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Alternative to antibiotic growth promoters in prevention of diarrhoea in weaned piglets: A review

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The weaning time is a crucial period in the management of piglets. The risk of development of post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD) in piglets is high. PWD is the cause of serious economic losses in pig herds. Since 2006, the use of antibiotic growth promoters for prevention of diarrhoeal diseases in piglets has been banned. This measure also led to the investigation of alternative suitable feed supplements that would be reasonably effi- cient in protecting and sustaining animal health and performance. Various natural materials such as probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, zinc and plant extracts have been tested as effective alternatives to antibiotics. Recently, owing to their high adsorption capacity, research efforts have been conducted on the application of natural clays and clay-based feed supplements. The purpose of this review is to summarize the effect of different alternative components as growth promoters on the health and performance of weaned and growing piglets.
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Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
199
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Ban of antibiotic growth promoters
3. Intestinal microflora in piglets
4. Improvement of intestinal microflora
4.1. Probiotics
4.2. Prebiotics
4.3. Synbiotics
4.4. Organic acids
4.5. Zinc oxide
4.6. Plant extracts
5. Clay minerals
5.1. Adsorption capacity and effects of clay min-
erals
5.2. Modified forms of clay minerals
6. Conclusions
7. References
Supported by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic (Grants No. MZe 0002716202 and No. QH71054) and
the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (AdmireVet; Grants No. CZ 1.05/2.1.00/01.0006
and No. ED 006/01/01).
1. Introduction
Postweaning diarrhoea (PWD) is one of the most
frequent causes of heavy economic losses in pig
herds. PWD can be caused by a number of causative
agents. The major bacteria which cause diarrhoea
are Escherichia coli and members of the genera
Clostridium, Lawsonia and Brachyspira. Regarding
viral agents, rotaviruses (Bertschinger, 1999; Jung
et al., 2006a,b; Thomsson et al., 2008), coronavi-
Alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters
in prevention of diarrhoea in weaned piglets: a review
H. V, R. S, M. T, Z. Z, I. P
Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT: The weaning time is a crucial period in the management of piglets. The risk of development of
post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD) in piglets is high. PWD is the cause of serious economic losses in pig herds. Since
2006, the use of antibiotic growth promoters for prevention of diarrhoeal diseases in piglets has been banned.
This measure also led to the investigation of alternative suitable feed supplements that would be reasonably effi-
cient in protecting and sustaining animal health and performance. Various natural materials such as probiotics,
prebiotics, organic acids, zinc and plant extracts have been tested as effective alternatives to antibiotics. Recently,
owing to their high adsorption capacity, research efforts have been conducted on the application of natural clays
and clay-based feed supplements. The purpose of this review is to summarize the effect of different alternative
components as growth promoters on the health and performance of weaned and growing piglets.
Keywords: infection; swine; antibiotics; intestinal microflora; performance; probiotics; prebiotics, organic acids;
zinc; phytobiotics; aluminosilicate
List of abbreviations
CFU = colony-forming unit; ETEC = enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli; MMT = montmorillonite; PWD = post
weaning diarrhoea; SC FA = short chain fatty acids; VFA = volatile fatty acids
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
200
ruses (Moller et al., 1998; Song et al., 2006), trans-
missive gastroenteritis virus (Hampson et al., 1987;
Alexa et al., 1995, 2001; Chae et al., 2000; Madec
et al., 2000; Melin et al., 2004; Song et al., 2006;
Thomsson et al., 2008) and others have been most
frequently diagnosed.
Ea rly-we ane d piglets are expose d to several
stress factors, with nutrition, etiology and indoor
environment of housing being particularly impli-
cated (Madec et al., 2000; Laine et al., 2008). Non-
infectious stress factors which are involved in the
development of gastroenteric disorders are:
– age of piglets when they are weaned from their
dam (Svensmark et al., 1989; Skirrow et al.,
1997),
– sudden change of feed from sow milk that pro-
vides piglets with immunoglobulins (Bailey et al.,
1992),
irregular feed intake (Bark et al., 1986; Spencer
and Howell, 1989; Svensmark et al., 1989; Madec
et al., 1998; Laine et al., 2008),
– feed structure (Amezcua et al., 2002),
– animal hygiene and housing conditions (Le Di-
vidich, 1981; Le Dividich and Herpin, 1994; Ma-
dec et al., 1998),
– inadequate feeder space per piglet in the pen
(Amezcua et al., 2002).
Numerous changes in the early-weaned piglet
body can initiate P WD, such as morphological
(Hampson, 1986) and functional alterations of
the small intestine (Kidder and Manners, 1980;
Hampson and Kidder, 1986), changes in intestinal
colonization with predominance of E. coli (Melin
et al., 1997; Katouli et al., 1999) and weakening of
the immune system (Blecha et al., 1983; Wattrang
et al., 1998).
2. Ban of antibiotic growth promoters
Regarding the fact that weaning greatly affects
general health condition of piglets, it is necessary
to stimulate the indigenous intestinal microflora
and keep it well-balanced because it provides pro-
tection to animals against invasion by pathogenic
microorganisms (Jensen, 1998; Katouli et al., 1999).
Before 2006, health strategies widely used antibi-
otic growth promoters to reduce enteric infections
and the occurrence of pathogens able to adhere
to intestinal mucosa (Barton, 2000; Budino et al.,
2005). These are added to feed for piglets from birth
to weaning with the aim of improving the compo-
sition of intestinal microflora in piglets and thus
ameliorate the potential consequences of PWD
(Sorensen et al., 2009).
The increased use of antibiotics has given rise to
a fear of the development of resistant pathogenic
bacterial strains (Wegener et al., 1998; Kyriakis et al.,
1999; Budino et al., 2005) and residual contamina-
tion of the food chain with antibiotics (Chen et al.,
2005; Roselli et al., 2005). is has led to the adop-
tion of safety measures and a gradual withdrawal of
antibiotic promoters from pig diets. In 2006, the use
of antibiotics as growth promoters was forbidden in
the EU (Castro, 2005; Chen et al., 2005).
Due to the fact that the use of antibiotics as
growth promoters has been banned and that the
expansion of this policy to other countries can
now be expected, intensive research has focused
on the development of alternative strategies with
the aim of maintenance of animal health and per-
formance (He et al., 2002; Castro, 2005; Chen et
al., 2005; Bomba et al., 2006; Castillo et al., 2008).
Various natural materials, many of which are com-
mercially available, have been investigated as effi-
cient alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters.
At present, probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids,
enzymes, phytobiotics, clay adsorbents and others
are under investigation. These materials can exert
beneficial effects on the microflora composition
and consequently affect animal health and growth
performance.
3. Intestinal microflora in piglets
Intestinal microflora contains high numbers of
various species of bacteria involved in the proc-
ess of digestion. Microbial composition is deter-
mined by mutual interactions between the host
and the microorganisms, and also among different
microorganisms. These factors are designated as
autogenic (Fuller et al., 1978; Jensen, 1998; Budino
et al., 2005). On the other hand, pH in the stomach,
digestive enzymes, intestinal peristalsis, nutrients
and immunity of the host are termed allogenic fac-
tors (Jensen, 1998; Budino et al., 2005; Roselli et
al., 2005). The predominance of beneficial species
of microorganisms over pathogens is essential for
stability of the immune system of the intestines and
consequently of the entire body (Apgar et al., 1993;
Makala et al., 2000; Mikkelsen et al., 2003).
