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Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
Coastal erosion and village relocation:
a Colombian case study
Ivan D. Correa*, Juan Luis Gonzalez
Area de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad EAFIT, Apartado Aereo 3300, Medelln&n, Colombia
Abstract
Because of its tectonic setting, the Paci"c coast of Colombia is subject to a variety of
geological hazards, including earthquakes, tsunamis and associated phenomena such as
regional and local coastal subsidence, #ooding and soil liquefaction. Erosional trends are
prevalent along much of the 700 km long, low barrier island's shorelines of the Paci"c littoral
and land losses are enhanced by factors such as 30 cm regional sea level rises associated to the
occurrence of El Nino. Marine erosion is threatening more seashore littoral villages and
worsening the already di$cult socioeconomic conditions of most part of the inhabitants.
Because of diverse and strong motivations to stay near the sea, the responses of barriers island's
inhabitants to marine erosion has consisted in most cases of repetitive in-shore and along-shore
directed relocations of villages, rather than de"nitive abandonment of the islands. In the long
run, this procedure only has postponed the problem and led to repetitive relocations and
economical losses. The recent inland relocation of El Choncho village, on the San Juan River
delta, illustrates a di!erent response to marine erosion. Although a new along-shore relocation
was physically possible, inhabitants decided to abandon the barrier island and migrate to an
interior, ancient beach ridge complex, applying a prudent solution which will be the most
appropriate for other threatened villages of the Paci"c littoral. A detailed geomorphologic
mapping program must be conducted in order to identify appropriate sites for inland relocation
of existing villages on the barriers islands of the Colombian Paci"c coast. 2000 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Paci"c coast of Colombia, located at the northwestern corner of South
America (Fig. 1), is legendary for its luxuriant vegetation and rainy humid tropical
OCMA=2097=H Ramesh=Venkatachala=BG
0964-5691/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 6 - 6
Fig. 1. Location map of the San Juan River Delta on the Paci"c coast of Colombia.
climate. This largely isolated region lacks the basic infrastructure facilities in most
areas: road access is limited to two highways that connect the interior of the country
with Buenaventura and Tumaco (the only two commercial seaports on the Paci"c)
and air access is available only to a few cities in the region; to reach most parts of its
1300 km length littoral, it is necessary the use of small boats, navigating both by sea
and/or by the dense networks of #uvial and tidal channels crossing the coastal zone.
The socioeconomic conditions of the region are poor, the economy for most of the
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52 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
Fig. 2. Photograph of non-storm washover El Choncho. Note the lack of high waves in the Paci"cor
strong onshore winds.
inhabitants is subject to daily subsistence with the basic necessities far from being
adequately covered. Traditionally, the main economic activities have been timber
exploitation, "shing, shipping and gold mining, concentrated around the in#uential
areas of Buenaventura, Tumaco and other smaller development centers. In the last
decade, shrimp aquaculture and eco-tourism became important in some sectors of the
coastal zone.
Located at the zone of convergence of the Nazca and South American plates [1}3]
the Paci"c coast of Colombia has a long history of natural disasters, including four
earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 or larger in this century [4}6]. The Tumaco, December
12, 1979 earthquake, was the last major impact event on the southern Paci"c coast of
Colombia. It generated a sudden land subsidence estimated in 1.6 m along the littoral
zone and a large tsunami that completely destroyed several small villages along the
sandy barrier islands north of Tumaco. San Juan de la Costa, an open coast "shermen
village located 60 km north of this city was literally buried by a 3 m high water
column which drought at least 156 inhabitants; the port of Tumaco, with a population
of 25 000, did not su!er the direct impact of the tsunami because of some geomorpho-
logical protection and because the tsunami struck at low tide [7].
Although less impressive, the impacts of long-term shoreline retreat are acquiring
"rst-order socioeconomic importance along the Paci"c littoral. Given the growing
number of coastal villages exposed to marine erosion and the limited areas of high
ground on the barrier islands, the need for implementing valid strategies to cope with
the shoreline erosion and #ooding problems is evident (Fig. 2). For the small and poor
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I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64 53
Fig. 3. Radar image of the San Juan river delta. The location of villages on barrier islands is indicated.
