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Osmolality and pH of sport and other drinks available in Switzerland

Authors:
  • Consulting Colombani GmbH

Abstract

Sports drinks are widely used during exercise to avoid or delay the depletion of the body's carbohydrate stores and the onset of dehydration. Both the osmolality and the pH of a sports drink can infl uence its effectiveness and its impact on mouth health. Unfor- tunately, data about osmolality and pH are usually missing on the labels of commercially available sports drinks and are unknown in the case of homemade sports drinks. Therefore, we analyzed the osmolality and pH of 35 sports and recovery drinks, as well as that of 53 other beverages usually consumed in Switzerland. The osmolality of the analyzed sports and recovery drinks varied over a relatively wide range (157-690 mmol/kg) with the homemade sports drinks being at the lower end and some commercial recov- ery drinks at the higher end. The osmolality of some commercial sports drinks, which are designed to be consumed during exercise, tended to be in the hypertonic range, although such drinks should rather be slightly hypotonic. The pH of nearly all analyzed sports drinks was in the range of about 3 to 4, which is of some concern because of the potential of low pH solutions to erode teeth. Al- though some of the tested sports drinks did not have an optimal osmolality, issues like individual tolerance and fl avor preference of the drinks must also be considered before generally discourag- ing their consumption. Future generations of sports drinks should, however, also address the pH of the drinks to minimize their im- pact on dental erosion.
Mettler S. et al.92
Originalartikel
Samuel Mettler1, Carmen Rusch2, Paolo C. Colombani1
1 Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, ETH Zurich
2 Institute for Human Movement Sciences and Sport, ETH Zurich
Osmolality and pH of sport and other drinks
available in Switzerland
Zusammenfassung
Sportgetränke werden von Sportlern genutzt, um die Entleerung
der körpereigenen Kohlenhydratreserven zu verhindern oder zu
verzögern, und um einer Dehydratation entgegenzuwirken. Die
Osmolalität und der pH von Sportgetränken können sowohl die
Wirksamkeit wie auch die Zahngesundheit beein ussen. Leider
werden von den Herstellern meistens keine Angaben über Osmola-
lität und pH gemacht und im Falle von selbst hergestellten Sportge-
tränken sind die Daten ebenfalls unbekannt. Wir machten deshalb
eine Marktübersicht über die Osmolalität und den pH von 35
kommerziell erhältlichen oder selbst hergestellten Sportgetränken
sowie von 53 weiteren Getränken, die in der Schweiz konsumiert
werden. Die Osmolalität der analysierten Sportgetränke variierte
über einen relativ grossen Bereich von 157–690 mmol/kg, wobei
die selbst gemachten Sportgetränke eher am unteren Ende und
einige kommerzielle Regenerationsgetränke am oberen Ende der
Skala zu nden waren. Die Osmolalität einiger Sportgetränke, die
für den Konsum während der sportlichen Aktivität konzipiert sind,
lag tendenziell im hypertonen Bereich, obwohl diese Getränke
idealerweise eher leicht hypoton sein sollten. Der pH fast aller
Sportgetränke war im Bereich von 3–4. Dies ist nicht ideal, da
Getränke mit tiefen pH-Werten das Potenzial haben, den Zahn-
schmelz aufzuweichen. Obwohl einige Sportgetränke eine nicht
ideale Osmolalität aufwiesen, sollten weitere Faktoren wie die in-
dividuelle Toleranz oder geschmackliche Präferenzen berücksich-
tigt werden, bevor man von einem Sportgetränk abrät. Zukünftige
Generationen von Sportgetränken sollten jedoch die Problematik
der tiefen pH-Werte angehen, um das zahnerodierende Potenzial
zu reduzieren.
Abstract
Sports drinks are widely used during exercise to avoid or delay
the depletion of the body’s carbohydrate stores and the onset of
dehydration. Both the osmolality and the pH of a sports drink can
in uence its effectiveness and its impact on mouth health. Unfor-
tunately, data about osmolality and pH are usually missing on the
labels of commercially available sports drinks and are unknown
in the case of homemade sports drinks. Therefore, we analyzed
the osmolality and pH of 35 sports and recovery drinks, as well as
that of 53 other beverages usually consumed in Switzerland. The
osmolality of the analyzed sports and recovery drinks varied over
a relatively wide range (157–690 mmol/kg) with the homemade
sports drinks being at the lower end and some commercial recov-
ery drinks at the higher end. The osmolality of some commercial
sports drinks, which are designed to be consumed during exercise,
tended to be in the hypertonic range, although such drinks should
rather be slightly hypotonic. The pH of nearly all analyzed sports
drinks was in the range of about 3 to 4, which is of some concern
because of the potential of low pH solutions to erode teeth. Al-
though some of the tested sports drinks did not have an optimal
osmolality, issues like individual tolerance and avor preference
of the drinks must also be considered before generally discourag-
ing their consumption. Future generations of sports drinks should,
however, also address the pH of the drinks to minimize their im-
pact on dental erosion.
