due to S. aureus injection, while prophylactic injection of monolaurin increased survival of rabbits due to induced S. aureus toxic shock syndrome [46]. Opposite to planktonic and in vitro biofilm studies, we observed no therapeutic antimicrobial synergy in healing of infected wounds, when ML-LNCs were combined with an AMP, likely because host AMPs, such as cathelicidin related antimicrobial peptide in mice [47] took over the role of the AMPs added. ...
Bacterial infections are mostly due to bacteria in their biofilm-mode of growth, while penetrability of antimicrobials into infectious biofilms and increasing antibiotic resistance hamper infection treatment. In-vitro, monolaurin lipid nanocapsules (ML-LNCs) carrying adsorbed antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) displayed synergistic efficacy against planktonic Staphylococcus aureus, but it has not been demonstrated, neither in-vitro nor in-vivo, that such ML-LNCs penetrate into infectious S. aureus biofilms and maintain synergy with AMPs. This study investigates the release mechanism of AMPs from ML-LNCs and possible antimicrobial synergy of ML-LNCs with the AMPs DPK-060 and LL-37 against S. aureus biofilms in-vitro and in a therapeutic, murine, infected wound-healing model. Zeta potentials demonstrated that AMP release from ML-LNCs was controlled by the AMP concentration in suspension. Both AMPs demonstrated no antimicrobial efficacy against four staphylococcal strains in a planktonic mode, while a checkerboard assay showed synergistic antimicrobial efficacy when ML-LNCs and DPK-060 were combined, but not for combinations of ML-LNCs and LL-37. Similar effects were seen for growth reduction of staphylococcal biofilms, with antimicrobial synergy persisting only for ML-LNCs at the highest level of DPK-060 or LL-37 adsorption. Healing of wounds infected with bioluminescent S. aureus Xen36, treated with ML-LNCs alone, was faster when treated with PBS, while AMPs alone did not yield faster wound-healing than PBS. Faster, synergistic wound-healing due to ML-LNCs with adsorbed DPK-060, was absent in-vivo. Summarizing, antimicrobial synergy of ML-LNCs with adsorbed antimicrobial peptides as seen in-vitro, is absent in in-vivo healing of infected wounds, likely because host AMPs adapted the synergistic role of the AMPs added. Thus, conclusions regarding synergistic antimicrobial efficacy, should not be drawn from planktonic data, while even in-vitro biofilm data bear little relevance for the in-vivo situation.
... Bontempo (2008) stated that lauric acids are easily metabolized and they do not need to be digested by enzymes to form monolaurin, to which the antimicrobial activity is attributed. However, in vivo studies support the idea that antimicrobial activity of coconut oil triglycerides relies on pancreatic enzymes (Manohar et al., 2013). In the present study, the lack of antimicrobial activity of commercial coconut oil, HCOWE, and HCO in opposition to the antimicrobial activity of COWE associated to C. kefyr corroborate the idea of catalytic need in the antimicrobial properties of coconut milk-derived products. ...
Candida kefyr has been considered both a food-spoiling agent and a type of yeast with fermentation properties. In this study, the authors have evaluated the antimicrobial activity of a coconut oil-in-water emulsion associated to the presence of C. kefyr. Fresh coconut kernels were used to obtain the coconut oil-in-water emulsion, the sterile coconut oil-in-water emulsion by decantation, and the coconut oil by means of a heating process. Commercial virgin coconut oil was also used. Agar diffusion, minimal inhibitory concentration and minimal bactericidal concentration (MIC/MBC) techniques were employed to evaluate antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. epidermidis. The C. kefyr isolate was identified and confirmed. Coconut milk-derived fatty acids were characterized by acid index and thin layer chromatography. Scanning electronic microscopy was performed to evaluate the morphology of the microorganisms. Lipase activity of C. kefyr isolate was also detected. Coconut oil-in-water emulsion associated to C. kefyr was active against both bacteria. Thin layer chromatography confirmed the presence of triglycerides and free fatty acids. The acid index showed higher acidity potential for the coconut oil-in-water emulsion. The microscopic images showed antibacterial action through the formation of membrane holes' and demonstrated yeast shape. All the above show new potentials for C. kefyr and coconut oil-in-water emulsion in food technology.
... 17 activity (Manohar, et al., 2013). There are no similar studies available on the other edible oils from the coconut. ...