INTERA image from 1992. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.
communities located along the retreating shorelines, agricultural lands are rapidly
diminishing as a result of land losses and associated e!ects such as soil salinization. At
the end, relocation is and will be the sole possible response to beach retreat, but where
and when to relocate has not always been clear or properly done.
The case of El Choncho village, a community located on the coastal fringe of the
San Juan River delta, illustrates an example of the socioeconomic consequences of
marine erosion along the Paci"c littoral, and the human and geomorphologic factors
involved in the decision for relocating. This case represents a long-term perspective
which should be taken as an example of the correct response to shoreline retreat for
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54 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
other coastal communities along the low deltaic sectors of the Colombian Paci"c
coast.
2. General setting
Before its de"nitive relocation in 1997, El Choncho village was located on the El
Choncho barrier island, the southern most sandy active barrier of the San Juan delta
(Fig. 3). Located 90 km north of Buenaventura, the delta has a well-de"ned protrud-
ing lobate form with an emergent area of 800 kmand a shoreline length of 51 km.
The San Juan river has a course length of 345 km and a basin area of 17 000 km, the
second largest of the Colombian Paci"c coast. Mean annual precipitation in the basin
ranges from 6 to 7 m, with a reported maximum of 11 m/yr near the head waters [8].
The San Juan river has the highest discharge of any river on the Paci"c coast of South
America, a mean of 2850 m/s and a range between 600 and 6000 m/s, measured at
Cabeceras, 5 km upstream from the delta apex [9]. No individual discharge "gures
are available for each of the six active inlets of the delta.
The lower delta plain extends landward for 6}11 km and is under the direct
in#uence of tidal e!ects as evidenced by extensive mangrove intertidal #ats and by
a dense network of meandering tidal channels. Four sandy barrier islands, ranging in
length from 7}12 km and in width from 80}300 m, de"ne the seaward limit of the
lower delta plain. Some of these barrier islands have well-developed beach ridges with
maximum elevations of 1 m above spring tides. Former shoreline positions north and
south of the delta plain are identi"ed by remnants of older beach ridges and barriers
with an orientation roughly parallel to that of the present day shoreline.
Around the San Juan delta average spring tides have a range of about 4.0 m [10].
Dominant wave directions are from the west and southwest; wave energy is moderate
with wave lengths of 10}50 m and average wave heights of 0.5}1.5 m; storm wave
heights range from 1.5}3.5 m. As evidenced by the morphology of spits on barrier
islands, wave refraction is divergent at the axis of the delta and net longshore drift
along the delta is both south and north away from the axis. El Nino occurrences along
the central and south Paci"c coast of Colombia are manifested by an increase in sea
level of as much as 25}35 cm [11,12] (Fig. 4).
3. The community of El Choncho
The occupation of El Choncho barrier island dates back to 1906 when the "rst
inhabitants settled and raised pigs that were let to run free along the island. The
number of pigs was large and that is the origin of the island's name; choncho is
a Spanish word for pig. Occupation since 1906 has been continuous. The island was
known up to the 1970s for its numerous crops that included several basic agricultural
products for self-subsistence including rice, avocados, cassava roots, plantain banana,
oranges, mangoes and coconuts. `We did not have to worry about food at that timea
an old inhabitant told us, in reference to the fact that they did not need to import food.
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I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64 55
Fig. 4. Topex/Poseidon Image. Cycle 192 from Nov/30/97 to Dec/09/97. During this period sea level for the
west coast of northern South America was between 30 and 40 cm higher than normal, due to an intense El
Nino event. These data were obtained from the NASA Physical Oceonography Distributed Active Archive
Center at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.
At this time, the economy of El Choncho was mainly based on the exportation of
agricultural products (the village was famous by its fruits) and the exploitation of
timber and "shing. Some inhabitants received additional income by keeping and
maintaining several vacational beach homes owned by people from the interior and
by providing shelter for sporadic tourists and occasional research teams working in
the area. In a simple economy with non-accumulative prospects, most villagers used
their income to improve their living conditions. Individuals seeking better economic
possibilities migrated to Buenaventura and other bigger coastal communities.
