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How do slot machines and other electronic gaming machines actually work
Abstract
Slot machines and other electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are gambling devices that offer a variety of games. They are inexpensive to run, which makes it possible for casinos to offer low-stakes betting to a large number of customers. As a result, they have become the most profitable form of gambling. EGMs are found at casinos, on cruise boats, at racetracks, at local bars, and even at corner stores. Slot machines and other EGMs seem to attract a lot of myths. This is partly because of a lack of accurate information on how the machines work and partly due to the design of the machines. In this paper, we will discuss how slot machines really work. Our goal is to demystify the machines in order to demystify the games. We will also discuss some of the myths about slot machines. This paper is intended to serve as a resource for counsellors and prevention workers in the field of problem gambling. It is also intended for people in the general public who wish to understand slot machines. (Keywords: slot machines, problem gambling, random)
... Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are devices that offer a variety of games in which the outcomes are based on chance and through which players must risk money in the hopes of a possible higher return on their investment (Turner & Horbay, 2004). In Canada, EGMs are found in gambling venues such as casinos, racetracks, and bingo facilities. ...
... VLTs are multi-game platforms that offer slot games, as well as video poker and other games such as blackjack and keno. VLTs and slot machines are similar, however, in terms of payback percentage (92% for VLTs and 90% for slot machines; Turner & Horbay, 2004). In 2016 in the province of Quebec, 6,468 EGMs were located in casinos and 11,000 were located in non-casino establishments (Canadian Partnership for Responsible Gambling). ...
... The particular place of EGMs in the gambling environment is concerning regarding this problem. Indeed, EGMs outside casinos are easily available (O'Neil & Whetton, 2004;Turner & Horbay, 2004), and accessibility 1 is known to be an important factor in the development of gambling problems (Afifi, Cox, Martens, Sareen, & Enns, 2009). For instance, gambling problems in Australia are 3 times higher in the Victoria region, where EGMs are found in 540 non-casino establishments, compared with that in the Western region, where EGMs are found in only one casino (O'Neil & Whetton, 2004). ...
Electronic gambling machine (EGM) licenses are meant to be a complementary revenue source for liquor establishments. Considering this, retailers with more than one license to operate EGMs may benefit from promoting their gambling offer, which may in turn facilitate excessive gambling behaviours. This study compares establishments that possess a single license to operate EGMs with those that are multi-licensed regarding four environmental risk factors: advertisements, automated teller machines, isolated gambling area, and EGM operating hours. A field observation was carried out by seven pairs of observers in 166 establishments in Capitale-Nationale de Quebec (QC), Canada. In each establishment, observers had to complete an observational grid on an iPod touch to gather environmental data related to the identified variables. Results from the stepwise logistic regression show that being a multi-licensed establishment increases the chance of having longer operating hours and displaying non-regulated advertisements that promote gambling. Multi-licensed establishments tend to offer a more attractive gambling environment, which may increase the risk of excessive gambling. Reinforcement of regulations for responsible gambling is discussed.RésuméPour les établissements ayant un permis d’alcool, posséder une licence d’exploitation d’appareils de jeux électroniques (AJE) se traduit par un revenu complémentaire. De ce fait, les détaillants ayant plus d’une licence d’exploitation d’AJE peuvent tirer parti de la promotion de leur offre de jeu, ce qui, en retour, peut encourager des comportements de jeu excessifs. Cette étude compare les établissements qui détiennent une seule licence d’exploitation d’AJE avec ceux qui en détiennent plusieurs en tenant compte de quatre facteurs de risque environnementaux : la publicité, les guichets automatiques, la zone de jeu isolée et les heures d’exploitation des AJE. Une observation sur le terrain a été effectuée par sept paires d’observateurs dans 166 établissements de Capitale-Nationale de Québec (QC), Canada. Dans chaque établissement, ils ont recueilli des données environnementales liées aux variables identifiées qu’ils ont compilées dans une grille d’observation sur un iPod touch. Les résultats du modèle logistique utilisant la régression séquentielle montrent que le fait, pour un établissement, d’avoir plusieurs licences augmente la possibilité de prolonger les heures d’exploitation et d’afficher des publicités non réglementées qui font la promotion du jeu. Les établissements ayant plusieurs licences ont tendance à offrir un environnement de jeu plus attrayant, ce qui peut accroître le risque de jeu excessif. Un resserrement des règles pour une réglementation responsable du jeu est à l’étude.
