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Invisible labia: The representation of female external genitals in women's magazines
Abstract
A content analysis of 10 'glossy' women's magazines showed that in pictures of women naked or in tight clothes, the pubic area is usually obscured in some way, or represented as forming a smooth curve between the thighs.
... While a body of literature exists that examines attitudes around female genitals and cosmetic surgery within various theoretical understandings and cultural contexts (Braun 2010;Nurka and Jones 2013), these studies do not focus on information gathered directly from women. A woman's decision to undergo FGCS must be considered in the context of aggressive advertising by plastic surgeons, an increasing acceptance of cosmetic surgery within Western culture and ready access to pornography (Bramwell 2002;Braun 2009;Michala, liao, and Creighton 2012). Depictions of hairless female genitalia with no visible labia minora are becoming increasingly common, while there is a concerning lack of images showing the normal range of female anatomy to counter these homogenised representations of genitals (Bramwell 2002;liao, Taghinejadi, and Creighton 2012). ...
... A woman's decision to undergo FGCS must be considered in the context of aggressive advertising by plastic surgeons, an increasing acceptance of cosmetic surgery within Western culture and ready access to pornography (Bramwell 2002;Braun 2009;Michala, liao, and Creighton 2012). Depictions of hairless female genitalia with no visible labia minora are becoming increasingly common, while there is a concerning lack of images showing the normal range of female anatomy to counter these homogenised representations of genitals (Bramwell 2002;liao, Taghinejadi, and Creighton 2012). ...
... Perhaps of more concern were the women who felt this representation was normal and that any pubic hair or protruding labia minora were undesirable or unclean, demonstrated by comments on the standardised photographs depicting pubic hair and visible labia minora. other studies that have speculated on women's perceptions of their genitalia and the factors that influence these views have found women's genitals' in popular magazines are characterised by an 'absence' rather than a 'presence' , and this may contribute to FGCS requests (Bramwell 2002;Chang et al. 2013). Popular media was cited by the women in this study both as a source of information and an influence, and this may contribute to shaping their views of vulval anatomy. ...
In the context of rapidly increasing requests for female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) and a lack of published research in this area, we explored young women's knowledge of vulval anatomy and sources of anatomical information. We conducted 21 semi-structured interviews with young women aged 18-28 years at an Australian tertiary institution. Interviews explored participants' knowledge of 'normal' and 'ideal' genital anatomy and how these perceptions were formed. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysis identified 6 major themes and 30 sub-themes. We found that many women were unsure what constitutes normal genital anatomy. Few women knew to which parts the word vulva refers. All participants identified a photograph of hairless female genitals with no visible labia minora as the societal 'ideal', and all strongly agreed on the need for appropriate educational resources. Young women would benefit from access to resources showing the normal range of genital anatomy. Results suggest that doctors receiving requests for FGCS should explore women's understanding of their anatomy and what they believe the surgery will achieve. Some young women may simply need reassurance of their normality. Findings from this study may contribute to educational material for both health professionals and young people.
... The apparent popularity of female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) procedures in recent years has triggered a flurry of critical academic engagement in the topic. Previous empirical research has shed light on a range of aspects relevant to the phenomenon, from factors that may influence the decision of individual women to seek FGCS [5] to mainstream media representations of female genitalia [6,7]. Other scholars have sought to theorise the complex ethical debates around the practice of FGCS, specifically in relation to the heavily critiqued practice of female genital cutting/mutilation [8][9][10]. ...
... However, the practice of FGCS appears to be underpinned by a desire for a particular homogenous genital aesthetic, namely a "tight" vagina [14] and "clean slit" [15,16] or "Barbie Doll" [7,17] vulva, in which the labia minora are not visible. The normalisation of these ideals has been linked to various potential influences, including the popularity of pubic hair removal [17], long-held negative societal attitudes toward female genitalia [6,18], and limited aesthetic diversity in magazines, both mainstream and pornographic [7,19]. Bramwell's [6] analysis of women's magazines found that the vast majority of images depicted the female pubic area as flat or a smooth curve. ...
... The normalisation of these ideals has been linked to various potential influences, including the popularity of pubic hair removal [17], long-held negative societal attitudes toward female genitalia [6,18], and limited aesthetic diversity in magazines, both mainstream and pornographic [7,19]. Bramwell's [6] analysis of women's magazines found that the vast majority of images depicted the female pubic area as flat or a smooth curve. Of the 8 % of images that showed any indentations or extrusions, such detail was attributable to the bunching of clothing rather than genital detail [6]. ...
Background:
Women considering female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) are likely to use the internet as a key source of information during the decision-making process. The aim of this systematic review was to determine what is known about the role of the internet in the promotion and normalisation of female genital cosmetic surgery and to identify areas for future research.
Methods:
Eight social science, medical, and communication databases and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed papers published in English. Results from all papers were analysed to identify recurring and unique themes.
Results:
Five papers met inclusion criteria. Three of the papers reported investigations of website content of FGCS providers, a fourth compared motivations for labiaplasty publicised on provider websites with those disclosed by women in online communities, and the fifth analysed visual depictions of female genitalia in online pornography. Analysis yielded five significant and interrelated patterns of representation, each functioning to promote and normalise the practice of FGCS: pathologisation of genital diversity; female genital appearance as important to wellbeing; characteristics of women's genitals are important for sex life; female body as degenerative and improvable through surgery; and FGCS as safe, easy, and effective. A significant gap was identified in the literature: the ways in which user-generated content might function to perpetuate, challenge, or subvert the normative discourses prevalent in online pornography and surgical websites.
Conclusions:
Further research is needed to contribute to knowledge of the role played by the internet in the promotion and normalisation of female genital cosmetic surgery.
... These resources are promoted as a means of learning about female genitals and masturbatory sex that, in turn, is thought to enhance female sexual health and well-being. Erotic resources are constructed as the 'acceptable' alternative to more graphic sexually explicit materials, which many feminists criticize as promoting a narrow, distorted view of the external components of female genitals and setting an unrealistic standard for the 'ideal' form of genitals (Bramwell, 2002). These examples of modern-day media resources further support the powerful repertoire by promoting the powerful nature of female genitals as a positive goal to aspire to and that women should value their genitals. ...
... Further research consistent with the interpretative repertoire of powerless female genitals explored how often the external outline of female genitals was seen in women's magazines (Bramwell, 2002). Specifically, a content analysis of photographic images of female models in women's magazines (dating from 1997 to 2000) found that the models were often positioned (e.g., legs tightly crossed, one leg raised slightly, a piece of clothing or an object across their lap), or the picture was altered (e.g., writing or a symbol placed over the groin area, the image blurred around a woman's genitals) to ensure that the genital area of the female models was obscured from view. ...
... When the groin area was visible, it was shown as a smooth, non-distinct curve. Bramwell (2002) presented his results as evidence that female genitals are invisible in women's magazines. ...
... For example, there has been a drastic shift toward increased visibility and prominence of female genitalia in Playboy magazines since the 1950s (Placik & Arkins, 2014). Contrastingly, the digital alteration of these pornographic images is becoming more popular, meaning that while genital appearance is becoming more salient, the representation of diverse genital appearances has been minimized (Bramwell, 2002;Paarlberg & van de Wiel, 2017). For example, in Australia, pornographic magazines are classified by law as either softcore or hardcore, partly depending on whether they feature protruding labia minora. ...
... In terms of non-pornographic magazines, pictures of women naked (or in tight clothes) often either obscure labial appearance, or present 'smooth curve' genitalia only (i.e. non-protruding labia minora; Bramwell, 2002). Importantly, other sociocultural factors also contribute to unrealistic beauty standards for women's labia. ...