A typical house in the old El Choncho village was built of wood, elevated on stilts at
heights of 1.5 m above the ground to accommodate #ood and washover potential.
They had a tin roof from which rain water was collected for domestic use; septic tanks
were used to discharged waste water.
4. Chronology of island erosion at El Choncho
Like all the delta barriers and other barrier islands along the Paci"c littoral, El
Choncho island experienced important morphological changes in recent decades. The
recent shoreline changes along the barrier's front were documented by comparing air
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56 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
Fig. 5. Representation of shoreline changes between 1968 and 1997 for El Choncho barrier island.
photographs and radar images from 1968 to present [13,14] and by interviewing the
long time inhabitants of the island. During this period, the island's front position and
con"guration changed signi"cantly as re#ected by (a) the formation of an extensive
sandy cuspate tidal #at at its northern end, (b) the development of a 1.5 km long beach
ridge system on its southern end, and (c) a total beach retreat of between 150 and
220 m along the 2 km long central segment of the island, on which the El Choncho
village and related agricultural plots were located (Figs. 5 and 6).
It is not known exactly when beach retreat started along the central part of the
island, but the "rst oral references of noticeable 1.5 m high permanent erosional beach
scarps in front of the village area date back to 1970}1975, suggesting preexisting
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I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64 57
Fig. 6. Air photo from 1993, showing the central part of the El Choncho Barrier Island, where the village
was located. Note width of island. At that time it was 110 m at the narrowest part. Also note the houses
dispersed on the front of the island. By this date all houses had been relocated at least one time, towards the
landward side of the island.
erosional conditions at that time. The development and emergence of the sandy
cuspate tidal #at on the northern end of the island predates the 1968 photographs; the
tidal #at trapped the sand drift and promoted erosional conditions in a downcurrent
direction on the island front. The normal annual cycle of beach changes on the island's
central part was one of beach retreat during October}November, and partial beach
recovery between January and April. Intense erosion a!ecting the seaside houses of
El Choncho village was "rst measured in 1989, beach retreat of 15 m between October
1988 and September 1989 was well documented [15,16]. Erosion rates in front of
El Choncho accelerated after the occurrence of the November 1991 magnitude 6
earthquake with epicenter just 40 km to the NW of the delta [17]. On El Choncho
village, the direct e!ects of the shock included soil liquefaction, land cracking and
water}soil expulsion. Although no quantitative estimates are available, land subsid-
ence e!ects are evidenced by the fact that the frequency of overwash on the island
increased two times a year (March and October during the highest tides) before the
quake, to at least once a month after the shock. According to inhabitants, the normal
beach cycle was disrupted by the event and erosional conditions prevailed throughout
the year. Beach erosion between April 1993 and November 1997 is well documented
by topographic pro"les that show a net beach recession of 60 m with an average rate
of 11 m/yr for this period (Fig. 7).
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58 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
Fig. 7. Topographic beach pro"les at the location of El Choncho village. A net retreat of 60 m of island
front between April 1993 and November 1997 is clearly seen.
The central part of the barrier was breached in June 1996, during an exceptionally
high tide. The island was incised by a small channel, 5 m wide and less than 1 m deep,
located just beside the northernmost house of the village. The channel grew rapidly
with each high tide and by December of that year it became a true inlet, 30 m wide and
several meters deep. By May 1997 the inlet had migrated to the south and had a width
of 50 m and a depth of 10 m. Strong bi-directional tidal circulation deposited a large
ebb tidal delta in front of the inlet, and sand drift to the south of the island became
even more disrupted. In December 1997, #ooding along the central part of El
Choncho destroyed several houses and by February 1998 the area where the village
was located was completely underwater. From May to December the equatorial
Paci"c coast was under the in#uence of El Nino with sea level 30}35 cm higher than
normal (Fig. 4). The high sea level was responsible for the #ooding, as well as the
accelerated erosion and the rapid migration on the inlet [12].