... 46). To complicate matters, there are several different types of EGMs-including spinning reel slot machines, video slot machines, video poker, video keno, and multigame machines-and the features of these machines, not to mention the variety of gambling machines, are continuously increasing (G2E 2009;IGT 2009;Turner and Horbay 2004;Turner 2011a). Few features are common to all types of EGMs. ...
... The primary purpose of the interactive tutorial is to educate gamblers and counselors about the nature of volatility and the futility of chasing related to EGMs. The set of topics selected for this tutorial was based on research into how EGMs work (e.g., Harrigan 2007;Harrigan and Dixon 2009;Jensen et al. 2013, Turner 2011aTurner and Horbay 2004;Turner and Shi 2015). The tutorial is comprised of four modules designed to deal with several related aspects of EGMs, including volatility, the unpredictability of random chance, the continuously running nature of the RNG, prizes that are less than the amount bet, and the cost of play. ...
... The third module addresses one central aspect of chasing-the belief that one is due to win (Toneatto et al. 1997;Turner and Horbay 2004). Chasing is a central feature of problem gambling. ...
This paper describes the pilot evaluation of an Internet-based intervention, designed to teach counselors and problem gamblers about how electronic gambling machines (EGMs) work. This study evaluated the tutorial using assessment tools, such as rating scales and test of knowledge about EGMs and random chance. The study results are based on a number of samples, including problem gambling counselors (n = 25) and problem gamblers (n = 26). The interactive tutorial was positively rated by both clients and counselors. In addition, we found a significant improvement in scores on a content test about EGM games for both clients and counselors. An analysis of the specific items suggests that the effects of the tutorial were mainly on those items that were most directly related to the content of the tutorial and did not always generalize to other items. This tutorial is available for use with clients and for education counselors. The data also suggest that the tutorial is equally effective in group settings and in individual settings. These results are promising and illustrate that the tool can be used to teach counselors and clients about game design. Furthermore, research is needed to evaluate its impact on gambling behavior.
... Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are consistently identified as the form of gambling that is most likely to be related to harm for players (Blaszczynski, 2013). It is commonly observed that most of those seeking intervention or treatment for a gambling disorder identified EGM gambling as the primary cause of their problem gambling behaviour (Turner & Horbay, 2004). It is argued that the combination of the opportunity to play for extended periods of time without natural breaks in play, the speed of feedback regarding gambling outcomes and the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement is the reason that EGMs are likely to facilitate gambling-related harm (Coates & Blaszczynski, 2013;Dowling et al, 2005;Productivity Commission, 2010;Williams & Wood, 2004). ...
... However, it must be acknowledged that the vast majority of evidence that identifies EGM gambling as a factor in the development and maintenance of problem gambling is correlational rather than causal (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Although the speed of the game is regularly proposed as the most as the critical factor in encouraging problem gambling (Dow-Schull, 2012), Blaszczynski (2013) acknowledged that most research studies do not evaluate the specific effect of a single structural characteristic, such as speed of play. ...
... With specific reference to gambling situations, research demonstrates that sustained and persistent gambling was most prevalent in conditions of maximum uncertainty regarding the distribution of rewards (Fiorillo et al, 2003;Horsley et al, 2012). It is argued that when wins are more unpredictable it may be harder for a player to stop playing because of a powerful combination of a) larger wins and b) the acknowledgement that the next bet or spin could be the winning one (Haw, 2008a;Johansson et al, 2009;Turner & Horbay, 2004). This position is consistent with research showing that suspense and uncertainty play an important role in intrinsic motivation regarding games generally (Abuhamdeh, Csikszentmihalyi & Jalal, 2015) and gambling more specifically (Ely, Frankel & Kamenica, 2015;Hahn, Wilson, McRae & Gilbert, 2013). ...