Modern women feel compelled to meet near-impossible standards of beauty. For many, this pursuit ultimately culminates in cosmetic surgery - a radical form of beautification that is rapidly becoming popular worldwide. Paradoxically, while prevalent, artificial beauty remains widely unaccepted in contemporary society. This narrative review synthesizes feminist dialogue, recent research, and real-world case studies to argue that female beauty standards account for both the growing popularity of cosmetic surgery and its lack of mainstream acceptance. First, we implicate unrealistic beauty standards and the medicalization of appearance in popularizing cosmetic surgery. Second, we analyze how negative attitudes toward cosmetic surgery are also motivated by unrealistic beauty standards. Finally, we generate a synthesized model of the processes outlined in this review and provide testable predictions for future studies based on this model. Our review is the first to integrate theoretical and empirical evidence into a cohesive narrative that explains the cosmetic surgery paradox; that is, how cosmetic surgery remains secretive, stigmatized, and moralized despite its surging popularity.
... Given these idealized representations in media, as well as cultural shame surrounding women's genitals, women have few opportunities for comparison with unaltered labia (Bramwell, 2002;Crouch, 2019;Herbenick & Schick, 2011;Liao et al., 2012). Indeed, many women report being unsure of what normal labia look like (Bramwell et al., 2007;Liao & Creighton, 2007). ...
... The role that physical symmetry plays in attraction is well established (Gangestad & Scheyd, 2005;Little et al., 2011;Moran & Lee, 2013;Sharp et al., 2016), with body symmetry being associated with genetic quality and good health (Peters et al., 2009;Thornhill & Gangestad, 2006;Thornhill & Møller, 1997); as symmetry is one of the goals of labiaplasty, this may be a possible explanation for these findings. Further, the continuing repression of female sexuality, wherein direct exposure to female genitalia may elicit a sense of impropriety or disgust (Braun & Kitzinger, 2001;Nurka & Jones, 2013), and the resulting censorship of untucked labia in media (e.g., Bramwell, 2002), may contribute to the perceived normalcy of the more tucked in or invisible labial appearance. The low scores of idealism (relative to normalcy) observed in the present study may be attributed simply to a general dislike of vulvar appearance overall; it may be that no or very few vulvas, regardless of surgical intervention, meet the unrealistic standards of "ideal" appearance which are promoted through, for example, photoshopped and airbrushed media images (Jones & Nurka, 2015). ...
Labiaplasty – a common form of female genital cosmetic surgery involving the removal of portions of the labia minora – is becoming increasingly popular, yet little research has examined perceptions of postoperative labia relative to perceptions of unaltered labia. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine perceptions of preoperative and postoperative labia. A sample of 4513 participants – 42% women, 56% men, and 3% non-binary (Mage 27.01, SD age = 9.97) – was shown a randomized series of “before-and-after” images of labiaplasty procedures. Participants rated each image on how well it matched societal ideals, their personal ideal, and perceived normalcy in appearance. Our hypothesis that postoperative labia would be evaluated more favorably than preoperative labia on these constructs was supported. Individuals who specified their gender outside of the binary rated labia more positively overall; women rated labia more negatively than participants of other genders. Ratings were consistently low overall for both pre- and postoperative labia, suggesting critically negative perceptions of female genitalia. Our findings highlight a need for interventions and education to encourage more positive and accurate views of women’s bodies.
... Of the men surveyed, 48 % had a preference, with most of those preferring a Bsmall and tucked inâ ppearance. There is no published literature examining male perception of female genitalia; however, there is extensive documentation in the medical literature about what is thought of as the 'ideal' vulva [1,2,[7][8][9][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. The majority of publications describe the ideal vulva as uniformly pink and symmetrical labia minora, which do not protrude past the majora [1,2,[7][8][9][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. ...
... There is no published literature examining male perception of female genitalia; however, there is extensive documentation in the medical literature about what is thought of as the 'ideal' vulva [1,2,[7][8][9][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. The majority of publications describe the ideal vulva as uniformly pink and symmetrical labia minora, which do not protrude past the majora [1,2,[7][8][9][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. It is a reassuring finding that over half of participants did not have a preference for labial appearance. ...
Introduction and hypothesis:
Australian Medicare data show that the rates of cosmetic labiaplasty have tripled over the last decade; however, there is little understanding about the social factors that contribute to the popularity of female genital cosmetic surgeries (FGCS). The aim of this study was to investigate male perception of female genitalia and to assess men's awareness of FGCS and whether these surgeries are viewed as a positive and acceptable option.
Methods:
A cross-sectional study of male adults in the Townsville region was conducted via an online questionnaire.
Results:
A total of 500 online surveys were sent out and 248 respondents were included in the study; 49.2 % of participants do not have a preferred appearance of labia minora and 70.4 % of men are aware of FGCS, but 53.8 % do not believe that FGCS is a good option for women. Only 14 % of men supported genital cosmetic surgery, while 29.6 % are undecided about the practice. The most common preferred pubic hair appearance is completely hairless (45 %).
Conclusions:
This study indicates that the majority of men do not have a preferred appearance for female genitalia, nor do they support FGCS or consider discussing genital surgery with their partner. The major limitation of the study is that the participants' age distribution was skewed heavily towards the younger demographic, with 18- to 24-year-old men comprising 81.5 % of respondents.
... According to accounts given by cosmetic surgeons, women seeking labiaplasty express concerns about aesthetic appearance, fears of abnormality, and problems with physical comfort and sexual function (Bramwell 2002;Bramwell, Morland, and Garden 2007). Michael Goodman (2011) found that in at least two studies (Rouzier et al. 2000;Goodman et al. 2010) the majority of patients cited aesthetic reasons for undergoing labiaplasty, followed by discomfort in clothing, dyspareunia (painful intercourse), and discomfort with exercise. ...
... Goodman concluded that patient motivations were primarily aesthetic (2011). The popular, academic and clinical literature suggests that there are at least four main hypothesized socio-cultural influences motivating women to seek surgery: media, including women's magazines; the normalization and increased availability of cosmetic surgery; the increasing frequency of pubic hair removal; and pornography (Braun and Wilkinson 2001;Bramwell 2002;Braun 2005;Green 2005;Lloyd et al. 2005;Bramwell, Morland, and Garden 2007;Tiefer 2008;Koning et al. 2009;Braun and Tiefer 2009;Braun 2010;Schick, Rima, and Calabrese 2011;Rodrigues 2012). ...
This paper seeks to critically examine the capacity for the internet, as a revitalized public sphere, to adequately represent women. I present the argument that the public space of the internet limits the capacity for female vocality by overcoding—in the Deleuzo–Guattarian sense of despotic, unifying, and totalizing processes of representation (Gilles Deleuze & Félix Guattari. 1987. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, 41. London: Athlone Press)—the female body images it solicits as aesthetic objects to be judged and consumed. I focus on forms of online polling to suggest that public judgments are powerful discursive mechanisms for the regulation and containment of the female body in public space.
... This perception regarding female genitalia is rooted in cultural norms and has been influenced by the growth of internet pornography. The increasing popularity of the removal of pubic hair and the standardization of representation of female genitalia in magazines and popular culture has altered expectations regarding the appearance of women's genitalia [11,12] In this context, the term "perfect vagina" has emerged. The concept of genital beautification, which encompasses a combination of various female genital cosmetic surgery techniques, has also entered the literature following these developments. ...
Introduction: Vaginal tightening with laser method is a minimally invasive cosmetic procedure aimed at improving the tone and tightness of the vaginal canal. The procedure is considered safe and effective, with reported improvement in sexual satisfaction
... Tight-fitting clothes and poorly-fitting undergarments make the genital area more visible. At the same time, the vulva is typically represented in the mass media as hairless and flat with no protrusion beyond the labia majora, similar to a prepubescent esthetic [2,3]. ...