Enteric bacteria constitute a wide range of mostly
strictly anaerobic or facultatively anaerobic spe-
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
201
cies with counts giving an estimate of 1011 to 1014
CFU/g of digesta (Ghnassia, 1979; Makala et al.,
2000). Ducluzeau (1983) reported that numbers of
microorganisms can reach values of between 108 and
109 CFU/g of faeces already 10 to 12 h after the birth
of piglets and that their numbers stabilize within
24 to 48 hours after birth. However, the composition
of microflora is not definitive. It develops gradu-
ally and numerous changes occur during weaning
(Rojas and Conway, 1996; Mikkelsen, 2003; Roselli
et al., 2005).
The highest number of microorganisms is found
in the caudal part of the intestines (Table 1), where
around 500 different species of microorganisms
have been described and identified to date (Rojas
and Conway, 1996; Budino et al., 2005). In a well-bal-
anced microbial environment, members of the fol-
lowing genera prevail: Streptococcus, Lactobacillus,
Bi fidob acte rium , Enter ococc us, Eub acter ium,
Fusobacterium, Peptostreptococcus, Enterobacter,
Bacteroides, Porphyromona, while the numbers
of coliform bacteria E. coli and Clostridium sp.
are lower (Fuller et al., 1978; Maxvell et al., 2004;
Stokes et al., 2004; Budino et al., 2005; Pasca et
al., 2009). Due to a relatively high pH value in the
stomach, members of the genus Lactobacillus are
more commonly found in the non-secretory part
of the stomach, from which they further spread to
the small intestine (McAllister et al., 1979; Rojas
and Conway, 1996).
Anaerobic conditions, favourable temperature,
pH and slow passage of the digesta are the pre-
conditions for the presence of large numbers of
bacteria in the large intestine and caecum, up to
1010 CFU/g (Kidder and Manners, 1980; Ambroz,
1981; Mikkelsen et al., 2003). In the caecum Gram-
negative bacteria predominate, whilst these are
outnumbered by Gram-positive bacteria in the
colon (Robinson et al., 1981; Rojas and Conway,
1996; Mikkelsen et al., 2003).
Intestinal microorganisms participate in vari-
ous physiological functions, by which they influ-
ence their hosts (Jensen, 1998). Protection against
pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic micro-
organisms in the form of colonization resistance
is most important (Gedek , 1992a; Jin et al., 1997;
Roselli et al., 2005). Natural intestinal microflora
adhere to intestinal mucosa and inhibit coloniza-
tion by pathogens. This inhibition effect is caused
by competition for nutrients and binding sites, bac-
teriocin production, lactobacilli fermentations and
short chain fatty acid production (Teitelbaum and
Walker, 2002; Roselli et al., 2005). Subsequently,
immunological memory is created and intestinal
immunity develops (Jin et al., 1997; Makala et al.,
2000; Stokes et al., 2004).
Even though avirulent strains of E. coli are a com-
mon constituent of intestinal microflora, pathogen-
ic strains of the same bacteria are the most frequent
causes of PWD in piglets (Madej et al., 1999; Madec
et al., 2000; Melin et al., 2004). The acquiring of
virulence factors happens by the enrichment of
some E. coli strains through special mobile genes
and with the joint influence of bacteriophages or
plasmids. Mobile genes are localized in pathogenic-
ity islands. Pathogenic strains are endowed with at
least six virulence factors: shiga toxin, adhesion fac-
tor intimin, hemolyzin, serin protease, thermosta-
ble enterotoxin and special katalase system (Alexa
et al., 2001; Hayashi et al., 2001; Sousa, 2006).
4. Improvement of intestinal microflora
The health of organisms largely depends on the
composition of the intestinal microflora. Its com-
position and function can be beneficially influenced
by many factors. These factors can be significantly
supported by probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids,
zinc oxide and plant extracts.
Table 1. Comparison of microflora in the stomach, small and large intestines (CFU log10/g chyme; Fuller, 1989;
Rojas and Conway, 1996; Stokes et al., 2004)
Microorganisms Microflora
in the stomach
Microflora in the small intestine Microflora in the large intestine
proximal caudal caecum colon
Total count 5.5–9.5 5.5–8.5 5.5–9.5 8.5–9.5 8.0–10.0
Lactobacillus 5.0–9.0 5.5–8.5 6.0–9.5 8.0–9.5 7.5–9.5
Streptococcus 4.0–7.0 4.0–6.5 5.0–7.5 7.5 6.0–8.0
Bifidobacterium 4.5–6.5 4.0–5.5 5.5–7.5 5.0–8.0 5.5–8.5
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
202
4.1. Probiotics
Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements
which beneficially affect the host by improving its
intestinal microbiocenosis. Probable mechanisms
of action of probiotics are based on the follow-
ing:
– competition between them and pathogenic mi-
croorganisms for binding sites in the intestinal
mucosa (Fuller, 1989; Sissons, 1989; Bomba et
al., 2002),
– nutrient availability (Guerra et al., 1997; Bomba
et al., 2002)
– total inhibition of pathogen growth by produc-
tion of organic acids and antibiotic-like com-
pounds (MantereAlhonen, 1995; Guerra et al.,
1997; Zimmermann et al., 2001; Bomba et al.,
2002; Marinho et al., 2007).
Probiotics are mainly active in the caudal seg-
ments of the ileum, in the caecum and the ascend-
ing colon. Probiotics influence the digestive process
in the body by increasing the activity of microbial
probiotic enzymes and the digestibility of food
(Roselli et al., 2005). They stimulate the immune
system and the regeneration of intestinal mucosa.
They can elicit an increase in immunoglobulin a
production (Perdigon et al., 1995) and stimulate
macrophages and NK cells (natural killers cells;
Chiang et al., 2000; Matsuzaki and Chin, 2000).
They can also regulate anti- and pro-inflammatory
cytokine production (Lessard and Brisson, 1987;
Shu et al., 2001; Roselli et al., 2005).
The effect of probiotics depends on the combi-
nation of selected bacterial genera (Table 2), their
doses, and on the interactions of probiotics with
some pharmaceuticals, feed composition, storage
conditions and feed technology (Kyriakis et al.,
1999; Park et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2005). Probiotic
application to piglets is important especially in the
post-weaning period for the prophylaxis of PWD
which is usually caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli
strains (MantereAlhonen, 1995; Roberfroid, 1998;
Bomba et al., 2002; Roselli et al., 2005; Marinho
et al., 2007).
Multiple studies have confirmed the stimulat-
ing effects of probiotics on the intestinal environ-
ment (Barrow et al., 1977; Roth et al., 1992b; Depta
et al., 1998; Mathew et al., 1998; Jadamus et al.,
2001; Scharek et al., 2005, 2007; Reiter et al., 2006;
Lodemann et al., 2008). By lowering the pH value
in the small intestine and producing organic acids
and antibacterial substances probiotic supplements
inhibit pathogenic microorganisms, improve the
intestinal microflora and stimulate immune func-
tion (Kumprecht et al., 1994; MantereAlhonen,
1995; Marinho, 2007).