The aim of this report is to review evidence and theory regarding the gambling
product through its structural characteristics (i.e., the ‘agent’ component of the
epidemiological triangle). By providing a better understanding of structural
characteristics, stakeholders should be better equipped to promote and evaluate
responsible gambling and harm-minimisation strategies. Structural characteristics are essentially the building blocks of a gambling game. They are the basis for their differential appeal depending on how they satisfy
different needs for different consumers. They combine with environmental and individual factors to determine both positive and negative outcomes of gambling participation. Structural characteristics vary considerably from game to game and evolve quickly in response to changes in technology; this renders associated policymaking challenging. The report is structured to consider categories of structural characteristics. Within
each section we consider the theory and evidence concerning the possible links between characteristics and gambling problems, together with potential implications for specific interventions that may merit consideration by regulators and commercial gambling providers.
... Slot machines along with video poker and video lottery machines are classified as Electronic Gambling Machines (EGMs) (Turner and Horbay, 2004). EGMs provide a variety of game mechanics (Adams and Dormans, 2012) which not only structure the core gameplay , but also target the evocation and exploitation of erroneous beliefs with respect to the game (Turner and Horbay, 2004). ...
... Slot machines along with video poker and video lottery machines are classified as Electronic Gambling Machines (EGMs) (Turner and Horbay, 2004). EGMs provide a variety of game mechanics (Adams and Dormans, 2012) which not only structure the core gameplay , but also target the evocation and exploitation of erroneous beliefs with respect to the game (Turner and Horbay, 2004). For instance, an EGM can disguise losses as wins (Graydon et al., 2017) or play exciting music and sound effects (Griffiths and Parke, 2005). ...
Slot machines are one of the most played games by players suffering from gambling disorder. New technologies like immersive Virtual Reality (VR) offer more possibilities to exploit erroneous beliefs in the context of gambling. Recent research indicates a higher risk potential when playing a slot machine in VR than on desktop. To continue this investigation, we evaluate the effects of providing different degrees of embodiment, i.e., minimal and full embodiment. The avatars used for the full embodiment further differ in their appearance, i.e., they elicit a high or a low socio-economic status. The virtual environment (VE) design can cause a potential influence on the overall gambling behavior. Thus, we also embed the slot machine in two different VEs that differ in their emotional design: a colorful underwater playground environment and a virtual counterpart of our lab. These design considerations resulted in four different versions of the same VR slot machine: 1) full embodiment with high socio-economic status, 2) full embodiment with low socio-economic status, 3) minimal embodiment playground VE, and 4) minimal embodiment laboratory VE. Both full embodiment versions also used the playground VE. We determine the risk potential by logging gambling frequency as well as stake size, and measuring harm-inducing factors, i.e., dissociation, urge to gamble, dark flow, and illusion of control, using questionnaires. Following a between groups experimental design, 82 participants played for 20 game rounds one of the four versions. We recruited our sample from the students enrolled at the University of Würzburg. Our safety protocol ensured that only participants without any recent gambling activity took part in the experiment. In this comparative user study, we found no effect of the embodiment nor VE design on neither the gambling frequency, stake sizes, nor risk potential. However, our results provide further support for the hypothesis of the higher visual angle on gambling stimuli and hence the increased emotional response being the true cause for the higher risk potential.
... One of the first booths I visited illustrated certain advances in random chance. Currently, most gaming makes approximate random change through a mathematical algorithm that is run continuously (Turner & Horbay, 2004). This algorithm has vulnerabilities and the resulting sequence of outcomes is not truly random. ...