Introduction
Sports performance can be impaired by many causes; two domi-
nant factors leading to premature fatigue are the depletion of the
body’s carbohydrate stores and the onset of dehydration result-
ing from the loss of water and electrolytes in sweat [12]. Fatigue
caused by energy depletion and/or dehydration can be postponed
by the ingestion of sports drinks whose main purposes are to
prevent dehydration, to supply energy, and to replace electrolytes
[12]. Today, sports drinks are some of the best researched food
items and there is a consensus about the optimal composition of
such drinks: sports drinks should contain water, carbohydrates as
an energy source, sodium for particular situations, and a de ned
osmolality [2, 4].
The osmolality of a beverage can in uence the rate of gastric
emptying and intestinal water ux [12, 20]. Hypotonic solutions
promote gastric emptying and water absorption from the proximal
small intestine [10, 12, 13], whereas hypertonic solutions slow
gastric emptying and uid absorption, and probably also promote
the occurrence of exercise-related abdominal pain (also called a
stitch; [10, 15]). It is also reported that the perceived pleasantness
of uids increases with decreasing osmolality [1], a circumstance
that may promote voluntary drinking.
Athletes consume sports drinks on a daily basis and the ingested
amount can easily reach more than 1 L per day. Since sports drinks
are usually ingested a sip at a time, the drinks’ residue remains in
the oral cavity for quite some time. This can in uence tooth health
because beverages such as sports drinks may have a low pH value,
which in turn is related to dental erosion [14]. Indeed, different
studies have revealed the potential of commercial sports drinks to
erode teeth [3, 8, 14, 19].
While information on the carbohydrate type and content are
normally displayed on the food package label of sports drinks,
data on osmolality and pH are usually missing. As an alternative
Schweizerische Zeitschrift für «Sportmedizin und Sporttraumatologie» 54 (3), 92–95, 2006
93
Osmolality and pH of sport and other drinks available in Switzerland
to commercially available sports drinks, recommendations about
th e pro duc tio n of homem ade s por ts drinks a re in c ircu lat ion and, a t
least in Switzerland, many athletes mix their own sports drinks us-
ing a selection of basic ingredients including water, sugar, fructose,
glucose, maltodextrin, and syrup or fruit juices. Theoretically, the
osmolality of such homemade drinks could be calculated as long
as the exact amount of all ingredients is known. However, as soon
as natural products like syrup, fruit juices or carbohydrates of un-
de ned chain length like maltodextrin are used, the calculation of
the osmolality becomes dif cult.
To close the knowledge gap on the osmolality and pH data of
sports drinks, we conducted a study to analyze both the osmolal-
ity and pH of many commercially available and homemade sports
drinks. For comparison, we also analyzed a selection of other
beverages commonly consumed in Switzerland.
Methods
Thirty- ve commercially available and homemade sports drinks,
8 mineral waters, 19 soft drinks, 17 fruit juices or fruit drinks, and
9 alcoholic beverages were purchased in local shops in the Zurich
area or obtained from local distributors in November 2005. The
carbohydrate content of a beverage was taken from the food label;
osmolality and pH were analyzed in our laboratory. The ingredi-
ents used to prepare the homemade sports drinks are given in the
results section of this paper.
All beverages were analyzed a couple of days after purchase and
always before the expiry date. Before analysis, sparkling beverages
were shaken until no gas bubbles were seen in the beverages, and
beverages sold as powder were prepared according to the manufac-
turer instructions using a precision laboratory scale (Mettler PM
3000, Nänikon-Uster, ZH, Switzerland) and deionized water as a
solvent (the difference from tap water is about 3 mmol/kg).