Intestinal microflora can be modulated by the
supplementation of feeds with probiotic bacterial
species of the genera Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium
(Bomba et al., 1998), Bacillus (Roth et al., 1992b;
Alexopoulos et al., 2001; Scharek et al., 2005, 2007),
Enterococcus and Streptococcus (Scharek et al.,
2005, 2007) and their combinations (Mathew et al.,
1998; Bomba et al., 2002). The bacteria Enterococcus
faecium were found to be able to prevent the K88
Table 2. Microorganisms used as probiotics (Kumprecht
et al., 1994; Fooks and Gibson, 2002; Ouwehand et al.,
2002; Lodemann et al., 2006)
Genus Bacterial species
Lactobacillus
L. acidophilus
L. casei
L. rhamnosus
L. reuteri
L. plantarum
L. fermentum
L. brevis
L. helveticus
L. delbrückei
Lactococcus L. lactis
Enterococcus E. faecium
Streptococcus S. thermophilus
Pediococcus P. pentosaceus
Bacillus
B. subtilis
B. cereus
B. toyoi
B. natto
B. mesentericus
B. licheniformis
Bifidobacterium
B. bifidum
B. pseudolongum
B. breve
B. thermophilum
Saccharomyces S. cerevisiae
Avirulent Escherichia coli E. coli
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
203
positive ETEC strain from adhering to the intes-
tinal mucous membrane of piglets (Jin and Zhao,
2000; Scharek et al., 2005). Regulating intestinal
microbial balance by increasing the activity of mi-
crobial digestive enzymes, it improves digestion,
feed digestibility and nutrient utilization (Bomba
et al., 2002). In consequence, the morbidity and
mortality of farm animals decrease and perform-
ance increase (Mathew et al., 1998; Taras et al.,
2005; Lodemann et al., 2006).
Members of the genus Bacillus support natural
intestinal microflora in the digestive tract, com-
pete with undesirable microorganisms, and reduce
the numbers of Enterococci, Bacteroides and col-
iforms (Ozawa et al., 1981; Adami and Cavazzoni,
1999; Kyriakis et al., 1999; Alexopoulos et al., 2001;
Link et al., 2005; Link and Kovac, 2006) whilst
Saccharomyces cerevisiae do not markedly alter
the composition of host microflora (Mathew et al.,
1998). These results are in contradiction to infor-
mation provided by Mathew et al. (1993, 1996) who
observed changes in the microbial environment due
to S. cerevisiae activity. This can be explained by
the ability of various strains of S. cerevisiae to alter
cellulotic microflora (Newbold et al., 1995).
Inconsistent data have also been reported for oth-
er probiotic genera (Table 3). While some authors
have observed beneficial effects of several members
of the genera Lactobacillus and Bacillus (Depta et
al., 1998; Bomba et al., 1999, 2002; Kyriakis et al.,
1999; Reiter et al., 2006; Scharek et al., 2007), oth-
ers have failed to confirm any stimulating effect
on the composition of the pig intestinal microflora
(Spriet et al., 1987; De Cupere et al., 1992; Newbold
et al., 1995). These contradictory results can be
explained by the low doses of the used species of
probiotic bacteria, their stability, interactions with
other medications, and the health condition, age
and genetic predisposition of animals (Kyriakis,
1999; Reiter et al., 2006).
Improvement in the health condition and growth
performance (Tables 4 and 5) was observed in new-
born and weaned piglets after feeding with probiot-
ics of the genera Lactobacillus, Streptococcus and
Bacillus (Roth et al., 1992b; Mathew et al., 1998;
Alexopoulos et al., 2001; La Ragione et al., 2001;
Chen et al., 2005; Reiter et al., 2006).
E. faecium (Ushe and Nagy, 1985; Roth and
Kirchgessner, 1986; Rekiel and Wiecek, 1996;
Jadamus et al., 2001; Lodemann et al., 2008) and
Bifidobacterium lactis (Alexopoulos et al., 2001;
Shu et al., 2001) has been shown to be effective in
reducing the occurrence and intensity of diarrhoea
and increasing the performance of piglets. On the
other hand, Kirchheim and Schone (1995) failed to
find any positive effect of these bacteria in reducing
diarrhoea incidence.
Whilst nonpathogenic E. coli strains lacking viru-
lence genes have been used for the prophylaxis of
E. coli infection (Davidson and Hirsch, 1976; Setia
et al., 2009), Smith and Huggins (1983) used phages
that specifically bind with K-antigens. The effects
in both experiments were strictly specific and no
direct protective function was observed. On the
other hand, Melin and Wallgren (2002) applied
non-virulent E. coli in combination with zinc oxide
Table 3. The effect of probiotics on the intestinal microflora of pigs
Genus/species Beneficial effects Nonsignificant beneficial effects
Lactobacillus
Bomba et al. (1998); Depta et al. (1998); Mathew et al.
(1998); Alexopoulos et al. (2001); Scharek et al. (2005,
2007); Reiter et al. (2006)
De Cupere et al. (1992); Newbold
et al. (1995)
Bifidobacterium Bomba et al. (1998, 2002); Depta et al. (1998); Alexopou-
los et al. (2001); Reiter et al. (2006) none
Bacillus
Ozawa et al. (1981); Mathew et al. (1998); Adami and
Cavazzoni (1999); Kyriakis et al. (1999), Link et al.
(2005); Scharek et al. (2007)
Spriet et al. (1987); De Cupere et
al. (1992)
Streptococcus Bomba et al. (1998); Mathew et al. (1998); Alexopoulos
et al. (2001) none
Enterococcus/
E. faecium Jin and Zhao (2000); Scharek et al. (2005, 2007) none
Saccharomyces/
S. cerevisiae Mathew et al. (1993, 1996) Newbold et al. (1995); Mathew et
al. (1998)
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
204
and a mixture of lactulose and fibre and observed a
markedly reduced incidence of PWD in comparison
with the control group.
The genus Bacillus, especially its members B. s ub-
tilis and B. licheniformis have been described to
markedly reduce the severity of diarrhoea caused
by E. coli (Adami and Cavazzoni, 1999; Kyriakis et
al., 1999; La Ragione et al., 2001; Link et al., 2005)
and at the same time improve growth parameters
in weaned piglets (Roth et al., 1992b; Alexopoulos
et al., 2001), whilst no improvement in health was
observed after application of B. toyoi to sows and
their piglets in a previous study (Martelli, 1992).
However, Link and Kovac (2006) noted improve-
ment in nutrient digestibility after feed supplemen-
tation with the same bacterium.
Improved nutrient digestibility resulting from
increased enzymatic activity was also observed
after feeding other probiotic bacteria such as
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. acidophillus, L. ca-
sei and E. faecium (Collington et al., 1990;
Scheuermann, 1993; Bhatt et al., 1995; Kumprecht
and Zobac, 1998) and a significantly higher activ-
ity of carbohydrates was detected in mucosal tis-
sues of pigs (Collington et al., 1990) in response
to such treatment. However, the effects of probi-
otic bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus on growth
parameters were limited to the first stage of fat-
tening in some cases, and thus no positive effect
on growth and feed conversion was detected in
growing-finishing pigs (Pollman et al., 1980; Park
et al., 2001).