Cosmetic labiaplasty is a form of Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery (FGCS) that is performed with the deliberate intent to alter the appearance and morphology of the external genitalia in the absence of medical concerns. Over the last decade, there is an increasing demand for FGCS and the industry behind it is constantly growing. Adolescents comprise an extremely vulnerable population, with labiaplasties in this particular age group having also increased. However, labiaplasty has been widely contested due to the irrevocable alteration of a psychosexually significant body part on minors too young to consent. Besides, the changes that occur during pubertal development in the genital area can significantly alter pediatric surgical results. Genital anatomy is more diverse than we previously thought and there is evidence to suggest that the labia minora with their rich innervation play an important role in sexual arousal and pleasure. Education regarding the wide range of normal genital appearance suffices in most cases to dissolve concerns regarding body self-image. Mental health issues should always be explored and, if identified, the girl should be referred to an experienced professional for their resolution. Postponing labiaplasty until adulthood is strongly recommended to help adolescents achieve a well-informed decision regarding an irreversible procedure with possible adverse esthetic and functional outcomes.
... Labiaplasty, which is a relatively novel female genital aesthetic/plastic surgical intervention performed to eliminate labia minora hypertrophy, has gained popularity rapidly in recent years with the influence of the media and the internet. Studies have shown that the media is the driving force of the increasing demand for labiaplasty [22][23][24]. In a recent study, the importance of internet images in the decision of women who underwent labiaplasty was emphasized [25]. ...
Background: The aim of our study is to evaluate the satisfaction levels of women who have undergone labiaplasty procedure for various indications in our center. Methods: A total of 100 women aged 17–52 years who underwent labiaplasty procedure with various indications between 2019 and 2020 in our center, were included in our study. First of all, detailed medical histories of women who will undergo labiaplasty were obtained. The satisfaction of the women included in the study with the labiaplasty procedure was measured using the FSFI both before and after the intervention. Results: When the FSFI of the women participating in the study were evaluated before and after the intervention, the average score of “Sexual Desire” was 4.27 ± 1.360 before the intervention, this rate increased to 8.08 ± 1.710 after the intervention. While the mean “Sexual Arousal” score before the intervention was 14.35 ± 4.250, this average was found to be 24.92 ± 5.920 after the intervention. While the mean score of the “Orgasm” subfield was determined as 6.49 ± 2.050 before the intervention, this score was found to be 12.37 ± 3.080 after the intervention. Patient satisfaction was determined as 100%. Conclusion: The number of labiaplasty procedures performed worldwide is increasing day by day. As the results and complications of these procedures and patient satisfaction increase, the demand for labiaplasty will increase even more. There is an urgent need for publications on this subject in the literature.
... The lack of non-vulgar, non-derogatory words for them in everyday use, let alone the words used for female masturbation, in comparison to the male versions of both speaks to the age-old tradition of female sexuality being taboo (Silverio, 2019; see also Stevenson, 2016). Correspondingly, girls are brought up in Western society where visual media has made female genitalia invisible (Bramwell, 2002), effectively asking women and girls to live up to the 'barbie doll' role model where smooth and hairless and neat and tidy is desirable (see Epperlein & Anderson, 2016). It is therefore unsurprising that 'vagina' is still commonly used for female genitalia as a whole, despite it being biologically incorrect, whereby 'vagina' refers to the muscular tract which connects the vulva (the visible external part of the female sex organs) to the cervix (the lower part of the uterus, which is internal). ...
Women and girls have long been confronted with unrealistic, unattainable body image norms. Additionally, the ‘ideal feminine’ body has been subject to constant change over the last centuries and decades. With the proliferation of the Internet, women and girls are continuously exposed to advice from heteronormative discourses of womanhood. Demand for cosmetic surgery has dramatically increased and is still expanding. Recently, women’s and girls’ awareness has shifted towards how they should ‘improve’ the aesthetic appeal of their labia, ‘optimise’ their vaginas, and generally make their vulva ‘healthier’, leading to a growing popularity of female genital cosmetic surgery. Proponents of surgical interventions (falsely) claim them as agentic methods of self-expression and promise ‘improvement’ beyond the individual’s control. The marketing of these procedures is predicated on shame and has been described as aggressive. Our postmodern era brings new visions of desired body image, and a rise of Internet-based digital connections between people. This means new body image ‘norms’ are instantly circulated and changed, and body image is continuously scrutinised and shamed. Coupled with increased accessibility of Internet-based nudity and pornographic material, and prevailing associations of shame and taboo about female genitalia, consequences particularly for young women’s perceptions of body image are drastic. This chapter discusses the Internet’s role in the recent desire by young women and girls to seek genital cosmetic surgery..
... It has been culturally assumed that the vagina has to be tight, small, and all but invisible. Aesthetically, the ideal vagina has been described as a smooth curve, with no visible labia minora [5][6]. Moreover, men are also concerned about intimate aesthetics. ...
Objective
The population's ever-growing concern with genital aesthetic dysfunctions reflects an increasing demand in the field of intimate aesthetics. For this reason, as well as the lack of a standardized evaluation, this paper aims to develop a form that facilitates the initial investigation of aesthetic genital dysfunctions.
Methods
An evaluation form for female and male genital dyschromia was developed between July and November 2018. Following initial development, the form was evaluated for quality and was updated by a panel of specialists (a psychologist, two pelvic dysfunction physiotherapists, and two dermato-functional physiotherapists) via email and through a content validity questionnaire. The face validity of the form was assessed by five physiotherapy and medical students who were randomly selected. The students answered a questionnaire evaluating the proposed form. The reliability of the form was established through the test-retest procedure by evaluating its reproducibility over time.
Results
The “Genital Dyschromia Evaluation Form'' (composed of identification, anamnesis, and physical examination sections) was approved by the specialist panel. They suggested questions to be added in the anamnesis (dermatological lesions or fungal and bacterial infections) and physical examination (hyperemia, edema in the perianal and internal thigh region) sections. As for the image analysis, an increase in quality, resolution, and sharpness was suggested. Lastly, for the cutaneous phototype evaluation, the DoctorSkinFototipo® digital analyzer device was chosen since it is small, portable, easily positioned on the genital area, and can be readily cleaned between patients.
Conclusion
The “Genital Dyschromia Evaluation Form” is a questionnaire approved by specialists and could represent a suitable option for health professionals.
... Some feminist critics, as well as surgeons themselves, claim that Internet exposure to heterosexual male-oriented pornography has helped spur women to seek labia reduction [17,30,57,67,82,106]. Soft-core films and magazines typically feature images of women with hairless genitals that have been surgically trimmed or digitally altered, in part to conform to government censorship rules where, as in Australia, showing genital detail is defined as obscene. 'Think of it as 'digital labiaplasty'', wrote journalist Kirsten Drysdale ([107]; see also [108,109]). Surgeons report that women arrive at their clinics with pictures of 'ideal' but often photoshopped vulvas taken from Playboy, Penthouse, or the Internet, asking doctors to make them look 'like that', 'normal', 'tidy', and 'neat' [40,80,107,109,110]. ...
Purpose of Review
To examine the ‘zero tolerance’ policy for female genital cutting (FGM/C) in the international health community in light of the growing popularity of FGCS (female genital cosmetic surgery) worldwide.
Recent Findings
‘Traditional’ FGM/C performed in Egypt and Sudan and cosmetic labiaplasty performed in Europe, the Americas, and Antipodes by medically trained gynaecologists and plastic surgeons are based on similar aesthetic logics: labia minora that protrude beyond the labia majora are deemed ugly, masculine, and ‘abnormal’. Drawing on the burgeoning medical, social science, and humanities literature surrounding labiaplasty, the paper documents the narrowing of aesthetic standards governing ‘normal’ genital appearance and finds that, in addition to adult women, thousands of (mainly Caucasian) adolescents have undergone these operations whose long-term health consequences are unknown.