Background
Edible oils, preferably plant origin are rich sources of fatty acids and other lipophilic antioxidants to the body. Among these, oils derived from the coconut kernel (Cocos nucifera) are widely used in India and the Asia Pacific, which includes copra oil (CO), virgin coconut oil (VCO) and refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) oil. Based on the mode of preparation, their composition and biological effects vary.
Scope and approach
This review compares the physicochemical and biological properties of coconut oils prepared by different methods. The metabolism of coconut oil and its predominant content lauric acid is also explained. This review emphasizes the use of VCO in the prevention and amelioration of several degenerative diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cancers, over CO or RBD oils.
Key findings and Conclusion
There are no evident differences in the fatty acid profiles of CO, VCO and RBD oils. However, they differ in their polyphenol contents, which are reported to be high in VCO, possibly due to less harsh treatment during its preparation. Various epidemiological and clinical reports indicating the health risk of coconut oils could be pertinent to the data on the individuals consumed CO/RBD oil, which lacks polyphenols. Whereas, VCO have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering and cytoprotective efficacies, which may be attributed to its higher polyphenolics. Further, emerging studies have indicated that hot-extracted VCO (HVCO) have a pharmacological advantage over VCO prepared by fermentation. At this juncture, further explorations on the biopharmaceutical potential of VCO have to be undertaken through clinical studies.
... Virgin Coconut Oil dapat dibuat dengan berbagai cara seperti dengan memfermentasi santan (Bawalan, 2011) (Gopala Krishna et al., 2010 (Djajasoepena, Suprijana, & Resmelia, 2011) atau dengan cara sentrifugasi santan (Wong & Hartina, 2014) (Kumalaningsih & Padaga, 2012) (Rahayu, Sulistyo, & Dinoto, 2008) (Manohar et al., 2013) (Perwitasari, 2011). ...
The effect of KOH concentration on soap has been done using the basic ingredients of Virgin Coconut Oil. This soap is a product development of Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO). Soaps are made from oil reactions and alkaline solutions on a laboratory scale through a cold process using KOH as the alkaline solution. The KOH concentration used was 30% w / v, 40% w / v, 50% w / v, 60% w / v and 70% w / v as the independent variable and as the fixed variable was ice agitation time for 30 min with temperature used 28 0C. The quality of soap is analyzed by determining free fatty acids, free alkali, unabsorbed fat, moisture content, and pelicans oil. From this study it turns out that the greater the concentration of KOH used to produce soap that the harder the texture. The quality of the resulting soap in accordance with the SNI for the free alkali is in the addition of KOH 40% b /v 0.13% free alkali in accordance with the maximum SNI of 0.14%, free fatty acid at the addition of 50% KOH 6.5 according to SNI 2.5 - 7.5, unabsorbed fat at 40% KOH addition 2.42 according to the maximum SNI of 2.5, the pelicans oil at the addition of 50% negative KOH in accordance with the SNI shall not have pelicans oil. It can be concluded that the addition of KOH concentration resulting in good soap and in accordance with SNI is between 40% and 50%
... Recently, experimental outcomes from many studies discovered that monolaurin had not only antimicrobial activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial cells [1,3,43] but also antifungal and antiviral properties [44,45,46,47,48]. Manohar et al. [49] showed that coconut oils, when used as food flavouring agents, exhibited a wide range of antimicrobial activities. Among MCFAs, LA and its derivatives were found to be the most effective antimicrobial agents for foods and cosmetics [46,50]. ...
... Recently, experimental outcomes from many studies discovered that monolaurin had not only antimicrobial activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial cells [1,3,43] but also antifungal and antiviral properties [44,45,46,47,48]. Manohar et al. [49] showed that coconut oils, when used as food flavouring agents, exhibited a wide range of antimicrobial activities. Among MCFAs, LA and its derivatives were found to be the most effective antimicrobial agents for foods and cosmetics [46,50]. ...
VCO potential as antimicrobial agent in combating dental caries
... Interestingly, the antimicrobial properties of GML may act at sites distal to the administered site. Rodents orally fed with GML have reduced Staphylococcus Aureus induced peritonitis disease burden in the abdominal cavity at levels comparable to rodents fed with vancomycin, suggesting that GML potentially binds to and be carried by soluble factors to distal sites [13,14]. ...