Table 4. The effect of probiotics on the occurrence of diarrhoeal diseases in pigs
Genus/species Beneficial effects Nonsignificant beneficial effects
Lactobacillus/L. casei Danek et al. (1990); Mathew et al. (1998); Chen
et al. (2005)
Bifidobacterium/B. lactis Alexopoulos et al. (2001); Shu et al. (2001)
Bacillus/B. subtilis,
B. licheniformis
Adami and Cavazzoni (1999); Kyriakis et al.
(1999); La Ragione et al. (2001); Link et al. (2005) Martelli (1992)
Streptococcus/Sp.Mathew et al. (1998); Alexopoulos et al. (2001);
Chen et al. (2005); Reiter et al. (2006)
Enterococcus/E. faecium
Ushe and Nagy (1985); Roth and Kirchgessner
(1986); Rekiel and Wiecek (1996); Jadamus et al.
(2001); Lodemann et al. (2006)
Kirchheim and Schone (1995)
Escherichis/Avirulent E. coli Melin and Wallgren (2002)
Davidson and Hirsch (1976);
Duval-Iflah et al. (1983); Setia et
al. (2009)
Table 5. The effect of probiotics on the growth performance of piglets
Genus/species Beneficial effects Nonsignificant beneficial effects
Lactobacillus/L. plantarum,
L. acidophillus, L. casei
Collington et al. (1990); Scheuermann
(1993); Bhatt et al. (1995); Kumprecht and
Zobac (1998)
Pollman et al. (1980); Harper et
al. (1983); Lessard and Brissom
(1987); Park et al. (2001)
Bifidobacterium/B. lactis Mathew et al. (1998); Shu et al. (2001) none
Bacillus/B. subtilis, B. licheniformis,
B. toyoi Alexopoulos et al. (2001) none
Streptococcus/Sp.
Mathew et al. (1998); Alexopoulos et al.
(2001); Chen et al. (2005); Scharek et al.
(2005, 2007); Reiter et al. (2006)
none
Enterococcus/E. faecium
Roth and Kirchgessner (1986); Collington et
al. (1990); Rekiel and Wiecek (1996); Jada-
mus et al. (2001); Lodemann et al. (2008)
none
Saccharomyces/S. cerevisiae Mathew et al. (1998) Burnett and Neil (1977); Dusel
et al. (1994)
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
205
S. cerevisiae has been reported to have a varying
influence on pig efficiency. Mathew et al. (1998) ob-
served increased feed intake and body weight gain
of piglets after feed supplementation, but Burnett
and Neil (1977) and Dusel et al. (1994) did not see
any positive effect.
To obtain the highest effect of probiotic prepara-
tions, supplementation of piglets shortly after birth
is recommended. Martin et al. (2009) reported a
beneficial effect of probiotic stimulation of the im-
mune responses in pregnant sows before parturi-
tion. Feeding of probiotics to sows before farrowing
and during lactation and to neonatal piglets caused
a fall in numbers of pathogenic microorganisms
present in sow and piglet faeces, and resulted in the
reduced occurrence of digestive disturbances and
mortality (Danek et al., 1991; Martin et al., 2009).
4.2. Prebiotics
Prebiotics are dietary short-chain carbohydrates
(oligosaccharides), which cannot be digested by
pigs, but are specifically utilizable by intestinal
microflora. They have been referred to as the bi-
fidus factor, because they support the growth and/
or activities of probiotic microorganisms in the gas-
trointestinal tract (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995;
Gibson, 2004; Marinho et al., 2007; Rayes et al.,
2009).
Prebiotic supplementation of the diet influences
volatile fatty acid content (VFA), branched-chain
proportion, lactic acid concentrations and am-
monia concentrations in the gut (Pie et al., 2007).
Increased concentrations of short-chain fatty acids
(SCFA) stimulate natural bacterial activity and pro-
liferation of bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria.
The production of butyrate which is a dominant en-
ergy source for enterocytes also increases (Houdijk
et al., 2002).
Table 6 lists the non-digestible oligosaccharides,
which are used as prebiotics. The mannanoligosac-
charides are important because they modify the
microbial gut ecosystem by binding to the recep-
tors present in the intestinal epithelium, thereby
preventing the colonization of bacterial patho-
gens (Zimmermann et al., 2001; Shim et al., 2005).
Mannanoligosaccharides isolated from the S. cere-
visiae cell wall also have a beneficial effect on the
intestinal microflora (Lyons and Bourne, 1995) and
animal growth (Kumprecht et al., 1994; Kumprecht
and Zobac, 1998; Shim et al., 2005). It was found
that they suppress the growth of E. coli, Salmonella
typhimurium, Clostridium botulinum and C. spo-
rogenes, and conversely stimulate the growth of
B. longum, L. casei, L. acidophillus and L. delbrück-
ei. Lyons and Bourne (1995) reported that manna-
noligosaccharides from the yeast cell wall stimulate
the local immune system by increasing the activi-
ties of macrophages and T-lymphocytes.
Bifidogenic effects of galactooligosaccharides,
fructooligosaccharides and soybeanoligosaccha-
rides have been repeatedly confirmed by many in
vitro and in vivo experiments, where they selec-
tively interacted with the intestinal bacterial eco-
system (Roberfroid, 1998; Smiricky-Tjardes et al.,
2003; Tuohy et al., 2005). Smiricky-Tjardes et al.
(2003) observed an increase in Bifidobacterium and
Lactobacillus genera numbers in the intestine, a
concomitant increase in SCFA concentration and
improved small intestine morphology (Rayes et al.,
2009). Fructoologosaccharides and galactooligosac-
Table 6. Non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDO) used as prebiotics (Grizard and Barhomeuf, 1999; Zimmermann
et al., 2001; Tuohy et al., 2005)
NDO Mode of production
Mannanoligosaccharides enzymatic synthesis from mannose
Galactooligosaccharides trans-galactosylation of lactose with Aspergillus oryzae β-galactosidase
Fructooligosaccharides partial enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin/transfructosylation from saccharose
Soybeanoligosaccharides extraction from soyabean whey
Isomaltooligosaccharides enzymatic hydrolysis of starch/transglucosylation of maltose
Xylooligosaccharides enzymatic hydrolysis of xylan
Lactulose alkali isomeration
Inulin isolation from chicory root
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
206
charides stimulate acetate and lactate production,
thereby reducing faecal Bacteroides, Clostridia and
Fusobacteria shedding in pigs (Gibson et al., 1995;
Zimmermann et al., 2001).
In contrast, Mikkelsen et al. (2003) and Visentini
et al. (2008), while observing significantly increased
numbers of S. cerevisiae, failed to find a stimulating
effect of galactooligosacharides and fructooligosa-
charides on Bifidobacterium sp. growth in weaned
piglets and on the improvement of pig efficiency.
Lactulose, which is formed by lactose isomerisa-
tion, is due to its high prebiotic activity widely used
in the prevention and treatment of enteric disor-
ders in animals and humans. Lactulose cannot be
hydrolyzed by the β-galactosidase of the digestive
tract and hence, it cannot be absorbed from the
small intestine. It passes down to the large intestine
where resident microflora consume it and produce
lactic and/or acetic acid (Gibson, 2004; Bohacenko
et al., 2007). Consequently, it stimulates the growth
and/or activity of indigenous intestinal microflo-
ra, especially of the genera Bifidobacterium and
Lactobacillus, and reduces the activity of proteo-
lytic bacteria. Immobilization of proteolytic bac-
teria results in the reduction of ammonia release
into the outer environment. Pig diets are usually
supplemented with one per cent lactulose (Gibson,
2004; Marinho et al., 2007).