Osmolality was measured by freezing point depression (Os-
mometer 2020, Advanced Instruments, Norwood, MA, USA) and
pH with a pH meter (Model 632, Metrohm, Herisau, AI, Switzer-
land). Both analyzers were calibrated according to the manufac-
turer’s instructions before measurements were taken. Measure-
ments of osmolality were done in duplicate and only the mean
values are presented. The mean coef cient of variation for the
duplicate measurements was 0.009.
Results
The carbohydrate content, the osmolality and the pH of the differ-
ent sports drinks are presented in Ta ble 1 and data of other bever-
ages are given in Ta b le 2 in alphabetic order.
Discussion
The osmolality of the analyzed sports drinks varied over a rela-
tively wide range with the homemade drinks being at the lower
end (Table 1). In general, osmolality increases with increasing
total carbohydrate content, but it is also strongly in uenced by the
proportion of monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides.
The refor e, o smo lal ity d oes not direc tly dep end o n th e ca rb ohyd rate
content. Ethanol is another substance that strongly increases os-
molality (see alcoholic beverages in Table 2 ). Actually, the assess-
ment of sports drinks is multifaceted. The parameters of gastric
emptying and intestinal absorption, for example, are in uenced by
different factors like the volume of uid, energy density, exercise
intensity, mental stress or osmolality [2, 12, 13]. However, in the
following we will focus on osmolality.
The idea behind using the term isotonic in the context of bever-
ages is to communicate that a beverage contains the same number
of osmotic active substances per unit of mass as blood, whose
osmolality is normally regulated around 280–290 mmol/kg [17].
According to the Swiss government decree on specialty food [5]
Physical
state at Carbohydrate Osmolality
purchase [g/10 0 g] [mmol/kg] pH
Commercially available sports drinks
Gatorade Mandarine Liquid 6.0 348 3.3
Gatorade Green Apple Liquid 6.0 362 3.2
Gatorade Red Orange Liquid 6.0 350 3.2
Gatorade Arctic Snow Liquid 6.0 353 3.4
Gatorade Orange Powder 6.0 297 3.0
Gatorade Citron Powder 6.0 297 3.1
Isostar Fast Hydration Liquid 6.7 301 3.9
Isostar Hydrate+
Perform Citron Liquid 6.7 322 3.8
Isostar Hydrate+Perform Powder 7.0 271 3.8
Isostar Long Energy Powder 15.1 260 3.4
M-Isodrink Powder 8.2 289 3.0
PowerBar PowerGel
(diluted 1:4) Gel 12.8 340 3.7
PowerBar Performance
Sports Drink Orange Liquid 4.9 302 3.7
PowerBar Performance
Sports Drink Orange Powder 6.6 295 3.8
Powerade Mountain Blast Liquid 8.2 391 3.5
Powerade Orange Liquid 8.2 346 3.5
Rivi Marathon Powder 5.0 210 3.2
Sponser Hypotonic Powder 5.0 238 3.5
Sponser Isotonic
Red orange Powder 7.0 312 3.1
Sponser Liquid Energy
(diluted 1:4) Gel 15.0 533 6.2
Sportvital Energy
Formula Powder 4.1 214 4.4
Sportvital Quick
Energy Gel (diluted 1:4) Gel 12.0 291 3.9
Ver o t Isotonic Tropical Powder 5.2 263 3.4
Vittel Action Liquid 5.5 294 4.0
Home-made sports drinks
Drink 1: Peppermint tea 1 L
Sucrose 30 g, Maltodextrin* 50 g,
NaCl 1.5 g 7.8 184 6.9
Drink 2: Peppermint tea 1 L
Fructose 30 g, Maltodextrin* 50 g,
NaCl 1.5 g 7.8 264 7.1
Drink 3: Tap water 1 L
Syrup raspberry 30 g,
Maltodextrin* 50 g, NaCl 1.5 g 7.3 157 3.4
Drink 4: Tap water 1 L
Syrup raspberry 30 g,
Maltodextrin* 90 g, NaCl 1.5 g 11.1 186 3.4
Drink 5: Tap water 1 L
Sucrose 15 g, Fructose 15 g,
Maltodextrin* 50 g, NaCl 1.5 g 7.8 215 6.3
Commercially available recovery drinks
Isostar Recovery Powder 13.9 508 6.5
PowerBar Proteinplus
Recovery Drink
Chocolate Powder 18.0 657 6.4
Sponser Recovery Drink Powder 15.7 690 4.2
Sponser Regeneration
Competition Liquid 15.0 427 3.8
Sportvital Regeneration
Quadra Pro Powder 9.1 373 6.1
Ver o t Recovery
Chocolate Powder 16.0 600 6.6
* For all home-made drinks Maltodextrin 100 (Sponser Sport Food,
Wollerau, Switzerland) was used.