Summary
Western heteronormativity, gender binarism, ageism, and the colonial association of protruding labia minora with animality contribute to body image insecurities and fuel the labiaplasty phenomenon, despite the ethical challenge that the procedures are clearly defined by the WHO as type II (a–c) female genital mutilations.
... Depictions of female genitalia in media and the internet have been hypothesized to play a role in the origin of this preference. [18][19][20] Notably, women may prefer to evaluate their appearance as if looking in the mirror as opposed to a lithotomy-type position preferred by men and may prefer a complete absence of labia minora showing in the standing view, as opposed to some labia minora showing as preferred by men. 21 However, this "cleft" appearance may not be achievable with traditional labia minora reduction techniques. ...
As the popularity of female cosmetic genital surgery has grown, so has the number of publications detailing surgical techniques, particularly regarding labiaplasty. As a nascent surgical field, much room remains for finesse and exploration of new techniques to optimize outcomes and patient satisfaction. We present the techniques for anterior and posterior commissuroplasty the senior author (O.J.P.) has developed. Anterior commissuroplasty is efficacious in addressing a number of anatomic variations to achieve the appearance of a single midline cleft, which is commonly requested by patients. Posterior commissuroplasty was developed to address skin excess at the posterior fourchette that may develop as a result of labiaplasty. Either technique may be used in combination with labiaplasty or as a stand-alone procedure. These tools may be a useful addition to the repertoire of a surgeon practicing female genital surgery.
Level of Evidence: 4
... Doctors who empathise with their patients will surely understand their desire for correction '. 11 According to accounts given by cosmetic surgeons in the clinical literature, the main reasons women give for wanting the procedure done involve concerns about aesthetic appearance, fears of abnormality, and problems with physical comfort, hygiene and sexual function. 12 Goodman found that in at least two studies the majority of patients cited aesthetic reasons for undergoing labiaplasty, followed by discomfort in clothing, entry dyspareunia (or painful penetrative sex) and discomfort with exercise. He concluded that 'the goal of these procedures is to obtain a more subjectively aesthetically pleasing appearance of the genitalia without adverse sequelae or anatomical distortion'. ...
Over the past two decades, cosmetic labiaplasty surgery has increased in popularity and become more highly publicised. Labiaplasty is a procedure that involves cutting back large and protuberant labia minora so that they are either entirely hidden by or sit flush with the lips of the labia majora. Labia minora that protrude beyond the labia majora are described in the medical literature as ‘hypertrophied’, which simply means that the labia are large in size. Even though ‘hypertrophy’ is a denotative description of a structure and not a clinical pathology, it is presented to women as a medical diagnosis. This chapter introduces the argument in the book that ‘hypertrophy of the labia minora’ pathologises normal female anatomy and that it has a history. It sets out the central research questions that have inspired the book: To what extent is the genital shame driving female uptake of labiaplasty surgery strictly contemporary? How far back does the diagnosis of labial hypertrophy go? And where do our ideas about genital normality come from? The chapter explains what female genital cosmetic surgery is and the rationale for it before moving on to provide an overview of the feminist literature on female genital cosmetic surgery by medical practitioners and scholars in the humanities. It argues that the contribution of the present volume is its attempt to uncover hitherto unexplored narratives that situate cosmetic labiaplasty within a larger medical history of the vulva.
... [7][8][9][10][11] This specific minimalistic ideal of female genitalia is culturally dependent and affected by the development of Internet pornography, the popularity of total pubic hair removal, and the standardized representation of female genitalia in magazines and popular culture, despite the wide range of anatomic normality of female external genitalia. 7,[11][12][13] Following this new ideal of the "perfect vagina", 1 some authors have proposed a novel concept of "genital beautification", which involves a combination of different FGCS techniques: labia majora augmentation, labia minora reduction, labial brightening by laser, mons pubic reduction, and vaginal tightening. 14 According to McDougall, 9 this new female vulvar beauty ideal is like a "clean slit", such that after cosmetic surgery female genitalia appears small, smoothed-tight, and symmetrical, with little color and details, and nothing protruding below the labia majora. ...
Giussy Barbara,1 Federica Facchin,2 Laura Buggio,3 Daniela Alberico,3 Maria Pina Frattaruolo,3 Alessandra Kustermann1 1Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Service for Sexual and Domestic Violence (SVSeD), Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 2Faculty of Psychology, Catholic University of Milan, 3Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, University of Milan, Milan, Italy Abstract: Female genital cosmetic surgery includes several procedures aimed at reaching better female genital appearance and/or improved sexual functioning. Among these procedures, vaginal rejuvenation is considered as one of the most controversial genital cosmetic surgical interventions and involves a range of surgical procedures performed by gynecologists or plastic surgeons to decrease the average diameter of the vagina, mainly for sexual reasons. In this narrative review, vaginal rejuvenation outcomes are examined in order to clarify the current scenario of the different vaginal rejuvenation techniques, as well as their effectiveness and associated complications. Psychological and ethical issues linked to these procedures are also addressed. Keywords: vaginal rejuvenation, female genital cosmetic surgery, vaginoplasty
... Similar to studies of interpersonal satisfaction outcomes, studies of intrapersonal satisfaction outcomes have typically referenced social comparison theory and/or sexual script theory to predict reduced satisfaction effects due to upward comparisons by consumers to idealized actors and sexual encounters in pornography. Arguments about detrimental effects on body satisfaction have been based on the position that men in pornography have large, "preternaturally erect" penises (Morrison et al., 2004, p. 145), flat stomachs, and muscular physiques while women are slender and beautiful, with perky breasts, smooth vulvas, and petite labia (Bramwell, 2002;Duggan & McCreary, 2004;Morrison, Ellis, Morrison, Bearden, & Harriman, 2006;Peter & Valkenburg, 2014;Schick, Rima, & Calabrese, 2011;Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013). Detrimental effects on self satisfaction have been rooted in the stance that performers in pornography have enviable stamina, virility and technique, the capacity to delay orgasm interminably or climax on call, the ability to attract numerous attractive partners, and the attributes of traditional masculinity (e.g., status, dominance) and femininity (e.g., desired by others, youthful; Doornwaard et al., 2014;Frable, Johnson, & Kellman, 1997;Kvalem et al., 2015;Morrison et al., 2004;Morrison et al., 2006;Tylka, 2014;Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013). ...
A classic question in the communication literature is whether pornography consumption affects consumers' satisfaction. The present paper represents the first attempt to address this question via meta-analysis. Fifty studies collectively including more than 50,000 participants from 10 countries were located across the interpersonal domains of sexual and relational satisfaction and the intrapersonal domains of body and self satisfaction. Pornography consumption was not related to the intrapersonal satisfaction outcomes that were studied. However, pornography consumption was associated with lower interpersonal satisfaction outcomes in cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys, and experiments. Associations between pornography consumption and reduced interpersonal satisfaction outcomes were not moderated by their year of release or their publication status. But analyses by sex indicted significant results for men only.
... In some countries such as Japan the Bwinged butterfly appearance^of labia minora (a.k.a. smaller labia, inner labia, nymphae) is strongly admired and considered sexually desirable [1]; however, in most Western countries the external genitalia are mostly represented as flat, hairless and with a prepubescent pubis [2][3][4]. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) ethical opinion paper in relation to female genital cosmetic surgery discussed the role of photographic material and advertisement on the Internet as a source of comparison-and complaint-for women [5]. ...