Inulin is present in a number of raw materials
of vegetable origin such as onion, garlic, aspara-
gus, banana and chicory root, which is one of the
richest sources of dietary inulin. Chicory inulin-
type fructans for animal nutrition typically contain
more than 70 per cent of inulin, some flower sug-
ars, organic acids, protein fragments and minerals.
Dietary supplementation with inulin has a positive
effect on SCFA production, sufficient height of in-
testinal villi, stimulation of natural microflora and
improvement of efficiency parameters (Crittenden
and Playne, 1996).
4.3. Synbiotics
A list of the possibilities of how to influence the
intestinal microflora and thus improve the health
condition and growth of pigs would not be com-
plete if we did not mention the combination of pro-
biotics and prebiotics – synbiotics. Preparations
containing probiotics and prebiotics increase the
passage of probiotic bacteria through the upper
part of the intestine and help the colonization of
local receptors in the intestine (Robefroid, 1998;
Bomba et al., 2002; Maxwell et al., 2004).
Some studies have confirmed a significant syn-
ergistic growth-stimulating effect (Kumprecht and
Zobac, 1998; Shim et al., 2005), reducing mortal-
ity and increasing the counts of species that are
components of natural microfloras (Nemcova et al.,
1999; Frece et al., 2009). Furthermore, it was found
that synbiotic preparations increase SCFA produc-
tion (Shim et al., 2007; Bird et al., 2009) and reduce
faecal noxious gas emission (Lee et al., 2009).
Protective effects have been attributed to dif-
ferent combinations. The positive contribution
of maltodextrins and L. paracasei (Bomba et al.,
2002, 2006) or E. faecium (Kumprecht and Zobac,
1998) on increasing the efficiency of piglets, re-
ducting pathogenic E. coli growth in the digestive
tract and their adhesion to intestinal mucosa have
often been observed. Improved efficiency was also
observed after the feeding of animals with biologi-
cal preparations containing L. fermentum, L. brevis,
L. salivarius or E. faecium with lactulose or lactitol
(Bomba et al., 2002; Piva et al., 2005).
Feeding a mixture of fructooligosaccharides and
L. paracasei has been demonstrated to have a stim-
ulating effect on the growth of natural intestinal
microorganisms, to decrease the numbers of unde-
sirable microflora including coliforms, Clostridium
and Enterobacteriaceae and to improve the mor-
phology of intestinal villi (Spencer et al., 1997;
Nemcova et al., 1999; Bomba et al., 2002; Shim et
al., 2005). Moreover, a higher effectiveness of syn-
biotics was shown when they were given to animals
during the preweaning period (Shim et al., 2005).
In the experiments performed by Bird et al. (2009),
proliferation of Bifidobacteria in the intestinal tract
occurred as a consequence of diet supplementation
with B. animalis subsp. lactis and/or B. choerinum
with fructooligosaccharides.
The incorporation of prebiotics with unsaturated
fatty acids also yielded a superior synbiotic effect
(Ringo et al., 1998; Bomba et al., 2002; Bontempo
et al., 2004).
4.4. Organic acids
Besides antimicrobial function, organic acids
and their salts have a beneficial effect on digest-
ibility, nutrient resorption (Roth and Kirchgessner,
1998; De Freitas et al., 2006) and performance of
weaned and growing piglets (Kirchgessner et al.,
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
207
1995; Roth and Kirchgessner, 1998; Partanen and
Mroz, 1999; De Freitas et al., 2006). Antimicrobial
effects can be explained by two mechanisms: First,
by a pH fall below 6 in the stomach, which inhib-
its the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and,
second, the ability of organic acids to penetrate
in their non-dissociated form through the bacte-
rial wall and destroy some specific microorgan-
isms (Eidelsburger et al., 1992; Roth et al., 1992a;
Hansen et al., 2007). Bactericidal or bacteriostatic
effects of organic acids consist above all in a di-
rect effect of the organic acid anions on bacterial
cell walls. This ability is primarily characteristic of
acids with low numbers of carbon atoms in their
molecules, such as formic, acetic, propionic and
lactic acids (Kirchgessner et al., 1992; Roth et al.,
1998; Partanen et al., 2001).
According to their effects, organic acids can be
categorized into two groups. The first group com-
prises lactic, fumaric and citric acids and is char-
acterized by an indirect effect in reducing bacterial
populations by decreasing pH in the stomach. The
second group comprises formic, acetic, propionic
and sorbic acids, and are characterized by a direct
effect of lower pH in the digestive tract on the cell
wall of gram-negative bacteria thereby preventing
their deoxyribonucleic acid replication (Roth et al.,
1992a; Hansen et al., 1997; Castro, 2005).
Furthermore, organic acids contribute to the
stabilization of intestinal microflora due to their
effective biocidal qualities and their ability to im-
prove enzymatic digestion (Kirchgessner et al.,
1995; Roth and Kirchgessner, 1998; Marinho et
al., 2007). The digestion of proteins by pepsin in
the stomach begins when pH is low, while high pH
values reduce enzyme activity. This is associated
with the utilizability of feed minerals because solu-
bility of minerals increases with a decrease in pH
(Kirchgessner et al., 1995; Hansen et al., 2007). For
these reasons, the use of organic acids in piglets is
important because in the first days they suffer from
a post-weaning syndrome associated with a typical
starvation period which is followed by ingestion of
excessive amounts of feed, resulting in mild acidifi-
cation of the stomach chyme. Consequently, higher
pH values cause weakening of the protective barrier
function of the stomach against ingested bacteria
and leads to intensive bacterial propagation in the
small and large intestine (Castro 2005; De Freitas
et al., 2006; Marinho et al., 2007).
Organic acids cause a decline in the number
of pathogenic microorganisms such as E. coli
in the stomach and small intestine (Kluge et al.,
2006; Hansen et al., 2007). After application of
organic acids in previous studies, a significant de-
crease in the number of microorganisms (E. coli,
Bacteroidaceae, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus sp. and
Bifidobacterium sp.) occurred in the duodenum, je-
junum and ileum (Gedek et al., 1992b; Kirchgessner
et al., 1992), whilst in the caecum and colon, the
microflora was not greatly affected by the ingested
organic acids (Gedek et al., 1992b). In vitro studies
have shown that formic acid can inhibit the growth
of pathogenic bacteria. Lactic acid was most effec-
tive in this regard, whereas the effect of acetic acid
and propionic acid was low (Gedek et al., 1992b;
Kirchgessner et al., 1992).
The effect of organic acids is initiated by their
addition to the feed. Antibacterial and antifun-
gal effects are elicited by a decrease in the feed
pH (Eidelsburger et al., 1992; Castro 2005), which
contributes to feed preservation. Acids in powder
form are most suitable for preservation of feeds
(Overland et al., 2008).