Glycerol monolaurate (GML) is a monoglyceride with well characterized anti-microbial properties. Because of these properties, GML is widely used in food, cosmetics, and personal care products and currently being tested as a therapeutic for menstrual associated toxic shock syndrome, superficial wound infections, and HIV transmission. Recently, we have described that GML potently suppresses select T cell receptor (TCR)-induced signaling events, leading to reduced human T cell effector functions. However, how soluble host factors present in the blood and at sites of infection affect GML-mediated human T cell suppression is unknown. In this study, we have characterized how human serum albumin (HSA) affects GML-induced inhibition of human T cells. We found that HSA and other serum albumins bind to 12 carbon acyl side chain of GML at low micromolar affinities and restores the TCR-induced formation of LAT, PLC-γ1, and AKT microclusters at the plasma membrane. Additionally, HSA reverses GML mediated inhibition of AKT phosphorylation and partially restores cytokine production in GML treated cells. Our data reveal that HSA, one of the most abundant proteins in the human serum and at sites of infections, potently reverses the suppression of human T cells by GML. This suggests that GML-driven human T cell suppression depends upon the local tissue environment, with albumin concentration being a major determinant of GML function.
... ing, (1999) who reported that many coconut oils have been postulated to possess a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity due to their high content of lauric acid, which possesses potential antimicrobial effects. Similarly, Preuss, et. al., (2005) reported that vancomycin and monolaurin protected roughly onehalf the mice from infectious death and Vijaya, et. al., (2013) reported that CO could effectively inhibit bacterial growth in vivo when administered orally. ...
... The 'immune-boosting' properties of coconut oil claimed by coconut oil advocates have been attributed to the saturated fatty acid lauric acid, which is present in human breastmilk (Newburg & Walker 2007), and monolaurin (also known as glycerol monolaurate and variations thereof), a monoglycerol ester of lauric acid which is said to be produced in vivo after the consumption of coconut oil (Matonis 2014). Both monolaurin and lauric acid reportedly have antibacterial and antiviral properties but this has mostly been demonstrated in vitro (Schlievert & Peterson 2012;Tangwatcharin & Khopaibool 2012;Hess et al. 2014;Huang et al. 2014) or in animal studies (Strandberg et al. 2010;Manohar et al. 2013). Monolaurin has generally recognised as safe (GRAS) status in the US, is used as an emulsifier in food products and sold as a supplement. ...
... Similarly, many coconut oils, used as a food-flavoring agents, have been postulated to possess a broadspectrum of antimicrobial activity due to their high content of lauric acid that can be converted into monolaurin. Eventhough it is generally accepted that coconut oils contain high concentrations of lauric acid possess potential antimicrobial effects, little actual investigation has been performed using the natural product to treat superficial or systemicinfections due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi., (Manohar et al., 2013). ...
Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) is known as nutritious and healthy oil and is consumed by many people to maintain their health. The purpose of this study is to investigate the antimicrobial and antifungal activity of lactic acid bacteria isolated from coconut milk fermentation from the process of VCO production. In this study, we isolated LAB from fermented coconut milk in the manufacturing process of VCO, and the antibacterial and antifungal activity was assayed. We had collected 187 isolates of Lactid Acid Bacteria (LAB) by De Man Rogosa Sharp (MRS) agar containing 0.5% CaCO3 and GTA + 0,5 % CaCO3 media. The antibacterial activity was tested for Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria consisting of Escherichia coli, Bacillus substiliss, Staphilococcus aureus, Listeria monocitogenes and Salmonella typhyphosa. The tests were conducted by paper disk method. Antifungal analysis for Candida sp., Aspergillus niger, and Rhizopus sp. was also performed for pathogenic fungi with a disk plate method. The result showed that the LAB could inhibit five pathogenic bacteria and three pathogenic fungi. The isolated LAB which identified by morphological, physiological, and biochemical tests were seven species including Lactobacillus plantarum, Corineaebacterium bovis, Corineaebacterium xerosis, Microccus luteus, and Lactobacillus thermobacterium. Among 187 isolates selected from the MRS agar, therrewe 102 strains (55.1%) showed Gram-positive and catalase-negative results. Of 187 isolates, twenty five isolates were tested forits antimicrobial and antifungal. The best isolate was M0 (inhibition zone average, 14-19 mm). Molecular identification result showed that the isolate was Lacobacillus plantarum NM178-5 (1463 bp). Registered in the genebank DDBJ with acession number AB890143,version AB890143.1. © 2014 Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences.