... These new chips used quantum variation as a source of random chance. The chips could avoid certain of the flaws of current random number generators, namely the possibility that the RNG chips could be reset and always proceed in same sequence (Turner & Horbay, 2004). In talking to the representatives at the booth, it was apparent that the chips had not yet been deployed in gambling machines because, currently, they ran too slowly for slots. ...
... conducted thorough epidemiological studies of gambling problems (Room, Turner, & Ialomiteanu, 1999), studied risk factors for problem gambling (Turner, Jain, Spence, & Zangeneh, 2008;Turner, Littman-Sharp, & Zangeneh, 2006;, investigated gambling in the correctional population (Turner, Preston, Saunders, McAvoy, & Jain, 2009), instigated prevention programs (Turner, Macdonald, & Somerset, 2008), evaluated treatment programs (Chen, Jindani, Perry, & Turner, 2014), and created meaningful and sophisticated computer simulations to study both gambling games (Turner & Horbay, 2004;Turner, 2011) and gambling strategies (Turner & Fritz, 2001). ...
... A special expression of gratitude to all those researchers who have submitted papers over the years and to all those persons who have read and continue to read our journal y because without both the writers and the readers this publication would not be possible. ******* (Turner, Macdonald et Somerset, 2008); évalué des programmes de traitement (Chen, Jindani, Perry et Turner, 2014); et créé des simulations par ordinateur élaborées servant à étudier tant les jeux de hasard (Turner et Horbay, 2004;Turner, 2011) (Boughton, Jindani et Turner, 2017;Jindani, Turner et Khalsa, 2015). Elle travaille depuis 15 ans comme clinicienne dans les domaines de la santé mentale et de la dépendance (jeu pathologique). ...
... EGMs usually depict a series of spinning reels where a specific sequence of pictorial icons notifies players of a win. Historically, these outcomes are entirely based on chance and although return to players are standardised at around 90%, they are designed such that most players lose or win small amounts and very few players win moderate or large jackpots (Schwartz 2013;Turner and Horbay 2004). ...
... They are found in a variety of tourism and hospitality environments, including integrated resorts, regional casinos, cruise ships, airports, and gaming hospitality environments. Past estimates suggest that slot machines account for roughly 80% of casino revenue (Turner and Horbay 2004), EGMs account for approximately half of all gambling expenditure in Australia (Queensland Government Statistician's Office (34th edition) 2018), and in Japan, the most saturated market for machine gambling, there is one EGM for every 28 people (Ziolkowski 2017). However, since roughly the late-1990s, there has been a decline in the number of individuals who engage in EGM gambling (Gambling (Inquiry Report No. 50) 2010;Welte et al. 2015a). ...
Hybrid gambling machines (HGMs) are a new gambling activity that combine the skill element of traditional video games with the random pay-out schedule of electronic gaming machines (e.g., slots). Developed to increase gambling by younger generations that favor video games, there is currently no empirical evidence regarding consumer views of HGMs to guide policy-decision making related to this new gambling activity. We use the theory of reasoned action (TRA) to investigate factors that motivate intentions to play these machines in two studies: (1) among 43 casino patrons and (2) among 184 US online participants residing in states where HGMs were available. Both samples completed surveys after exposure to actual or explanations of HGMs and slots. Analyses supported the prediction that positive attitudes towards HGMs and positively perceived subjective norms would predict intention to play HGMs and slots. The results suggest that the TRA is a useful framework for explaining intentions to gamble on traditional slot machines and new HGMs. The absence of research on HGMs makes these studies an important and necessary contribution to the empirical literature on machine gambling. Understanding individuals’ intentions to engage with HGMs is important to guide development of harm-minimisation practices and evaluate impact of policy changes.
... This results in the blank symbol frequently occurring on the payline and the jackpot symbol being just above or just below the payline in an ''engineered'' near-miss. Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). ...
... Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Thus, it is clear that slot machine manufacturers design these games to include more near-misses than would be expected by chance alone through the use of subtle manipulations. ...