Tab l e 1: Carbohydrate content, osmolality and pH of sports drinks avail-
able in Switzerland in alphabetical order. All data refer to the ready-to-
drink beverage.
Mettler S. et al.94
a beverage for persons with increased energy and nutrient needs
can be declared as «isotonic» when its osmolarity is in the range
of 250–340 mmol/L1. This leads to two problems. First, this legal
use of the term «isotonic» for sports drinks with an osmolarity
of up to 340 mmol/L is misleading, because osmolalities above
290 mmol/kg already promote initial water secretion into the intes-
tinal lumen [11]. Second and contrary to widespread belief, even
the really isotonic beverages (around 280 and 290 mmol/kg) are
not the ones that are absorbed the fastest. This fact should already
become evident when considering that per de nition there is a
water ux from hypotonic solutions in direction to the hypertonic
counterpart and along the osmotic gradient. In the case of bever-
ages, this means that water from hypotonic beverages is pulled
into the circulation, which represents the hypertonic compartment.
This pulling force is, by de nition, not present when two solutions
are isotonic to each other. Indeed, it is suggested that intestinal
water absorption rates are higher with hypotonic solutions com-
pared with isotonic solutions [10, 13]. The optimal osmolality for
a sports drink has, therefore, been de ned to be in the slightly
hypotonic range between 200 and 250 mmol/L [13].
As there is evidence that not only uid absorption, but also pal-
atability and intestinal tolerance tend to be better with hypotonic
beverages [1, 12, 13, 15], it is surprising that some commercial
sports drinks were rather high in the hypertonic range. Some
sports drinks had osmolalities of more than 350 mmol/kg. If a
sports drink is to be consumed during exercise, when the risk of
gastrointestinal discomfort is higher than at rest, an osmolality in
the range of 200–250 mmol/kg would be more suitable. On the
other hand, a hypertonic drink usually does not cause discomfort
when ingested at rest, such as during the recovery phase of an
exercise bout. The high osmolality of sports recovery drinks is,
therefore, not an issue of concern – as long as fast rehydration is
not the primary goal. Otherwise the problem may easily be solved
by increasing the dilution of the beverage.
Since we found not only hypertonic sports drinks, but also some
sports drinks with a rather low osmolality (in particular among
the homemade sports drinks), the question might arise if an os-
molality lower than the one suggested for optimal sports drinks
(200 –250 mmol/kg) is of concern. According to a study by Gisol
et al. [6] the observed water absorption rates of sports drinks with
an osmolality of 169 mmol/kg and 245 mmol/kg were not different
and the amount of glucose required to stimulate water absorption
is supposed to be relatively small [10].
A more practical question arises with sports drinks that are sold as
powders. Depending on how precisely the amount of the powder can
be weighed, the concentration and thus the osmolality of the bever-
ages can vary. Most manufacturers solve this issue with a dosage
spoon or by using portion bags. In most cases, it was suf cient to
follow the manufacturer’s instruction to achieve an osmolality that
varied only a little, irrespective of whether the dosage spoon was
lled very carefully or in a hasty real-life shoveling way (data not
shown). However, a relevant problem was detected with one manu-
facturer (Gatorade) where the powder had to be measured by lling
a pretty wide cap with a dosage line that was not easily visible. This
system was not practical and it was easy to substantially overdose
the beverage and consequently produce a hypertonic sports drink.
We would suggest reconsidering the use of this dosage system.