5. De5nitive relocation
Between 1970 and 1988, El Choncho's agricultural land and the majority of the
summer homes had been gradually lost to beach erosion. During this period a "rst
relocation of the village took place to the island's interior. By 1992, El Choncho's
economy had deteriorated to the point where all the food had to be imported and the
only sources of income were "shing and timber. Timber activities had become
increasingly di$cult because of over-exploitation and new environmental regulations.
At this time some people left the island seeking new opportunities elsewhere.
From the date the barrier was breached, June 1996, islanders realized that reloca-
tion was absolutely necessary but the process did not take place immediately because
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I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64 59
Fig. 8. Air view of the new El Choncho village 6 months after construction had started. Note the typical
vegetation and well drain sands from the beach ridge complex contrasting with surrounding tropical rain
forest and mangrove swamps. View is to the East.
of a combination of lack of consensus about the new site, the scarcity of economic
resources and the hope, by some, that the erosional trend would stop. At that time the
"rst option considered was to remain on the island and to move along-shore, either to
the NW, away from the direction of inlet migration, or to the SE, to a wider portion of
the island. By the beginning of February 1998, inlet migration and beach retreat
intensi"ed dramatically due to a combination of high tides and higher than normal
sea level, and the remaining homes that were still occupied were destroyed within two
days. The intensity of the #ooding and the rapid beach retreat made the community
change their mind and decide that the wisest option was to leave the island and
relocate at the interior of the delta, option considered so far as a secondary one.
Consensus was quickly reached to rebuilt on the nearest interior and sandy beach
ridge complex known as `Santa Barbara beachesa, 200 m inland of the original
location and across the tidal channel (Fig. 8). Not a!ected by marine erosion, the
`Santa BaHrbara beachesao!ered the nearest to the sea stable setting with access by
boat at any tide stage and soils with some possibilities for basic agriculture. The
reconstruction process started in mid-February and by August 1998 most families had
completed building their houses in the new village. The only governmental help
provided was construction materials and all the construction work was made solely
by them.
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60 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
6. Discussion
The El Choncho village relocation illustrates some typical e!ects of the extensive,
long-term shoreline erosion along the 700 km length low segments of barrier islands
along the Paci"c littoral of Colombia. This situation is most likely to continue and
worsen in the future because of a combination of factors including global sea level rise,
earthquake induced and or compactional subsidence, tsunamis and occasional higher
than normal sea levels associated with El Nino [12,14,18,19].
This is not, however, the most dramatic case along the Paci"c barrier islands of
Colombia, as evidenced by the earthquake/tsunami brutal destruction of San Juan de
la Costa on December 12, 1979, for which quantitative "gures of local and regional
subsidence were measured immediately following the earthquake: as much as 1.6 m of
sudden subsidence occurred along a 200 km segment of coastline and "gures of
50}60 cm were reported for localities 20 km inland from the coast [7,20]. That
subsidence dramatically augmented an already existing regional erosional trend on
the southern Paci"c coast of Colombia. Although no "gures of earthquake-related
subsidence exist for the north and central Paci"c coast, the case described here and the
testimonies of inhabitants of other erosion threatened villages strongly suggest that
erosional conditions have been triggered or accelerated by earthquake-generated
subsidence, as was the case for several villages to the north of the San Juan delta in
connection with the 1970 BahmHa Solano earthquake [21]. Erosional vulnerability of
barrier islands of the Paci"c littoral is increased during periods of El Nino which
raises sea level for several months. During the 1997}1998 El Nino, a 35 cm sea level
rise incremented erosion rates along the already erosive shores. In a complex physical
framework such as this, modelling the evolution of coastal areas and predicting
shoreline evolution trends is a giant task far from being accomplished.
Socioeconomic e!ects of barrier island erosion are short term and drastically
disrupt the modus-vivendi of islanders. The main economic advantage of living on the
widest barrier islands of the Paci"c coast is the possibility of being almost self-
su$cient in basic food resources and supporting a small economy with surplus goods.