Scratch cards are a pervasive form of gambling in the Canadian marketplace. Despite their widespread appeal, we are only beginning to understand the influence of their structural characteristics on the player. The most widely studied of these characteristics is the near-miss, a game outcome in which the player gets two of the three needed symbols to win a jackpot prize. Although other authors have noted the existence of these outcomes in scratch cards, no systematic investigation has been undertaken to understand their occurrence in these games. We present the results of an analysis to determine the frequency of these outcomes using two samples (sample A, n = 41; sample B, n = 61) of a popular scratch card game available in Ontario, Canada. Our results suggest that certain scratch card games may be designed to include more pairs of jackpot symbols (i.e., more near-miss outcomes) than any other symbol pair. In the game that we analyzed, the top prize symbol occurred more often than any other symbol and appeared to be manipulated to appear in clusters of two, creating many near-miss outcomes to the jackpot prize. This work has strong implications for the study of gambling behaviour, responsible gambling strategies, as well as for the scientific investigation of scratch card games. Les cartes à gratter sont une forme très répandue de jeux sur le marché canadien. Malgré leur grand attrait, nous commençons à comprendre l’influence de leurs caractéristiques structurelles sur le joueur. La caractéristique la plus étudiée parmi elles est un résultat s'approchant du résultat gagnant; le joueur obtient deux des trois symboles nécessaires pour gagner un gros lot. Bien que d’autres auteurs aient noté l’existence de ce genre de résultats dans des cartes à gratter, aucune enquête systématique n’a été entreprise pour comprendre leur occurrence dans ces jeux. Nous présentons les résultats d’une analyse pour déterminer la fréquence de ces résultats en utilisant deux échantillons (échantillon A, n = 41; échantillon B, n = 61) d’un jeu de cartes à gratter populaire, vendu en Ontario, au Canada. Selon nos résultats, certains jeux de cartes à gratter peuvent être conçus pour inclure plus de paires de symboles pour le gros lot (c’est-à-dire des résultats plus proches) que n’importe quelle autre paire de symboles. Dans le jeu que nous avons analysé, le symbole du prix le plus élevé était présent plus souvent que tout autre symbole et semblait être manipulé pour apparaître en grappes de deux, créant de nombreux résultats proches du résultat gagnant. Ce travail a de fortes répercussions pour l’étude du comportement du jeu, du jeu et des stratégies responsables, de même que pour l’étude scientifique des jeux de cartes à gratter.
... This results in the blank symbol frequently occurring on the payline and the jackpot symbol being just above or just below the payline in an ''engineered'' near-miss. Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). ...
... Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Thus, it is clear that slot machine manufacturers design these games to include more near-misses than would be expected by chance alone through the use of subtle manipulations. ...