An unexpected result of this study was the consistently low pH
of nearly all commercially available sports drinks as well as of the
homemade drinks based on syrup. The only sports drinks with a
neutral pH were the homemade drinks based on water or tea and
with added carbohydrates as an energy source. Different studies
detected the potential of commercial sports drinks to erode teeth
[3, 8, 14, 19]. Although ways to signi cantly in uence the pH and
erosive po tent ial of s ports drin ks ex ist [3, 7, 9] , this aspec t does not
Carbohydrate Osmolality
[g/100 g] [mmol/kg] pH
Mineral waters
Adelbodner 0 32 5.7
Contrex (mineralization: 2174 mg/L) 0 27 7.1
Eptinger (2630 mg/L) 0 33 5.8
Henniez (581 mg/L)) 0 18 5.9
Rhäzünser (1643 mg/L) 0 39 6.3
Tap water (Zürich) 0 3 7.4
Valser (1918 mg/L) 0 27 6.1
Valser Viva Limette 0 39 5.7
Fruit drinks
Apple juice clear Ju ice Migros 11 736 3.3
Apple juice clear Ju ice Migros (diluted 1:1) 5.5 343 3.3
Apple juice clear Ju ice Migros (diluted 1:3) 2.8 171 3.4
Apple juice clear Ju ice Migros (diluted 1:7) 1.4 82 3.5
Apple juice un ltered Jui ce Migros 11 727 3.3
Bodyguard Michel 11 675 3.4
Carrot juice Biotta 9 561 4.2
Fruit coctail Hawaii Gold Migros 12 717 3.7
Grape juice Gold Migros 16 1193 3.3
Grapefruit juice Juice Migros 11 610 3.2
Multivitamin Gold Migros 12 779 3.5
Orange juice Juice Migros 12 614 3.6
Orange juice with pulp Granini 9 621 3.6
Orange juice with pulp Michel 11 594 3.8
Orange juice with pulp Michel (diluted 1:1) 5.5 282 4.0
Orange juice with pulp Michel (diluted 1:3) 2.8 139 4.0
Orange juice with pulp Michel (diluted 1:7) 1.4 71 4.0
Pear juice Ju ice Migros 11 733 3.7
Pineapple juice Gold Migros 13 692 3.8
Pineapple juice Gold Migros (diluted 1:1) 6.5 309 3.9
Pineapple juice Gold Migros (diluted 1:3) 3.3 158 3.9
Pineapple juice Gold Migros (diluted 1:7) 1.6 77 3.9
Shorley (60% Apple juice) Möhl 6 410 3.7
Tomato juice Naturaplan Bio Coop 3 475 4.1
Vita t Coop 14 777 3.4
Soft drinks
Coca Cola 10.6 493 2.4
Coca Cola light 0 27 2.5
Fanta 10.1 415 2.6
Lipton Ice Tea Lemon* 8.0 268 3.1
Lipton Ice Tea Light 0 29 3.4
Nestea Lemon 7.6 278 3.6
Nestea Light 0 46 3.5
Pepsi light 0.5 25 2.7
Pepsi max 0.5 27 2.8
Red Bull 11.3 601 3.3
Red Bull Sugarfree 0 140 3.2
Rivella blau 1.5 120 3.2
Rivella rot 9 425 3.4
Schweppes Bitter Lemon 12 627 2.7
Schweppes Ginger Ale NA 497 2.7
Schweppes Tonic 8.9 501 2.5
Syrup raspberry Coop (diluted 1:4) 17 756 3.2
Sprite 10.1 479 2.7
Alcoholic beverages
Bacardi Breezer Orange NA 1050 2.6
Cider Ramsauer 3 1159 3.5
Clausthaler beer non alcoholic NA 275 4.3
Clausthaler Panaché non alcoholic NA 452 3.0
Desperados Tequila NA 1379 3.2
Dr. Pepper 10 646 2.6
Eichhof beer alcoholic 3.5 1047 4.1
Red wine NA 2573 3.4
Smirnoff Ice New Taste NA 1192 3.2
NA = Data not available from the food label
* Product has changed in the meantime to lower carbohydrate content.
Tab l e 2 : Carbohydrate content, osmolality and pH of mineral waters, fruit
drinks, soft drinks, and alcoholic beverages in alphabetical order.
1 To calculate osmolality (m mol/kg) from osmola rity (mmol/L), th e density
of a uid must be known. Provided that carbohydrates are the predominant
osmotic substance like i n sports drin ks but not in blood, setti ng osmolarity
equa l to o smolal ity w ould lead to an under esti mation of osmola lity by only
about 1% per 30 g carbohydrates per liter.
95
Osmolality and pH of sport and other drinks available in Switzerland
seem to be of relevance for the manufacturers at this time. How-
ever, the pH value of a sports drink could easily become a market-
ing issue with potentially bene cial or detrimental consequences
for the manufacturers. Besides the pH, other factors like the titrat-
able acid (not measured in this study) are also determinants of the
erosive potential [3].