Introduction and hypothesisWe provide a review of the literature about the onset and development of hypertrophy of the labia minora, together with some expert opinions on the appropriateness of labiaplasty. Methods
We searched PubMed and used popular search engines, with a greater emphasis on the physiology and hormone-mediated metabolism of these structures, and less emphasis on their surgical treatment. ResultsWe describe major embryological, cytological, and biochemical features of this anatomical part and summarize the clinical aspects of its hypertrophy, evaluating types of discomfort reported by women and the medical treatments available. Also, based on what is known about the artificial elongation and spontaneous hypertrophy of the inner labia, we illustrate and discuss the main biological factors that may trigger this medical condition. There are not enough data identifying a clear inheritance of inner labia hypertrophy in the absence of other pathological conditions; instead, we found indirect evidence for an association with transient episodes of local inflammation either before birth or during puberty. We also analyze the role played by estrogen receptors and other factors with regard to the onset of this condition and highlight the importance of their timing in determining the size of women’s labia minora. Remarkably, most cases of enlarged labia minora should be considered as outliers that are within the physiological range of size variation described for these structures. Conclusions
We generally advise against surgical treatment of labia minora, especially in young, pre-pubertal girls, unless specific medical conditions are also present and/or the psychological impact on the patient is deemed particularly negative.
... "Think of it as 'digital labiaplasty' , " writes Kirsten Drysdale (2010;see also Freeman, 2010;Devlin 2014;McBride 2016). Publication standards require that female genitals be invisible; in Australia, censorship laws deem that showing genital "detail" such as inner labia is obscene (Bramwell 2002;Drysdale 2010). Plastic surgeons and "cosmetic gynecologists" (a new, if unofficial, specialty) report that women arrive at their clinics armed with pictures of "ideal" 4. It is still possible that some of the girls who remained uncut at age fourteen could undergo the procedure later on. ...
In this lecture I consider preliminary results of continuing fieldwork in Sudan while revisiting my earlier observations on female genital cutting there in light of the growing practice of “female cosmetic genital surgery” (FGCS) in the West. Despite remarkable similarities in their aesthetic rationales, FGCS is becoming increasingly common in the West while Sudanese “traditional” FGC remains subject to censure and international abolition campaigns. At least one FGCS procedure, “The Barbie,” results in genitalia that resemble those produced by traditional FGC. Several Sudanese families with whom I conduct research no longer practice FGC of any sort. I parse the reasons for this along with those indicated for the rise of FCGS in the West, and explore the web of ironies that link the two contexts.
... Labia minora vary greatly in size, shape and color [21]. However, in most media that depict women's vulvas (erotic magazines, women's magazines, internet, porn movies), labia minora are not protruding the labia majora [22,23]. These images are either digitally manipulated or show models that have undergone a labia minora reduction or women who naturally have smaller labial size [24], and therefore do not provide a realistic image of natural vulvas [23]. ...
Introduction: Many women have doubts about the normality of the physical appearance of their vulvas. This study measured genital self-image in a convenience sample of college-educated women, and assessed whether exposure to pictures of natural vulvas influenced their genital self-image.
Method: Forty-three women were either shown pictures of natural vulvas (N = 29) or pictures of neutral objects (N = 14). Genital self-image was measured before and after exposure to the pictures and two weeks later. Sexual function, sexual distress, self-esteem and trait anxiety were measured to investigate whether these factors influenced genital self-image scores after vulva picture exposure.
Results: A majority of the participants felt generally positively about their genitals. Having been exposed to pictures of natural vulvas resulted in an even more positive genital self-image, irrespective of levels of sexual function, sexual distress, self-esteem and trait anxiety. In the women who had seen the vulva pictures, the positive effect on genital self-image was still present after two weeks.
Discussion: The results of this study seem to indicate that even in young women with a relatively positive genital self-image, exposure to pictures of a large variety of natural vulvas positively affects genital self-image. This finding may suggest that exposure to pictures of natural vulvas may also lead to a more positive genital self-image in women who consider labiaplasty.
... It has long been suggested that media representations of female genitals are a powerful influence on the growing demand for labiaplasty. [30][31][32][33][34][35] However, the present study is the first to actually demonstrate that women seeking labiaplasty have been exposed to a greater volume of these idealized media images and display a stronger desire to resemble these images than women not seeking labiaplasty. Also, contrary to the suggestion that the women who request labiaplasties are inhibited in their romantic relationships and are attempting to resolve relationship issues through surgery, 3,13 we found that these women did not differ from the comparison group in terms of their relationship satisfaction and sexual confidence. ...
Background: An increasing number of women are undergoing labiaplasty procedures; however, very little is known about the psychological factors that motivate women to seek out this procedure.
Objectives: To investigate the factors that influence women’s decisions to undergo labiaplasty.
Methods: Women seeking to undergo labiaplasty (n = 35) were compared with women who were not (n = 30). Standardized measures were employed to assess the patients’ media exposure (television, the Internet, advertising, pornography), relationship quality, and psychological well-being.
Results: Women’s motivations for deciding to undergo a labiaplasty procedure were characterized as “appearance,” “functional,” “sexual,” or “psychological” motivations, with concerns about the labia’s appearance being the most commonly reported motivation. Correspondingly, women seeking labiaplasty were significantly less satisfied with the appearance of their genitals than the comparison group (P < .001). These women had also experienced greater exposure to images of female genitalia on the Internet (P = .004) and in advertisements (P = .021), and had internalized these images to a greater extent (P = .010). There were no differences between the two groups on the measures of relationship quality. However, significantly fewer of the women seeking to undergo a labiaplasty procedure were involved in a romantic relationship at the time of the study (P = .039). There were also no differences between the two groups on the measures of psychological well-being, except that women seeking to undergo labiaplasty were less satisfied with their lives overall (P = .027).
Conclusions: The findings identified media exposure and relationship status as important factors that influence women’s decisions to undergo labiaplasty.
... It has long been suggested that media representations of female genitals are a powerful influence on the growing demand for labiaplasty. [30][31][32][33][34][35] However, the present study is the first to actually demonstrate that women seeking labiaplasty have been exposed to a greater volume of these idealized media images and display a stronger desire to resemble these images than women not seeking labiaplasty. Also, contrary to the suggestion that the women who request labiaplasties are inhibited in their romantic relationships and are attempting to resolve relationship issues through surgery, 3,13 we found that these women did not differ from the comparison group in terms of their relationship satisfaction and sexual confidence. ...
The study investigated the effectiveness of two online resources aimed at improving women's knowledge of the variation in normal female genital appearance and their attitudes towards their own genitals. The first consisted of a photographic array of normal female genitals and the second consisted of a video addressing digital airbrushing of women's genitals in media images. A sample of 136 female undergraduate students were randomly assigned to view the photographs, video, both the photographs and video, or neither. The video significantly increased women's perceptions of genital appearance diversity as well as awareness of digital airbrushing of genital images. Owing to relatively low levels of genital appearance concern, there was no effect of either resource on women's attitudes towards their own genitals; however, women who viewed the video indicated they would pass on their knowledge to help other women. Our results suggest that an educational video could be a useful tool.
... The effects of such digital manipulation and even more significantly, of cosmetic interventions, is to produce a 'new "ideal vulva" image', which reproduces 'a youthful, almost pre-pubescent aesthetic'" (Braun 2005: 413). Bramwell (2002) also discovered that in fashion shoots and other pictures of tight-fitting clothes in women's glossy magazines, the external outline of the genitalia of the models are either obscured or digitalized into a smooth curve. In her view, this 'is consistent with the premise that within our culture women's genitals are seen as an "absence" ' (2002: 190). ...