Almost all part of coconut fruit has been industrially utilized. Coconut coir activated carbon and cooking oil are just a few examples. The health benefits of coconut oil are discussed in this chapter. Coconut oil contains some fatty acids such as lauric acid and antioxidants, which have biological activity on health. The extraction process is categorized as wet and dry extraction. Dry extraction produces refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) coconut oil, while wet extraction produces virgin coconut oil (VCO). Community coconut plantations are characterized by low productivity and underdeveloped plantation management. The production problem faced by the small coconut oil industry is the fluctuating price of raw coconut meat. Coconut farmers tend to sell copra to meet the demands of large companies. Coconut economic development can be achieved through increased productivity and high-value derivative products such as health and energy products.
Coconut oil is an integral part of Sri Lanka and many South Asian diets. Initially, coconut oil was classified along with saturated fatty acid food items and criticized for its negative impact on health. However, research studies showed that coconut oil is a rich source of medium‐chain fatty acids. Thus, this has opened new prospects for its use in many fields. Beyond its usage in cooking, coconut oil grabs attention due to its hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, anti‐hepatosteatotic,anti‐diabetic,antioxidant,anti‐inflammatory,anti‐microbial and skin moisturizing properties. Despite all the health benefits, consumption of coconut oil is still underrated due to a lack of supportive scientific evidence. Even though studies done in Asian countries acclaim for the favorable impact on cardiac health and serum lipid profile, the limitations in the number of studies conducted among western countries impede the endorsement of the real value of coconut oil. Hence, long term extensive studies with proper methodologies are suggested to clear all the controversies and misconceptions of coconut oil consumption. This review discusses the composition and functional properties of coconut oils extracted by different processing methods
Coconut palm probably derives from Polynesia or Asia. The variety of coconut products in Poland includes fruit of the coconut, desiccated coconut, oil, water, milk, sugar and coconut flour. Over the years, coconut products are becoming more and more popular. Their import and consumption in Poland are increasing. Coconut products have also many health benefits. They have anti-inflammatory, antitumor and hepatoprotective properties. The aim of this paper is to review the literature on changes in the market of vegetable fats in Poland in recent years and the variety and health properties of various coconut products.
The antimicrobial properties of volatile aromatic oils from medicinal as well as other edible plants has been recognized since antiquity. Origanum oil, which is used as a food flavoring agent, possesses a broad spectrum of in vitro antimicrobial activities attributed to the high content of phenolic derivatives such as carvacrol and thymol. In the present study, antifungal properties of origanum oil were examined both in vitro and in vivo. Using Candida albicans in broth cultures and a micro dilution method, comparative efficacy of origanum oil, carvacrol, nystatin and amphotericin B were examined in vitro. Origanum oil at 0.25 mg/ml was found to completely inhibit the growth of C. albicans in culture. Growth inhibitions of 75% and >50% were observed at 0.125 mg/ml and 0.0625 mg/ml level, respectively. In addition, both the germination and the mycelial growth of C. albicans were found to be inhibited by origanum oil and carvacrol in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the therapeutic efficacy of origanum oil was examined in an experimental murine systemic candidiasis model. Groups of mice (n = 6) infected with C. albicans (5 LD50) were fed varying amounts of origanum oil in a final vol. of 0.1 ml of olive oil (vehicle). The daily administration of 8.6 mg of origanum oil in 100 l of olive oil/kg body weight for 30 days resulted in 80% survivability, with no renal burden of C. albicans as opposed to the group of mice fed olive oil alone, who died within 10 days. Similar results were obtained with carvacrol. However, mice fed origanum oil exhibited cosmetically better clinical appearance compared to those cured with carvacrol. The results from our study encourage examination of the efficacy of origanum oil in other forms of systemic and superficial fungal infections and exploration of its broad spectrum effect against other pathogenic manifestations including malignancy.