Feed acidifiers commonly used in animal nutri-
tion, usually based on formic acid, are effective
even when their proportion in a diet is low (less
than 10 grams per kilogram; Eidelsburger et al.,
1992; Gedek et al., 1992a; Partanen et al., 2002,
2007). Even though formic acid alone is an efficient
acidifier; it is often combined with other organic
acids such as sorbic acid (Kirchgessner et al., 1995),
fumaric acid (Gedek et al., 1992b), citric, propionic
and benzoic acids (Partanen and Mroz, 1999) so
as to increase its effect. The antimicrobial effects
of different organic acids vary greatly and depend
on their concentration and pH. Specific effects of
different organic acids towards different bacteria
have been observed. It is necessary to note that an
increased intake of organic acids can cause a reduc-
tion in feed intake, body weight gain and general
efficiency of young pigs (Roth and Kirchgessner,
1998; Partanen et al., 2007).
Partanen et al. (2001) documented that formic
acid tended to decrease bacterial nitrogen in differ-
ent parts of the small intestine in pigs and improved
apparent ileal digestibility of protein sources, cer-
tain essential amino-acids, lipids, calcium and
phosphorus. The results showed a similar or higher
effect in comparison with that of antibiotic growth
promoters. The growth efficiency of market pigs
was significantly increased by the addition of for-
mic acid and this effect was further enhanced by
combination of formic acid with potassium sorbate
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
208
(Partanen et al., 2002). Piva et al. (2002) supple-
mented piglet diet with a combination of citric, fu-
maric and malic acids. A beneficial effect of organic
acids on the growth performance, feed intake and
general health condition was observed. Biagi et al.
(2006) described a favourable effect of gluconic acid
on intestinal microflora, morphology of intestinal
villi and general condition of piglets.
Positive combinatory effects can be achieved with
lactic, formic, fumaric, benzoic and sorbic acids by
suppressing E. coli, Salmonella and Enterococcus in
the intestinal content. Several studies documented
an improvement in growth efficiency have been
reported in the literature (Knarreborg et al., 2002;
Franco et al., 2005; Overland et al., 2008; Missotten
et al., 2009).
A combination of organic acids with highly con-
centrated extracts, i.e., essential oils, shows syn-
ergistic activity. The bacterial cell wall damaging
effect of essential oils permits the organic acids to
enter. This effect is ascribed to thymol and carvac-
rol from plant extracts (Varley, 2002; Namkung et
al., 2004; Kommera et al., 2006).
The significance of organic acids can also be as-
sessed from the standpoint of sensory attributes.
The addition of organic acids to diets can reduce
the concentration of skatole present in the faeces
and thereby reduce the boar taint problem of the
meat (Claus et al., 1994; Babol and Squires, 1995;
Bonneau et al., 2000).
4.5. Zinc oxide
Zinc is a component of several enzymes, is in-
volved in their activation and is thus central to bi-
ochemical processes occurring in the body. It is a
significant dietetic factor that regulates amino-acid
and protein metabolism (Ou et al., 2007; Wang et al.,
2009). Furthermore, it contributes to stabilisation of
sensitive intestinal mucosa, diversity and functions
of bacterial microflora, inhibits the growth of some
pathogens and enhances the immune responses of
the body against infections (Hahn and Baker, 1993;
Srivastava et al., 1995; Case and Carlson, 2002;
Hojberg et al., 2005; Han and acker, 2009). Some
zinc compounds such as zinc sulphate, zinc lysine
and zinc methionine stimulate the activity of mac-
rophages (Van Heugten et al., 2003).
Zinc oxide has been included in piglet wean-
ing diets for many years. High doses of zinc oxide
(2500 to 3000 mg Zn/kg of feed) added to feed
have been used as a preventative measure against
PWD. Feeding zinc to weaned piglets has been
demonstrated to reduce diarrhoea incidence and
to improve growth rates (Hahn and Baker, 1993;
Scott and Koski, 2000; Ou et al., 2007; Wang et
al., 2009).
However, the mechanisms of zinc action on growth
promotion and against diarrhoea are still not exactly
known. Several hypotheses have been advanced to
explain the effect of zinc oxide on weaned piglets.
According to Srivastava et al. (1995) zinc is impor-
tant for maintaining the integrity of the cell mem-
brane, probably via translocation of redox-active
metal ions, which can be responsible for inducing
peroxidative damage at the target site. Higher cell-
mediated immunity in rats fed with zinc has been
observed as far back as in the study of Chandra and
Au (1980). Liao et al. (2008) and Rhoads and Wu
(2009) ascribed the decrease in the incidence of
diarrhoea and the increase in average body weight
gain in piglets to the regulation of cellular signalling
pathways. Another hypothesis regarding zinc oxide
activity was formulated by Wang et al. (2009) who
assumed that the beneficial effect of zinc oxide may
be related to its involvement in protein expression
associated with glutathione metabolism and oxida-
tive stress in the gut.
Dietary supplementation with zinc oxide has a
beneficial effect on the stability of the intestinal
microflora of weaned piglets (Jensen Waern et
al., 1998; Huang et al., 1999; Katouli et al., 1999;
Ow usu-Asiedu et al., 2003) and morpholog y of
their small intestine – increased height of villi in
comparison with the depths of crypts (Katouli et al.,
1999; Castillo et al., 2008; Hedemann et al., 2009).
Zinc deficiency can contribute to intestinal villus
ulceration and to the damage of the immune bar-
rier function (Hennig et al., 1992; Wapnir, 2000;
Roselli et al., 2005).
Furthermore, zinc can decrease the virulence
of some microorganisms such as Staphylococcus
aureus (Walsh et al., 1994), Salmonella typhi and
Aeromonas hydrophylia (Fiteau and Tomkins, 1994).
A comparable zinc content, which positively af-
fected microbial environment of the intestine, also
reduced the intensity of ETEC-elicited diarrhoea
(Mores et al., 1998; Bosi et al., 2003; Li et al., 2006).
Roselli et al. (2005) also observed a beneficial effect
of glutamate zinc on the course of infection.
The beneficial effect of Zn2+ on the activity of
some enzymes present in the pancreatic and in-
testinal juices, mucin production, digestion, nu-
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
209
trient absorption (Hedemann and Jensen, 2004;
Hedemann et al., 2009) and intestinal growth of
weanling piglets is exerted through increasing IGF-1
(insulin like growth factor) and IGF-IR (IGF recep-
tor) expression in the small-intestinal mucosa (Li
et al., 2006).
The stimulating effect of zinc oxide is best har-
nessed during the first two weeks after weaning
when the assumed protective effect occurs (Katouli
et al., 1999). An adverse effect of a long-term eleva-
tion in Zn2+ content in piglet faeces can constitute a
potential environmental hazard (Carter et al., 2002;
Bosi et al., 2003).
4.6. Plant extracts
Plants and their extracts had been used in tra-
ditional medicine for centuries. After the ban on
antibiotic growth promoters, natural feed addi-
tives (plants and spices) started to be used as al-
ternatives in broiler and pig diets (Borovan, 2004;
Hernandez et al., 2004). Plant extracts and essen-
tial oils have been exploited in animal nutrition,
particularly for their antimicrobial (Namkung et
al., 2004; Brambilla and De Filippis, 2005; Costa et
al., 2007), anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative (Liu
et al., 2008), and anti-parasite properties (Magi et
al., 2006). It was found for some natural materials
that due to their immunological and pharmaco-
logical qualities, these can have prophylactic ef-
fects against a series of enteric disorders (Laine
et al., 2008).