Scratch cards are a pervasive form of gambling in the Canadian marketplace. Despite their widespread appeal, we are only beginning to understand the influence of their structural characteristics on the player. The most widely studied of these characteristics is the near-miss, a game outcome in which the player gets two of the three needed symbols to win a jackpot prize. Although other authors have noted the existence of these outcomes in scratch cards, no systematic investigation has been undertaken to understand their occurrence in these games. We present the results of an analysis to determine the frequency of these outcomes using two samples (sample A, n = 41; sample B, n = 61) of a popular scratch card game available in Ontario, Canada. Our results suggest that certain scratch card games may be designed to include more pairs of jackpot symbols (i.e., more near-miss outcomes) than any other symbol pair. In the game that we analyzed, the top prize symbol occurred more often than any other symbol and appeared to be manipulated to appear in clusters of two, creating many near-miss outcomes to the jackpot prize. This work has strong implications for the study of gambling behaviour, responsible gambling strategies, as well as for the scientific investigation of scratch card games. Les cartes à gratter sont une forme très répandue de jeux sur le marché canadien. Malgré leur grand attrait, nous commençons à comprendre l’influence de leurs caractéristiques structurelles sur le joueur. La caractéristique la plus étudiée parmi elles est un résultat s'approchant du résultat gagnant; le joueur obtient deux des trois symboles nécessaires pour gagner un gros lot. Bien que d’autres auteurs aient noté l’existence de ce genre de résultats dans des cartes à gratter, aucune enquête systématique n’a été entreprise pour comprendre leur occurrence dans ces jeux. Nous présentons les résultats d’une analyse pour déterminer la fréquence de ces résultats en utilisant deux échantillons (échantillon A, n = 41; échantillon B, n = 61) d’un jeu de cartes à gratter populaire, vendu en Ontario, au Canada. Selon nos résultats, certains jeux de cartes à gratter peuvent être conçus pour inclure plus de paires de symboles pour le gros lot (c’est-à-dire des résultats plus proches) que n’importe quelle autre paire de symboles. Dans le jeu que nous avons analysé, le symbole du prix le plus élevé était présent plus souvent que tout autre symbole et semblait être manipulé pour apparaître en grappes de deux, créant de nombreux résultats proches du résultat gagnant. Ce travail a de fortes répercussions pour l’étude du comportement du jeu, du jeu et des stratégies responsables, de même que pour l’étude scientifique des jeux de cartes à gratter.
... This results in the blank symbol frequently occurring on the payline and the jackpot symbol being just above or just below the payline in an ''engineered'' near-miss. Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). ...
... Not only does this technique make near-misses more frequent, but also the actual reel does not visually display these weighted, or unequally proportioned symbol ratios to the player (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Also, slot machine reels do not necessarily contain an equal number of jackpot symbols on each reel, creating a bias towards obtaining two of the three needed symbols to attain a jackpot (Turner & Horbay, 2004). Thus, it is clear that slot machine manufacturers design these games to include more near-misses than would be expected by chance alone through the use of subtle manipulations. ...
This paper reviews and analyzes studies that are focused on Internet gambling with the use of behavioural tracking and big data to identify gambling behaviour. The behaviour of gamblers has been extensively studied and much has been published on the subject. The vast majority of research has relied on self-reported gambling behaviour or case study research. With the advent of the Internet, however, it has become possible for researchers to remotely study the real behaviour of gamblers. The goal has been to empirically describe playing behaviour in several conditions and contexts. Existing research, conducted since the 2000s, focuses on several forms of gambling such as sports betting, casino, poker, and lottery, but there is still only a concise body of research on gambling behaviour with the use of Internet gambling tracking data. Most studies are based on the same databases, meaning that a few companies and websites were the basis for most of the research produced so far. It is important to explore new sources of information, methodologies, and approaches to enrich discussion and contribute to a better understanding of this field. The empirical analysis of gambling behaviour with the use of tracking data was found to greatly contribute to the understanding of player behaviour, despite existing limitations and problems. Considering that Internet gambling behavioural tracking is still a fairly recent phenomenon, much can still be done to further develop this field of research.Cet article examine et analyse les études axées sur le jeu en ligne qui recourent au suivi comportemental et aux mégadonnées pour cerner le comportement lié au jeu. Or, on a souvent étudié le comportement des joueurs et on a beaucoup publié sur le sujet, mais jusqu’à présent, la majeure partie de la recherche repose sur le comportement autodéclaré ou la recherche fondée sur les études de cas. Avec l’avènement d’Internet, il est dorénavant possible pour les chercheurs d’étudier à distance le comportement réel des joueurs. L’objectif a donc consisté à décrire de manière empirique le comportement lié au jeu dans plusieurs conditions et contextes. La recherche existante, menée depuis les années 2000, se concentre sur plusieurs formes de jeux de hasard tels que les paris sportifs, le casino, le poker et la loterie. Mais à ce jour, il n’existe qu’un corpus de recherches très concis sur le comportement lié au jeu qui utilise des données de suivi sur le jeu par Internet. La plupart des études sont fondées sur les mêmes bases de données, car seulement quelques entreprises et sites Web ont servi de base à la plupart des recherches produites jusqu’à maintenant. Il est donc important d’explorer de nouvelles sources d’information, méthodologies et approches pour pouvoir enrichir les discussions et améliorer la compréhension de ce domaine. L’analyse empirique du comportement lié au jeu à l’aide de données de suivi a ainsi largement contribué à la compréhension du comportement du joueur en dépit des limites et problèmes existants. Si l’on tient compte du fait que le suivi comportemental du jeu sur Internet est un phénomène encore assez récent, il reste beaucoup à faire pour exploiter davantage ce domaine de recherche.