The attentive reader recognizes that dilutions of some fruit
juices do not show an absolute linear behavior with the osmolal-
ity. This can be seen especially between the pure juice and the 1:1
dilution with water, while the further dilutions come along with a
very similar linear reduction of the osmolality. This is an artifact of
the freezing point depression method [18] as the fruit juices do not
behave like an ideal solution over the whole concentration range.
However, the discrepancy is not very large and the measuring error
is practically not relevant.
Closing Remarks
Sports drinks are an indispensable tool to achieve a suf cient
daily carbohydrate intake and to postpone fatigue during exercise
and competition in many elite sports. Although some of the tested
sports drinks did not have an optimal osmolality, this is not yet a
suf cient reason to generally discourage their consumption, if one
likes such sports drinks. An important issue not discussed so far,
is the individual tolerance and avor preference of a drink as this
in uences voluntary uid intake and gastrointestinal comfort [12,
13, 16]. In contrast, a matter of real concern is the potential for den-
tal erosion related to the low pH value of many tested sports drinks.
Future generations of sports drinks should address this issue.
Address for correspondence:
Samuel Mettler, Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences,
ETH Zurich, ETH Zentrum - LFH A2, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzer-
land, phone +41 (44) 632 73 84, samuel.mettler@inw.agrl.ethz.ch
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Background and Objectives: Nowadays, indication of composite materials for various clinical situations has increased significantly. However, in the oral environment, these biomaterials are subjected (abnormal occlusal forces, external bleaching, consumption of carbonated beverages, etc.) to changes in their functional and mechanical behavior when indicated primarily for patients with masticatory habits. The study aimed to recreate in our lab one of the most common situations nowadays—in-office activity of a young patient suffering from specific parafunctional occlusal stress (bruxism) who consumes acidic beverages and is using at-home dental bleaching. Materials and Methods: Sixty standardized class II cavities were restored with two nanohybrid biocomposite materials (Filtek Z550, 3M ESPE, and Evetric, Ivoclar Vivadent); the restored teeth were immersed in sports drinks and carbonated beverages and exposed to an at-home teeth bleaching agent. The samples were subjected to parafunctional mechanical loads using a dual-axis chewing simulator. A grading evaluation system was conducted to assess the defects of the restorations using different examination devices: a CBCT, a high-resolution digital camera, and periapical X-rays. Results: Before mechanical loading, the CBCT analysis revealed substantially fewer interfacial defects between the two resin-based composites (p > 0.05), whereas, after bruxism forces simulation, significantly more defects were identified (p < 0.05). Qualitative examination of the restorations showed more occlusal defects for the Evetric than the other nanohybrid composite. Conclusions: There were different behaviors observed regarding the studied nanocomposites when simulation of parafunctional masticatory forces was associated with aging treatments.
... These beverages are classified as either hypotonic (osmolality < 270 mOsm/kg water), which promotes gastric emptying and water absorption from the proximal small intestine [33,34], or hypotonic (13 to 52 mOsmol/kg) ( Figure 2C), such as the beverages (CT and HT). The osmolality of beverages was lower than that compared to fermented soymilk (170-500 mOsm/L) [35] and sports drinks (180-600 mOsm/L) [36]. ...
... which promotes gastric emptying and water absorption from the proximal small intestine [33,34], or hypotonic (13 to 52 mOsmol/kg) ( Figure 2C), such as the beverages (CT and HT). The osmolality of beverages was lower than that compared to fermented soymilk (170-500 mOsm/L) [35] and sports drinks (180-600 mOsm/L) [36]. Table S2 shows the color parameters of beverages. ...
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... Drinks possessing high osmolality have the potential to induce gastrointestinal discomfort due to their capacity to attract water into the gut. Beverages with lower osmolality have been observed to exhibit enhanced absorption rates, hence proved useful for rapid rehydration (Mettler et al., 2006). ...
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... Drinks possessing high osmolality have the potential to induce gastrointestinal discomfort due to their capacity to attract water into the gut. Beverages with lower osmolality have been observed to exhibit enhanced absorption rates, hence proved useful for rapid rehydration (Mettler et al., 2006). ...
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... Reported information on the types of fluid consumed was used to estimate osmolality, caffeine, and alcohol content of the fluid based on literature review [21,22]. Estimates for ...
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... However, diet cola is not expected to be the used carbonated product by mothers, the common practice is to use spite or 7 up. The readings of osmolality and PH of the carbonated beverages in our study are close to previous results (Mettler, Rusch, & Colombani, 2006) which confirms the findings. ...
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Chapter
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Chapter
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