Antibiotics used by general practitioners frequently appear in adverse-event reports of drug-induced hepatotoxicity. Most cases are idiosyncratic (the adverse reaction cannot be predicted from the drug's pharmacological profile or from pre-clinical toxicology tests) and occur via an immunological reaction or in response to the presence of hepatotoxic metabolites. With the exception of trovafloxacin and telithromycin (now severely restricted), hepatotoxicity crude incidence remains globally low but variable. Thus, amoxicillin/clavulanate and co-trimoxazole, as well as flucloxacillin, cause hepatotoxic reactions at rates that make them visible in general practice (cases are often isolated, may have a delayed onset, sometimes appear only after cessation of therapy and can produce an array of hepatic lesions that mirror hepatobiliary disease, making causality often difficult to establish). Conversely, hepatotoxic reactions related to macrolides, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones (in that order, from high to low) are much rarer, and are identifiable only through large-scale studies or worldwide pharmacovigilance reporting. For antibiotics specifically used for tuberculosis, adverse effects range from asymptomatic increases in liver enzymes to acute hepatitis and fulminant hepatic failure. Yet, it is difficult to single out individual drugs, as treatment always entails associations. Patients at risk are mainly those with previous experience of hepatotoxic reaction to antibiotics, the aged or those with impaired hepatic function in the absence of close monitoring, making it important to carefully balance potential risks with expected benefits in primary care. Pharmacogenetic testing using the new genome-wide association studies approach holds promise for better understanding the mechanism(s) underlying hepatotoxicity.
The antimicrobial properties of volatile aromatic oils and medium-chain fatty acids derived from edible plants have been recognized since antiquity. To give examples, Origanum oil, used as a food-flavoring agent, possesses a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity due, at least in part, to its high content of phenolic derivatives such as carvacrol and thymol. Similarly, lauric acid, present in heavy concentrations in coconuts, forms monolaurin in the body that can inhibit the growth of pathogenic microbes. Using Staphylococcus aureus in broth cultures and a microdilution method, comparative efficacy of Origanum oil, and a constituent carvacrol, other essential oils and monolaurin were examined. Origanum oil was the most potent of the essential oils tested and proved bactericidal in culture to two strains of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC #14154 and #14775) at 0.25 mg/mL. In vitro, monolaurin's effects mirrored Origanum oil. The combination of both was bactericidal at the 0.125 mg/mL concentration of each. In two separate In vivo experiments, injected Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC #14775) killed all 14 untreated mice within a 1-week period. In treated mice, over one third survived for 30 days when given oral Origanum oil daily for 30 days (6/14). Fifty percent of the mice survived for 30 days when receiving daily vancomycin (7/14) and monolaurin (4/8). Over 60% of mice survived when receiving a daily combination of Origanum oil and monolaurin (5/8). Origanum oil and/or monolaurin may prove to be useful antimicrobial agents for prevention and therapy of Staphylococcus aureus infections.
New, safe antimicrobial agents are needed to prevent and overcome severe bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Based on our previous experience and that of others, we postulated that herbal essential oils, such as those of origanum, and monolaurin offer such possibilities. We examined in vitro the cidal and/or static effects of oil of origanum, several other essential oils, and monolaurin on Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis Sterne, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, and Mycobacterium terrae. Origanum proved cidal to all tested organisms with the exception of B. anthracis Sterne in which it was static. Monolaurin was cidal to S. aureus and M. terrae but not to E. coli and K. pneumoniae. Unlike the other two gram-negative organisms, H. pylori were extremely sensitive to monolaurin. Similar to origanum, monolaurin was static to B. anthracis Sterne. Because of their longstanding safety record, origanum and/or monolaurin, alone or combined with antibiotics, might prove useful in the prevention and treatment of severe bacterial infections, especially those that are difficult to treat and/or are antibiotic resistant.
As new drugs are developed, it is essential to appropriately translate the drug dosage from one animal species to another. A misunderstanding appears to exist regarding the appropriate method for allometric dose translations, especially when starting new animal or clinical studies. The need for education regarding appropriate translation is evident from the media response regarding some recent studies where authors have shown that resveratrol, a compound found in grapes and red wine, improves the health and life span of mice. Immediately after the online publication of these papers, the scientific community and popular press voiced concerns regarding the relevance of the dose of resveratrol used by the authors. The animal dose should not be extrapolated to a human equivalent dose (HED) by a simple conversion based on body weight, as was reported. For the more appropriate conversion of drug doses from animal studies to human studies, we suggest using the body surface area (BSA) normalization method. BSA correlates well across several mammalian species with several parameters of biology, including oxygen utilization, caloric expenditure, basal metabolism, blood volume, circulating plasma proteins, and renal function. We advocate the use of BSA as a factor when converting a dose for translation from animals to humans, especially for phase I and phase II clinical trials.