The antibacterial activity of essential oils depends
on their chemical composition and concentration
(Russo et al., 1998). The existing data shows that
their effect depends on the type of plant extract,
correct combination and appropriate dosage
(Oetting et al., 2006; Utiyama et al., 2006). A syn-
ergistic effect of plant extracts and organic acids
has been also demonstrated (Namkung et al., 2004;
Kommera et al., 2006).
Garlic extract is generally considered as the
most effective antimicrobial agent of plant ori-
gin (Arnault et al., 2003) and in vitro studies have
shown the antibacterial effects of thyme (Azaz et
al., 2004), oregano, cloves, cinnamon (Carson et al.,
2006) and juniper (Pepeljnjak et al., 2005).
Regarding the prevention of diarrhoeal diseases,
it is important to focus on the extracts and essential
oils that inhibit the proliferation of E. coli which
is a common cause of intestinal diseases in piglets
(Laine et al., 2008). Khan et al. (2009) reported that
pathogenic strains of E. coli are sensitive to the fol-
lowing plant extracts: Acacia nilotica, Syzygium ar-
omaticum and Cinnamum zeylanicum. However,
a major disadvantage of plant extracts lies in the
fact that their compositions are unstable (Bomba
et al., 2006). This is due to the influence of many
factors such as climate, season, harvesting method
and others (Borovan, 2004). Probably for this rea-
son there is a multiplicity of controversial results
Table 7. Plant extracts in pig nutrition
Plant e effect observed Reference
Oregano, cinnamon and Mexican
pepper
decreased ileum total microbial mass, increased the
lactobacilli : enterobacteria ratio
Manzanilla et al.
(2004)
Sangrovit (alkaloids of Macleaya
cordata)
increased body weight gain and feed conversion by growing
pigs Borovan (2004)
Cinnamon, thyme, oregano inhibited pathogenic E. coli in piglet intestine Namkung et al.
(2004)
yme, clove, oregano, eugenol
and carvacrol improved pig performance Oetting et al. (2006)
Clove, oregano growth performance of pigs close to pigs fed antimicrobials Costa et al. (2007)
Specific blend of herbal extract increase ADG, decrease feed conversion ratio in finishing
pigs Liu et al. (2008)
Aged garlic extract, allicin improved body weight, morphological properties of intestine
villi and non-specific defense mechanisms of piglets Tatara et al. (2008)
Camellia sinensis decrease of clostridia and enterococci counts in the faeces of
piglets Zanchi et al. (2008)
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
210
obtained in different scientific studies examining
the effect of these substances in animal nutrition.
Accordingly, it is necessary to select effective
plant extracts, standardize them and investigate
a potential synergistic benefit deriving from their
combination (Budzinski et al., 2000; Oetting et al.,
2006).
5. Clay minerals
Another possibility for PWD prevention is the
use of natural and modified clay minerals. Clay
minerals, designated as silicates in systemic min-
eralogy, are stratified clay minerals formed by a net
of tetrahedral and octahedral layers. They contain
molecules of silicon, aluminium and oxygen. The
layers can be interconnected by a system of hy-
drogen bonds or a group of cations, and this space
is termed an interlayer. Phyllosilicates are classi-
fied into the main groups according to the type of
the layers, interlayer content, charge of the lay-
ers and chemical formulas. The natural extracted
clays (bentonite, zeolite, kaolin etc.) are a mix-
ture of various clay minerals differing in chemical
composition (Velebil, 2009). The best-known are
montmorillonite (MMT), smectite, illite, kaolinite,
biotite and clinoptilolite.
5.1. Adsorption capacity and effects of clay
minerals
A common feature of clay minerals is a high sorp-
tion capacity determined by their stratified struc-
ture. Within the layers of these clays, substitution of
other metal ions for silicon or aluminium can occur
resulting in a net negative charge on the surface of
the clay platelet. This charge imbalance is offset
by hydrated cations, the predominant ones being
Na+ and Ca2+. These interlaminar cations can be
exchanged with other metal cations. In aqueous
solutions, water is intercalated into the interlami-
nar space of clay, leading to an expansion of the
minerals (Ma and Guo, 2008).
Due to their sorption capacity and absence of
primary toxicity, claystone minerals are regarded as
a simple and effective tool for chemical prevention
of a series of toxic materials, not only in the envi-
ronment, but also in the living bodies. Clays added
to a diet can bind and immobilize toxic materials
in the gastro-intestinal tract of animals and largely
reduce their biological availability and toxicity for
the body (Phillips, 1999; Lemke et al., 2001; Phillips
et al., 2002; Trckova et al., 2004). Multiple studies
have confirmed the decontaminating properties of
clay minerals. They can bind:
– aflatoxins (Phillips et al., 1987, 1988; Lindemann
et al., 1993; Schell et al., 1993a,b; Phillips et al.,
2002; Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2002; Huebner and
Phillips, 2003; Rizzi et al., 2003; Shi et al., 2005,
2007; Maciel et al., 2007; Magnoli et al., 2008;
Nguyen et al., 2008),
– plant metabolites (Dominy et al., 2004),
– heavy metals (Hassen et al., 2003; Katsumata et
al., 2003; Lin et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2004; Yu et
al., 2005, 2008; Abbes et al., 2007),
– toxins (Knezevich and Tadic, 1994).
Kaolin-based medication is used for the therapy
of diarrhoea and digestive disorders in human med-
icine (Heimann, 1984; Madkour et al., 1993; Kasi
et al., 1995; Knezevich, 1998; Gebesh et al., 1999;
Narkeviciute et al., 2002; Gonzalez et al., 2004).
The ability of clay minerals to allow adsorption
of pathogens and enterotoxins to the surface layer
by means of hydrogen bonds or if needed, into the
interlayer sheets and to reduce their numbers in
the intestinal tract has been demonstrated in vivo
(Trckova et al. 2009) and in vitro (Novakova, 1968;
Brouillard and Rateau, 1989; Ramu et al., 1997; Hu
et al., 2002; Hu and Xia, 2006). The question of
how much clay minerals reduce the occurrence and
severity of PWD in piglets due to their adsorption
qualities is still under discussion.
The extent of adsorption is determined by the
chemistry of the clay minerals, exchangeable ions,
the surface properties (Williams et al., 2008) and
the fine structure of clay particles (Hassen et al.,
2003). An important role is also played by pH,
dosage and exposure time (Brouillard and Rateau,
1989). Hence, the resulting effect of clay mineral
treatment is preconditioned by these factors. There
is an abundance of published data which indicate
that the dietary use of clay minerals reduces the
incidence and decreases the severity and the dura-
tion of diarrhoea in pigs (Castro and Elias, 1978;
Said et al., 1980; Vrzgula et al., 1982; Bartko et
al., 1983; Brouillard and Rateau, 1989; Ramu et
al., 1997; Narkeviciute et al., 2002; Dominy et al.,
2004; Gonzalez et al., 2004; Martinez et al., 2004;
Papaioannou et al., 2004; Castro, 2005).