In the past two decades body hair has fast become a taboo for women. The empirical data of sociological and medical research reveal that the vast majority of women remove most of their body hair since the beginning of this century. Body hair is typically a marker that polices significant boundaries: between human–animal, male–female and adult–child. Removal or refusal to remove body hair places the female body on either side of the boundary, thus upholding and displacing binary oppositions between fundamental categories. The new beauty ideal requires techniques of control, manipulation and self-improvement. This article first assesses how empirical studies map and confirm existing trends of body hair removal, and then explores indepth the cultural reasons for the development of the normative ideal of a hairless female body. While body hair functions socially as a taboo, it refers psychologically to the realm of the abject. One line of argument places the taboo in the realm of abjection, while another argument attempts to demystify the Freudian anxieties surrounding the visibility and invisibility of the female sex organ. While the hairless body connotes perfected femininity, it simultaneously betrays a fear of adult female sexuality. The hairless body may be picture-perfect, but its emphasis on visual beauty runs the risk of disavowing the carnality of lived life. The hair-free trend of today’s beauty ideals affirms that the twenty-first-century body is a work in progress.
... According to accounts given by cosmetic surgeons, women seeking labiaplasty express concerns about aesthetic appearance, fears of abnormality, and problems with physical comfort and sexual function (Bramwell 2002;Bramwell, Morland, and Garden 2007). Michael Goodman (2011) found that in at least two studies (Rouzier et al. 2000;Goodman et al. 2010) the majority of patients cited aesthetic reasons for undergoing labiaplasty, followed by discomfort in clothing, dyspareunia (painful intercourse), and discomfort with exercise. ...
Discussion about the increasing incidence of labiaplasty has given rise to the widely accepted theory that pornography consumption is the primary driver of this trend. No previous research has attempted to investigate the usefulness of this thesis in predicting genital dissatisfaction or openness to labiaplasty. Our study surveyed women, online and anonymously. There were 1083 participants from 25 countries (majority Australian). We found that women were largely satisfied with the appearance of their vulvas, and generally were not open to labiaplasty. We also found that while pornography was associated with openness to labiaplasty, it was not a predictor of genital satisfaction, casting doubt on a linear framework that positions pornography as the main driver for female genital cosmetic surgery. We concluded that the model is incomplete and that there are additional predictors that must be included in future models.
... 14 However, despite widespread subjective commentary regarding the persuasive nature of these images, only a few investigators have objectively analyzed the content of these photographs to support the anecdotal assertions. 15,16 Factors such as the relative importance of the genitalia to the overall photographic composition or emphasis on the pudenda as the central object of focus were not investigated in those studies. Both studies involved a relatively brief time frame; therefore, the findings were not truly reflective of cultural trends or changes in public perception over time. ...
Background: Aesthetic vulvovaginal procedures are being performed with increased frequency. Many experts have suggested that the growing demand for these procedures relates to the availability and revealing nature of nude images on the Internet and in other media.
Objectives: The authors examined chronologically organized nude photographs from a popular magazine and objectively measured the position of the vulva relative to the center of focus to observe trends for the past 6 decades.
Methods: Playboy magazine centerfold photographs from 1954 to 2013 were analyzed and categorized. The positions of the vaginal area (V-line) and the breast area (N-line) were measured in relation to the horizontal midline of the photograph. Images also were assessed for degree of grooming and exposure of the breast and pubic areas, as well as visibility of the pudendal cleft, labia majora, and labia minora.
Results: Four hundred ninety images met inclusion criteria for the analysis. Full exposure of the V-line increased from 0 instances in the 1950s to 78.6% of images from 2010 through 2013 (P < .001). Moreover, the V-line position became 41.0% closer to the photographic midline (P = .045).
Conclusions: The results demonstrate a trend toward increased visibility and prominence of the female genitalia as the focal point of popular nude photographs.
... 9 Furthermore, in Westernised nations, the contemporary ideal vulval appearance is flat and hairless or with the hair trimmed. 10 Normal female genital appearances may be perceived as abnormal and rendered unattractive and unfeminine. It is, therefore, not surprising that in the same Dutch survey 9 about one in seven women reported that their labia minora were abnormal. ...
Key content
Female genital cosmetic surgery is becoming more widespread.
Risks and long‐term effects have not been adequately investigated.
There is limited evidence to allow women to give informed consent.
Learning objectives
To understand the wide variation in external genital appearance among women.
To be able to hypothesise the underlying reasons for a woman to request female genital cosmetic surgery.
To be able to suggest psychological assessment and management where appropriate.
Ethical issues
Women seeking genital cosmetic surgery are driven by strong contemporary cultural pressure and it is not clear to what extent they can engage with risk information.
The boundaries between female genital cosmetic surgery and female genital mutilation are blurred.
Doctors should be deeply suspicious about a new surgical procedure aimed at treating psychological distress and largely undertaken in the private sector.
... 1,3,5 A content analysis of pictures in women's magazines found that they presented the invisibility of women's genitalia as a social norm. 9 Therefore, this childlike 'ideal' appearance is something against which women judge themselves as abnormal. 10 The development of external genitalia, particularly the labia minora, during puberty has never been charted. ...
Labioplasty is a surgical procedure performed to alter the size and shape of the labia minora. The reasons for women requesting this procedure remain largely unknown and recently girls and young women under the age of 18 years have been requesting this type of surgery. This paper examines the ethical acceptability of performing this procedure on under 18s. We will first discuss whether labioplasty can be considered to be a therapeutic technique. We will claim that, while it is difficult to offer a definitive definition of what constitutes a therapeutic technique, in our view labioplasty cannot be considered as such. This conclusion has relevance for the ethical acceptability of the procedure, its legal status in regard to the Female Genital Mutilation Act and the debates over who can give consent for it. It will be concluded that in our current state of knowledge, the benefits of labioplasty are far from clear, whereas the harms are demonstrable and therefore this procedure should not be offered to those aged under 18 years.
... The media have a range of influences on health (Brown and Wash-Childers, 2002), and are significant contributors to the social construction of ideas about appearance, health, illness, and sexuality (Carpiano, 2001;Sullivan, 2001). They have been theorized as influential in women's decisions and 'choices' about cosmetic surgery (Blum, 2003;Gagne and McGaughey, 2002;Goodman, 1996), their feelings about the appearance of their vulva (Bramwell, 2002; see also Reinholtz and Muehlenhard, 1995), and their 'body image' more generally (Bordo, 1993;Grogan, 1999). Women's magazines, in particular, have been identified as 'a significant cultural source of ideas about appearance as a medical problem' (Sullivan, 2001: 159), and are seen to work 'in tandem with surgeons to promote cosmetic surgery' (Fraser, 2003b: 125). ...
Female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) procedures are new, but increasing in popularity. In this article, I examine the role of female sexual pleasure in media (31 magazine items) and surgeon (15 interviews) accounts. FGCS was framed as enhancing female sexual pleasure, or specifically orgasm. I argue that the focus on female sexual pleasure functions to legitimate, and promote, FGCS. Further, it reaffirms normative heterosexuality, and promotes a generic model of bodies and sex. Moreover, in the context of consumer culture, media accounts have the possibility of creating problems, and their solutions, simultaneously.
... The number of labiaplasties conducted in the private sector is unknown, but the procedure is often discussed in the media and Social and cultural factors might be driving demand for general cosmetic surgery. Some women may be seeking flat vulvas with no protrusion beyond the labia majora, from seeing porn actresses on the internet or desiring a prepubescent aesthetic ideal that is seen in advertisements (Liao and Creighton, 2007) or women's magazines (Bramwell, 2002). However there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the motivation and psychological characteristics of women who seek labiaplasty. ...
Background:
Labiaplasty is an increasingly popular surgical intervention but little is known about the characteristics and motivation of women who seek the procedure or the psychosexual outcome.
Method:
A total of 55 women seeking labiaplasty were compared with 70 women who did not desire labiaplasty. Various general measures of psychopathology as well as specific measures (Genital Appearance Satisfaction; Cosmetic Procedure Screening for labiaplasty) were used. Labia measurements of the women seeking labiaplasty were also obtained.