The palm tree has a long history of providing man with useful materials for his daily life. None is more important than the oils obtain ed from the palm nut. Coconut and palm kernel oils were recognized as health oils in Ayurvedic medicine almost 4000 years ago. The same health effects were also found in Sanskrit medicine for mother's milk. Mention was made that freshly expressed human milk was adopted as an "antibiotic" after eye surgery. Modern research has now found a common link between these two natural health products----their fat or lipid content. For over thirty years our lipid laboratory has pioneered finding relationships between natural and synthetic lipids and their biological activity. Our studies indicated that the fatty acids and monoglycerides found in these two natural products had extraordinary antimicrobial. properties. Over a period of 30 years my colleagues and I scre ened other lipids hoping too improve on nature. During this period we screened some 300 lipids and other structures for antimicrobial activity. We failed and so I returned to nature for clues. The medium chain fatty acids and monoglycerides found primarily in these two tropical oils and mothers milk have miraculous healing power. It is rare in the history of medicine to find substances that have such useful properties and still be without toxicity or even harmful side effects. My students and I then vi gorously pursued the industrial and medical application of the most active species, monolaurin. The highly purified monoglyceride is better known as Lauricidin® rather than simply monolaurin since the usual commercial monolaurin is only 45 - 55% pure and has no antimicrobial properties. The first utilization of monolaurin was the incorporation into margarine as a food preservative and then into a sanitizer for the prevention of bovine mastitis.
Global changes in antibiotic production and use patterns, in synergy with climate change, suggest that antibiotic resistance will only increase. When combined with the crisis in new drug development, antibiotic stewardship becomes ever more important in order to preserve the activity of these unique drugs.
The structural relationships of 30 straight-chain fatty acids and derivatives and their bactericidal properties were studied
with 8 gram-negative and 12 grampositive organisms. Chain length, unsaturation (cis, trans), and functional group were all variables considered in this study. Our data indicate that C12 (lauric acid) is the most inhibitory saturated fatty acid against gram-positive organisms. Monoenoic acid (C18:1) was more inhibitory than saturated fatty acid, but was less active than dienoic derivatives (C18:2). Other unsaturated compounds were less active than C18:2. Alcohols and glyceryl esters were active only against gram-positive organisms. In general, esterification of the carboxyl
group led to a compound which was less active; monoglycerides were the sole exception. Amine derivatives, contrary to results
with fatty acids, esters, and amides, showed activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.
Adverse drug reaction and drug interactions represent negative consequences of pharmacotherapy. A thorough knowledge of how the adverse reactions and drug interactions occur will aid in our ability to provide the best patient care possible. Adverse drug reactions and drug interactions are defined and mechanisms of their occurrence are discussed; ways to identify, assess, manage, and report these reactions are presented. The importance of postmarketing surveillance is highlighted. A thorough understanding of the mechanism of adverse drug reactions and drug interaction is essential for the health care practitioner. Improved patient care can be achieved by applying this knowledge to the individual patient. When drugs are administered to patients, many things can go wrong. The magnitude of this problem warrants spending sufficient resources to establish programs to identify, assess, and manage these reactions. Having effective reporting programs will help prevent many reactions and will provide earlier detection of adverse reactions to new drugs.
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of oregano essential oil (OEO) and two of its principle components, i.e. thymol and carvacrol, against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus was assessed by using an innovative technique. The mechanism of action of the above substances was also investigated.
The applied technique uses 100-well microtitre plate and collects turbidimetric growth data. To produce the inhibition profiles, a wide range of concentrations were tested for each of the three compounds, as well as for carvacrol-thymol mixtures. Following a specific mathematical analysis of the observed inhibition profiles from all compounds, it was suggested that mixtures of carvacrol and thymol gave an additive effect and that the overall inhibition by OEO can be attributed mainly to the additive antimicrobial action of these two compounds. Addition of low amounts of each additive: (a) increased permeability of cells to the nuclear stain EB, (b) dissipated pH gradients as indicated by the CFDA-SE fluorescent probe irrespective of glucose availability and (c) caused leakage of inorganic ions.
Mixing carvacrol and thymol at proper amounts may exert the total inhibition that is evident by oregano essential oil. Such inhibition is due to damage in membrane integrity, which further affects pH homeostasis and equilibrium of inorganic ions.
The knowledge of extent and mode of inhibition of specific compounds, which are present in plant extracts, may contribute to the successful application of such natural preservatives in foods, since certain combinations of carvacrol-thymol provide as high inhibition as oregano essential oil with a smaller flavour impact.
The potential for developing natural antibiotics: examining oregano and monolaurin
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Enig on a therapeutic dose
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