The loss of coastal lands in recent decades has eliminated this possibility for many
barrier islands of the Paci"c coast, so islanders are more dependent on "shing and
timber exploitation. This last resource is however rapidly decreasing in view of the
absence of reforestation programs, they have to travel farther distances every day in
order to obtain timber and that causes displeasure by the inhabitants surrounding
those areas. Migration of barrier islands's inhabitants to large cities of the interior
re#ects in part the diminishing of resources both in and around the littoral zone, part
as a consequence of marine erosion. For a population composed mainly of blacks and
indians, lacking basic education, the prospects of living in such centers are far from
adequate.
The relocation process of El Choncho is to our knowledge unique along the Paci"c
coast, in the sense that the decision to relocate inland was taken by the community
when relocating on the barrier island was still possible. Such voluntary relocation has
not been the case in neighboring villages threatened by erosion. Examples on the San
Juan delta include the cases of Charambira and Togoroma, where inland relocation
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I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64 61
took place only after several along-shore relocations failed at a high cost in resources
and time. The recent history of San Juan de la Costa illustrates the extreme case:
immediately after the destruction of the village, the government promoted an inland
relocation which was undertaken. Within "ve years, islanders, unsatis"ed in the new
location, returned to the barrier, disregarding the previous disaster and increased risk.
Continued shoreline retreat created a situation similar to El Choncho, and during the
1997}1998 El Nino, the village had to be again relocated to the interior.
The decision to relocate on the mainland taken by the community of El Choncho
was not an easy one because the option of remaining on the barrier was driven by very
strong and diverse motivations, basically cultural factors established by nearly a cen-
tury of island occupation. Among other factors, living closest to the sea is strategically
important because:
EThe villagers know at any time the sea and weather conditions in order to plan
activities.
EThe possibility of having eye contact with "shing teams at a short distance o!shore
exists.
EBeing aware of travelers along the coast allows villagers to be or to demand
assistance in an emergency (there are no radio or telephone communications in the
El Choncho barrier island and adjacent areas).
EA minimum tourist infrastructure had been developed as a source of income; an
important alternative considering that the two main economic activities, "shing
and timber, were becoming increasingly di$cult.
EDirectly facing the sea takes advantage of the sea breeze for a more comfortable
climate and to keep malaria transmitting mosquitoes away.
People in the new village are adapting to their new living conditions. Basic
agriculture provides some help, but the Santa Barbara beaches are far from providing
the same agricultural possibilities as El Choncho barrier island did and tourism
income is now practically absent, reducing strongly the economical perspectives for
them. Help has been demanded from the government in order to obtain technical
training and modern means for increasing the "shing capacities, which has become the
main activity by now. Not having direct, visual contact with the sea has been
particularly di$cult for many of them and the feeling of isolation is common, specially
for women.
The example provides some of the basic facts and antecedents that Coastal Zone
Management will have to be consider in the future, when governmental agencies have
the capacity for planning and regulating the development of the Paci"c coast littoral
zones. In terms of immediate Coastal Zone Management priorities, it is obvious that
present shoreline erosional trends and tsunami risk along Colombia's Paci"c coast are
factors which strongly support inland relocation of littoral villages as soon as possible.
A systematic program of large scale geomorphologic mapping in search of appropri-
ate inland sites for relocation should be the "rst priority of concerned agencies.
To improve the socio-economical conditions of barrier island inhabitants of the
Paci"c littoral of Colombia is certainly the another priority faced by the Colombian
government. Appropriate relocation strategies are just the "rst steps in that direction.
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62 I.D. Correa, J.L. Gonzalez /Ocean & Coastal Management 43 (2000) 51}64
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgments are due to COLCIENCIAS and to the Interamerican
Development Bank for providing "nancial support for this research. This paper
presents preliminary results of the EAFIT University research project: Indicadores
GeomorfoloHgicos, SedimentoloHgicos y BioloHgicos del delta del rmHo San Juan, Litoral
PacmH"co Colombiano. Special thanks are also due to Dr. William Neal, for
reviewing and discussing the document and to the unknown reviewers of this
journal.
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