Results:
Women seeking labiaplasty did not differ from controls on measures of depression or anxiety. They did, however, express increased dissatisfaction towards the appearance of their genitalia, with lower overall sexual satisfaction and a poorer quality of life in terms of body image. Women seeking labiaplasty reported a significantly greater frequency of avoidance behaviours on all the domains assessed, and greater frequency of safety-seeking behaviours for most of the domains. Key motivations reported for labiaplasty were categorized as cosmetic, functional or sexual. Of the 55 women seeking labiaplasty, 10 met diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic disorder.
Conclusions:
This is the first controlled study to describe some of the characteristics and motivations of women seeking labiaplasty. We identified a wide range of avoidance and safety-seeking behaviours, which occurred more frequently in the labiaplasty group than the control group. These could be used clinically as part of a psychological intervention for women seeking labiaplasty.
... Fashions have become progressively skimpier and tighter, particularly lingerie, jeans, leggings and swimwear, and nothing is hidden, hair or labia. A study of photographs in glossy women's magazines in the UK conducted by Bramwell (2002) concluded that the clad female genital area is ideally presented as a flat, smooth curve. The antithesis of this is the 'camel toe', a slang term referring to the outline of the vulval cleft showing beneath tight fabric, a look ridiculed in the popular press. ...
In the West, a specific ideal has emerged for female genitalia. The ideal is one of absence, a clean slit that can be attained through the removal of pubic hair and, increasingly, through female genital cosmetic surgery. This ideal is largely created in the media, which generates contradictory messages for women. The popular press, backed by medical opinion, explicitly acknowledges that a wide range of variation is normal - female genitals vary in appearance 'about as much as snowflakes' - but by showing only altered minimalist clean slits, it carries an implicit message that women should be worried if their genitals do not match up to this exacting ideal. Consequently, some women feel their genitals are not satisfactory and choose surgery. Using biomedicine to fix normal body parts in order to fashion desirable femininity, releases medicine from its rigid scientific underpinnings exposing it as an increasingly cultural and commercial pursuit.
Labiaplasty is an increasingly common form of cosmetic surgery involving the removal of portions of the labia minora to achieve a smaller, more symmetrical labial appearance. Labiaplasty is inextricably linked to the colonial medicalization of Black women's labia, necessitating examination of labiaplasty and race in concert. Participants (N = 4351, Mage = 26.58; SDage = 8.89) were shown 12 randomized images of White and Black female genitalia - unaware that they were "before and after" images of labiaplasty procedures - and evaluated them on their alignment with societal ideals, personal ideals, perceived normalcy, and disgustingness. As hypothesized, postoperative labia were rated as more normal, more societally ideal, and more personally ideal than their preoperative counterparts; preoperative labia were rated as more disgusting than postoperative labia. Preoperative Black labia were perceived as more normal, more societally ideal, and more personally ideal, as well as less disgusting, than preoperative White labia. Postoperative White labia were perceived as more normal, more societally and personally ideal, and less disgusting than postoperative Black labia. Gender trends were inconclusive. Our findings point to the need for greater examination of how White bodily ideals shape evaluations of bodies, and for greater historical contextualization in research on labiaplasty.
The study investigated the effectiveness of a very brief video aimed at increasing adolescent girls’ knowledge of the variation in normal female genital appearance and improving their attitudes towards their own genitals. The video was developed by the researchers and included information about the anatomical features of cisgender female genitals and their function, as well as emphasizing the diversity in the appearance of these features, particularly the external genitalia or vulvar region. A sample of 343 female adolescents aged 16-18 years were randomly assigned to view the educational video or a control video. The educational video significantly increased the girls’ knowledge of female genital anatomy. The educational video also significantly increased genital appearance satisfaction and decreased consideration of undergoing cosmetic genital surgery or labiaplasty in the future. The participants who watched the educational video were also more likely to recommend focusing on the diversity in normal female genital appearance when educating other young people on the topic of female genital anatomy. Our results suggest that a very brief educational video could be a useful tool to assist young girls with their genital self-image.
Since the turn of the 21 st century, more and more women choose to undergo Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery (FGCS) to fit a vulvovaginal aesthetic ideal. With a focus on reduction labiaplasty as the currently most widespread of these procedures, this article examines FGCS through a critical cultural studies lens to position it within larger feminist debates about body image, consumer culture, and female agency. A central question is where our Western ideal of female genital appearance comes from that incites the desire to undergo surgical body modification? Against the backdrop of post-colonial criticism, the article challenges the distinction between FGM in non-Western cultures and FGCS in the West through questioning the notion of informed consent associated with the latter. By bringing together otherwise separate voices from various disciplines, the overall aim is to present FGCS as an intricate interface between biology, psychology, culture, and media discourse.
Sebagai spesialis uroginekologi, kami adalah spesialis yang menangani perubahan fungsional dan anatomi dasar panggul perempan sebagai akibat proses persalinan, penuaan, dan faktor lainnya. Banyak dari pasien kami yang ditemui setiap hari, juga mengeluhkan perubahan fungsi seksual dan penampilan estetika genital. Oleh karena itu kami sebagai spesialis dasar panggul berkewajiban untuk memahami masalah ini dan mengatasinya atau merujuknya ke spesialis bedah yang berkualifikasi terbaik. Ginekologi Kosmetik telah menjadi salah satu subspesialisasi bedah uroginekologi elektif dengan pertumbuhan tercepat untuk perempuan dan termasuk spesialis kedalam bidang ginekologi, urologi, dan bedah plastik. Bidang minat khusus ini mencakup prosedur kosmetik untuk meningkatkan penampilan estetika daerah vulvo/vagina, serta perbaikan fungsional vagina dalam upaya untuk meningkatkan atau membantu memulihkan fungsi seksual setelah perubahan yang mungkin terjadi setelah melahirkan dan/atau penuaan.
An analysis of the cultural and economic drivers of the growing phenomenon of FGCS, written by cross-disciplinary experts, this book challenges the concept of individual consumer choice in FGCS: A decision that is rarely exercised in a socio-cultural vacuum. Four distinct aspects of FGCS are covered: Variations in female genital anatomy; surgical techniques and evidence; historical contexts and ethical dilemmas; norm-critical understandings to inform professional responses. Rendering philosophical critiques accessible, and exposing dubious social values that underpin the practice, this text is crucial in driving a broader understanding of FGCS as a cultural phenomenon of our times. Only with a fuller understanding of the multiple perspectives of FGCS, can there be sensible alternatives for women and girls psychologically troubled by their natural, healthy form. Offering explanations and interventions at individual, institutional and societal levels, this text will be valued by both professional and non-professional audiences.
Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery - edited by Sarah M. Creighton February 2019
Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery - edited by Sarah M. Creighton February 2019
This article investigates how both the similarities and differences between female circumcision and female genital cosmetic surgery are suggested through images. A visual framing analysis of 278 photographs, published in Swiss newspapers between 1983 and 2015, reveals that three major visual themes—procedure, instrument and people—can be found in both female circumcision and female genital cosmetic surgery, whereas a fourth one—protest—recurs only in depictions of female circumcision. Through these themes, female circumcision is depicted as the product of a “primitive” society, and female genital cosmetic surgery the product of a science-oriented one. I argue that this discrepancy is produced through an intense focus on the medicalisation of female genital cosmetic surgery, which is absent in the visual narratives of female circumcision. I will demonstrate that this culminates in a discourse according to which female genital shaping is problematic only if not performed under medical conditions as defined by Swiss society. The corollary to this is a shifting of the object of criticism from what is done, to how it is done, thereby preventing the conflation of female genital cosmetic surgery with the World Health Organization’s definition of “female genital mutilation” (FGM). © 2018
Citeridectomy has a long history in the West. This form of FGM was used to control women's sexuality. This contribution addresses FGM outside of colonial spaces.