... Like all forms of gambling, the long-term win/loss odds of each slot machine favor the casino, leading to a positive expected revenue as a percentage of the total wager. The extent of this house advantage typically varies among slot machines due to deliberate design choices [9,44]. Now, imagine a player standing in front of a row of slot machines. ...
Conventional wisdom in casino gaming research suggests that gamblers are unable to identify slot machines with better odds. However, this study challenges that notion by examining whether experienced players, with years of casino play, can make informed decisions to optimize their chances of winning. With real gambling data, our findings reveal that seasoned players tend to favor slot machines with better odds. Interestingly, they refine their choices during less crowded hours when availability constraints are eased. Furthermore, consistent with the tradeoff between exploitation and exploration in reinforcement learning, more experienced players exhibit higher consistency in slot machine selection over time, suggesting genuine knowledge of which machines offer better odds. These results have significant implications for understanding casino player behavior and the potential for human learning to optimize complex decisions in a large-scale multi-armed bandit problem.
... These two conditions -independence and uniformity -are widely accepted as effective features of randomness in real life, especially in gambling. They are attained through the mathematical properties of the computable functions used in the PRNG algorithm and their effect is that it is actually impossible to predict the output at any point in the sequence (Turner & Horbay, 2004;Harrigan and Dixon, 2009) I will not go into the technicalities of the PRNG, as they fall outside the scope of this paper. I will focus just on the relationship between the nature of the randomness produced by PRNGs and the concern for technical fairness. ...
Randomness, a core concept of gambling, is seen in problem gambling
as responsible for the formation of the math-related cognitive distortions,
especially the Gambler’s Fallacy. In problem-gambling research, the concept of
randomness was traditionally referred to as having a mathematical nature and
categorized and approached as such. Randomness is not a mathematical concept,
and I argue that its weak mathematical dimension is not decisive at all for the
randomness-related issues in gambling and problem gambling, including the
correction of the misconceptions and fallacies about probability and statistical
concepts applied in gambling. I distinguish between mathematical and nonmathematical dimensions of randomness (the epistemic, the theoretical-methodological, the functional, and the ethical) falling within the general concept,
and I argue that both the studies having as object the math-related cognitive
distortions among gamblers and the educational programs aiming at correcting
them should employ this distinction in their design and content.
... In the recent years, there are more and more opportunities for everyone seeking such kind of joy. The most popular game machines are the slot machines [4], also called "fruit machines" or even "one-armed bandits" [5]. However, due to the competition, the payback rate (Return-to-Player, RTP) is as high, as it reaches 98% [6]. ...
Nowadays, entertainment is one of the biggest industries, which continues to expand. In this study, the problem of estimating the consolation prize as a fraction of the jackpot is dealt with, which is an important issue for each casino and gambling club. Solving the problem leads to the computation of multidimensional integrals. For that purpose, modifications of the most powerful stochastic quasi-Monte Carlo approaches are employed, in particular lattice and digital sequences, Halton and Sobol sequences, and Latin hypercube sampling. They show significant improvements to the classical Monte Carlo methods. After accurate computation of the arisen integrals, it is shown how to calculate the expectation of the real consolation prize, taking into account the distribution of time, when different numbers of players are betting. Moreover, a solution to the problem with higher dimensions is also proposed. All the suggestions are verified by computational experiments with real data. Besides gambling, the results obtained in this study have various applications in numerous areas, including finance, ecology and many others.