The improvement of clinical manifestations of
diarrhoeal diseases can also be explained by the
elimination of various factors that are associated
Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224 Review Article
211
with the occurrence of these diseases in piglets,
primarily at the period of weaning. These factors
include intestinal hypersensitivity to feed antigens
or weaning-induced changes leading to the mani-
festation of malabsorption syndrome caused by a
reduction in digestive enzyme activity, which can
both result in a predisposition to infectious enteri-
tis (Wilson et al., 1989; Papaioannou, et al., 2004,
2005). The use of clay minerals retards the rate of
digestive passage through the intestines and their
ability to absorb water results in more compact and
better shaped faeces.
The capacity of clay minerals to immobilize anti-
nutritional components in feeds (Albengres et al.,
1985; Ma and Guo, 2008), reduce the number of
pathogenic microorganisms and depress the ac-
tivity of bacterial enzymes in the small intestinal
digesta (Gonzalez et al., 2004; Xia et al. 2004, 2005;
Trckova et al., 2009), prevents irritation and dam-
age and improves the morphological characteristics
of mucosa (Albengres et al., 1985; Xia et al. 2004,
2005; Trckova et al., 2009).
e supplementation of a diet with one to three
per cent of clay-based adsorbents is generally rec-
ommended. Nevertheless, diets supplemented with
a higher proportion of such adsorbents are also vol-
untarily ingested by animals (Castro and Elias, 1978;
Vrzgula et al., 1982; Bartko et al., 1983; Castro and
Iglesias, 1989), and do not exert any adverse effect
on their growth and performance (Castro and Elias,
1978; Castro and Iglesias, 1989). Many studies have
documented significant improvements in body weight
gain and feed conversion after supplementation of
a diet with clay minerals (Pond et al., 1981; Vrzgula
et al., 1982; Bartko et al., 1983; Pond and Yen, 1987;
Pond et al., 1988; Castro and Iglesias, 1989; Cabezas
et al., 1991; Papaioannou et al., 2004, 2005; Chen et
al., 2005; Kolacz et al., 2005; Alexopoulos et al., 2007;
Prvulovic et al., 2007; Trckova et al., 2009).
5.2. Modified forms of clay minerals
Modification of clay minerals by the addition of
Cu2+ can improve their antibacterial activity (Ye et
al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2004; Xia et al. 2004; 2005;
Hu and Xia, 2006), which is then a result of two
mechanisms: one is electrostatic attraction which
promotes the adherence of E. coli to the surface of
clay minerals and the other is the slow release of
Cu2+, which can kill bacteria (Xia et al., 2004). For
example, Hu and Xia (2006) reported that whilst
calcium MMT, sodium MMT and acid activated
MMT showed some ability to reduce bacterial plate
counts by 13 to 37 per cent, their modified cupric
containing forms reduced this number by 96 to 99
per cent (Hu and Xia, 2006).
Xia et al. (2004) reported that Cu2+-enriched
MMT significantly decreased the frequency of
diarrhoea by up to 72 per cent and significantly
increased the villus height and the villus height
to crypt depth ratio in the jejunal mucosa by 19
and 37 per cent, respectively. Specific physical and
chemical modifications – nanocomposites (Lin et
al., 2004; Xu et al., 2004; Shi et al., 2005, 2007; Yu
et al., 2008), and complexes with organic materials
(Xu et al., 1997; Herrera et al., 2000, 2004; Koh and
Dixon, 2001), are characterized by much higher ad-
sorptive abilities than other regular clay minerals.
The effect of clay minerals can also be reinforced by
the addition of other components such as charcoal
or antioxidants (Bonna et al., 1991).
6. CONCLUSIONS
The body of literature on the characteristics of
different alternative components intended as an-
tibiotic growth promoters strongly argues that
these can be used as effective means of prevent-
ing diarrhoea in weaned piglets. The modification
of intestinal microflora composition via probiotic
and prebiotic preparations and providing the body
with species of microorganisms which have a ben-
eficial effect on the intestinal tract stimulates the
immune system and decreases the risk of diarrhoea.
Altering the acidity of the intestinal content, sta-
bilization of the intestinal mucosa and supporting
the digestive process contribute to the maintenance
of good intestinal health. Due to their adsorption
and detoxifying capabilities, non-conventional feed
supplements in the form of clay minerals appear to
be effective agents for protection against infection.
Provided the recommended dosage is observed, the
above mentioned raw materials can be used as suit-
able alternatives to antibiotics for the prevention of
diarrhoeal diseases and the enhancement of piglet
growth in the crucial period of weaning.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mrs. Zdenka Gregorova
from the Veterinary Research Institute in Brno for
Review Article Veterinarni Medicina, 55, 2010 (5): 199–224
212
technical support in obtaining scientific literature
and Ing. Ludmila Faldikova, CSc. for translation
of the manuscript.
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Received: 2010–01–21
Accepted after corrections: 2010–05–11
Corresponding Author:
Prof. MVDr. Ivo Pavlik, CSc., Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Tel. +420 533 331 601, Fax +420 541 211 229, E-mail: pavlik@vri.cz, http://www.vri.czi
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Dioctahedral smectite (DS) a natural adsorbent clay capable of adsorbing viruses, bacteria, and other intestinal irritants in vitro, is claimed to possess beneficial “antidiarrheal” properties. This study tested the effect of DS on the duration of diarrhea and the frequency and amount of liquid stools. Ninety well‐nourished boys, aged 3–24 months, with acute watery diarrhea and mild, moderate, or severe dehydration were included in a randomized double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. After initial rehydration, they received DS or placebo (1.5 g freshly dissolved in 50 ml of water, four times daily for 3 days) along with oral rehydration solution (ORS) and adequate feeding. The clinical characteristics of both groups were comparable on admission. Patients in the smectite group had a significantly shorter duration of diarrhea (mean ± SD, 54 ± 16 vs. 73 ± 13 h) and significantly fewer stools (2.6 ± 0.8 vs. 3 ± 0.7 on second day; 1.9 ± 0.7 vs. 2.4 ± 0.7 on third day; and 11.3 ± 3.2 vs. 13.8 ± 3 overall). The amount of liquid stools was not significantly reduced. Weight gain at 24, 48, and 72 h and on recovery was significantly higher in the smectite group despite the comparable fluid and food intake in both groups. These results suggest a beneficial effect of DS in shortening the duration of diarrhea and reducing the frequency of liquid stools in children rehydrated with ORS.
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Recently, a great interest has been put in increasing more the efficiency of the animal production. For this reason, together with the genetic improvements, it has been searched that the animals use at maximum the nutrients of the feeds to attain better growth and lower conversion. Along with this, great attention has been paid to the health of the animals, the effect of the rearing on the environment and security for the human being according to the feeds consumed. In regards to the formulation of feedstuffs, the trend is to decrease the excretion of nitrogen and phosphor-us in the feces and urine, while in regards to growth promoters, the primacy of those of antibiotic origin is questioned due to the risk of provoking resistance to pathogen microorganisms and new alternatives are proposed, mainly of natural type to reduce or eliminate them totally. The solutions envisaged nowadays in respect to the use of additives in the production of monogastric animals are addressed primarily to the substitution of the growth promoters of antibiotic origin and to the decrease of the environmental deterioration. Some of them are analyzed here such as the organic acids, the phytogenic additives and the natural zeolite feasible to be used in Cuba and other countries as efficacious and innocuous response to achieve acceptable efficiencies in the production of monogastric animals.
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