Genital dissatisfaction is problematic for women in and of itself but also because it is associated with poorer sexual well-being. The current study aimed to clarify the prevalence of female genital dissatisfaction, both globally (i.e., overall) and with regards to distinct genital aspects, in a sample of women of different ages and with different relationship statuses. Participants were 209 women (ages 20 to 68 years) living primarily in the United States. Participants completed an online survey that included a background questionnaire, the 7-item Female Genital Self-Image Scale, and the 30-item Specific Genital Aspects Scale. Overall, 18% (n=37) of the women were globally dissatisfied with their genitals. Between 11% and 20% (n=22−41) of the women were dissatisfied with each categorical genital aspect (i.e., appearance, smell/taste, and function). The women were significantly less likely to be dissatisfied with their genital function than with their genital appearance. Between 2% and 69% (n=4−145) of the women were dissatisfied with each of the 30 genital aspects at the specific level. More than one quarter of the women were dissatisfied with nine (of 30) specific genital aspects and these spanned all three categories of genital self-perceptions. There were no differences in the prevalence of global or categorical genital dissatisfaction across age or relationship status. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for educators, researchers, clinicians, and journalists.
We present a thematic discourse analysis of 94 Australian women's written comments about women's presumed dissatisfaction with their genital appearance. Two themes emerged: 'from natural to normal' and 'the difficulty of resistance'. In the first theme, participants discuss genital dissatisfaction with reference to hegemonic constructions of femininity and to postfeminist, neoliberal discourses that position the natural female body as inadequate, with beauty practices necessary to achieve acceptability. The second theme addresses the difficulty of challenging this positioning, referencing discourses that position the vagina as unpleasant and discussion of it as taboo. We consider implications of these constructions for women's well-being.
Background:
Labiaplasty, the surgical reduction of the labia minora, has significantly increased in demand in Australia. Although general practice is one gatekeeper for patients requesting labiaplasty, as a referral is necessary to claim Medicare entitlements, there is little information available to assist general practitioners (GPs) in managing these requests for female genital cosmetic surgery.
Methods:
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with health professionals, including GPs, gynaecologists and plastic surgeons. Participants were recruited through the Victorian Primary Care Practice-based Research Network (VicReN), clinical teaching hospitals and snowball sampling. All interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analysed using content and thematic analysis.
Results:
Twenty-seven interviews were conducted. All participants were aware of genital labiaplasty; many had patients who were concerned about genital appearance, for which information had often been sought opportunistically. All participants agreed on the need for resources to inform women of normal genital appearance.
Discussion:
This novel study demonstrates a need for clinical resources for GPs managing requests for genital labiaplasty.
The Great Wall of Vagina, a polyptych consisting of four hundred labial plaster casts, publicly displays women's “privates” through a nine-meter artistic rendering of women's genital difference. On the occasion of the artwork's circulation, this article attends to the narratives crafted by the women who animate the Wall. Centering the women who make the project possible illustrates how affective intensities compel emotive discourses to circulate and to generate opportunities for shared bodily knowledges. The affective expressions of the women participating in the Wall not only invoke a sense of agency but also transform the contours of shame from private to public. To conclude, I suggest making vulvae visible builds contact zones wherein women are inspired to decouple notions of normality and bodily perception. By voicing their bodily affects, these women ask us to think carefully about what sensations, feelings, and matters of private concern might productively be brought into shareable and accessible venues. © 2015
The multimodal nature of web pages enables them to interweave text, images, colour and other graphical material to create discursive contexts which may be difficult to identify or challenge. Multimodal discourse analysis provides a tool for deconstructing such websites. This paper examines websites that promote the growing practice of female genital cosmetic surgery, in particular labial reduction or labiaplasty. We examine the ways in which four Australian cosmetic surgery websites normalise unnecessary surgical intervention. From our multimodal critical discourse analysis, three themes emerged – ‘pathologising the normal’, ‘normalising modification’ and ‘cosmetic surgery is easy’. All were embedded in a neoliberal discourse of individual choice, self-improvement and objectification, through text and images that medicalised normal women's bodies, normalised the use of surgery to fit a cultural ideal of beauty and stressed the rhetoric of choice, empowerment and agency, thus creating an ideological foundation and justification for cosmetic surgery.
Examine women's perceptions of what is 'normal' and 'desirable' in female genital appearance.
Experiment with random allocation across three conditions.
Community.
A total of 97 women aged 18-30 years.
Women were randomly assigned to view a series of images of (1) surgically modified vulvas or (2) nonmodified vulvas, or (3) no images. They then viewed and rated ten target images of surgically modified vulvas and ten of unmodified vulvas.
Women used a four-point Likert scale ('strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'), to rate each target image for 'looks normal' and 'represents society's ideal'. For each woman, we created two summary scores that represented the extent to which she rated the unmodified vulvas as more 'normal' and more 'society's ideal' than the modified vulvas.
For ratings of 'normality,' there was a significant effect for condition (F2,94 = 2.75 P = 0.007, radj2 = 0.082): women who had first viewed the modified images rated the modified target vulvas as more normal than the nonmodified vulvas, significantly different from the control group, who rated them as less normal. For ratings of 'society's ideal', there was again a significant effect for condition (F2,92 = 7.72, P < 0.001, radj2 = 0.125); all three groups rated modified target vulvas as more like society's ideal than the nonmodified target vulvas, with the effect significantly strongest for the women who had viewed the modified images.
Exposure to images of modified vulvas may change women's perceptions of what is normal and desirable. This may explain why some healthy women seek labiaplasty.
Although the vagina is a rare topic in the social science literature, numerous socio-cultural representations of the vagina can be found throughout Western societies. Such representations offer a range of cultural resources for making sense of the vagina and its functions, and have implications for women's health and well-being. In this paper, we identify and overview seven persistent negative representations of the vagina: the vagina as inferior to the penis; the vagina as absence; the vagina as (passive) receptacle for the penis; the vagina as sexually inadequate; the vagina as disgusting; the vagina as vulnerable and abused; and the vagina as dangerous. In the last sections, we argue that in order to promote women's sexual and reproductive health, it is necessary to challenge such negative representations, and we offer some alternative - and much more positive - representations of the vagina.
Our purpose was to describe the surgical procedure, its results, and its complications and to determine whether patients are satisfied with surgical reduction of labia minora in cases of hypertrophy.
The records of 163 patients who underwent reduction of the labia minora during a 9-year period were reviewed. The ages of the patients ranged from 12 to 67 years (median, 26). Motives for requesting surgery were aesthetic concerns in 87% of the cases, discomfort in clothing in 64%, discomfort with exercise in 26%, and entry dyspareunia in 43%. Anatomic results were assessed 1 month postoperatively. Patient satisfaction was assessed by means of a mailed questionnaire.
No surgery-related significant complications were noticed. Anatomic results were satisfactory for 151 patients (93%). Ninety-eight completed questionnaires were returned. Eighty-one patients (83%) found that the results after surgery were satisfactory. Eighty-seven (89%) were satisfied with the aesthetic result, and 91 (93%) approved the functional outcome. Four patients (4%) would not undergo the same procedure again.
Labia minora reduction is a simple surgical procedure associated with a high degree of patient satisfaction.
Femalia San Francisco: Down There Press Socio-cultural representations of the vagina
- J Braun
- V Wilkinson
References BLANK, J. (1993). Femalia. San Francisco: Down There Press. BRAUN, V. & WILKINSON, S. (2001). Socio-cultural representations of the vagina. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 19, 17–32.