... Evidence suggests that the size of a potential win can be an important driver to gambling intention, especially for those who would gain relatively more compared to their disposable income (Kwang, 1965). This possibility suggests in turn that preferences for games with different payout percentages may affect gambling intention (Turner & Horbay, 2004). In these circumstances, marketers would highlight the chances of considerable winnings while industry regulators would want to limit potential winnings as an important check on problem gambling. ...
Recreational gambling has become an accepted pursuit, and the advent of the Internet has rendered online gambling ubiquitous. However, the resultant rapid growth in online recreational gambling is not matched by an understanding of the drivers of customers' intentions to gamble online. While this is potentially a fascinating aspect of consumer behavior, marketing scholars have shied away from giving online gambling much attention. This research seeks a better understanding of the drivers of recreational online gambling intentions among customers by applying the latest version of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Technology-UTAUT 2, to customers in an online gambling context. It also proposes additional hypotheses that account for the role of anticipated enjoyment and perceived fairness. Data are collected from 593 casino customers of an online gambling firm and analyzed using PLS-SEM via Smart PLS. Results show that perceived fairness and anticipated enjoyment are significant drivers of online gambling intention, with perceived fairness being fully mediated by effort expectancy, anticipated enjoyment, and social influence. Shorn of drivers and moderators that are not significant, an online gambling intention model is proposed. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed, limitations are noted, and areas for further research are suggested.
... Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are modern-day instruments of divination referred to by Schüll (2012, p. 95) as 'vehicles of enchantment' in her ethnographic study of EGM players. Machines are designed in such a way to pull the player in while the mechanisms underlying them are unclear, allowing those using them to form their own doctrine on how they function (Turner & Horbay, 2004). The environments that house these machines are similarly designed, creating a 'cocoon' of insulation and security that 'disorients space and time' (Schüll, 2012, pp. ...
Erroneous gambling-related beliefs are well researched in light of their association with problem gambling, with some research suggesting these beliefs also serve as justifications for gambling behaviour. The process of justification (i.e., rationalization) can provide insights into how those who gamble resolve dissonance resulting from persistent loss in the gambling context. Using in-depth interviews of 43 participants who identified electronic gambling machines as their preferred game type and were either experiencing gambling problems or were at risk of developing a problem, this study details how dissonance is managed through rationalizations in line with the Dawson (1999) framework. This framework is based on research of religious groups surviving prophetic disconfirmation and is employed here to highlight the contextual and socio-cultural underpinnings of rationalizations along with their supernatural and pseudo-religious qualities. Rationalizations reflect broader socio-cultural beliefs around morality, work, speculation, perseverance, and the supernatural. Implications for treatment are discussed.
... The risk profile of the slot machine is proxied by the house edge because slot machines with a low house edge tend to have a lower volatility in payoffs than slot machines with a large house edge. Simply stated, the higher house edge for volatile games is necessary to offset the greater financial risk for the casino when it offers large winnings (Turner & Horbay, 2004). However, the house edge picks up only one aspect of the risk taken because the amount wagered is potentially endogenous to the risk profile. ...
We test the realization effect, i.e., that risk-taking is greater after paper outcomes than after realized outcomes, using gambling data from a real casino. During a particular casino visit, customers likely perceive that gains and losses are paper outcomes, whereas leaving the casino realizes the final account balance. Using individual-level slot machine gambling records, we find that risk-taking after both paper losses and paper gains increases within a visit and that this effect is more pronounced for larger outcomes. Conversely, realized losses from earlier visits significantly decrease risk-taking if losses are comparatively large, whereas comparatively small realized losses and realized gains do not alter risk-taking. These results provide important field validation of the realization effect in an environment with positively skewed lotteries.
... There is growing evidence which suggests that to problem gamblers, games with fast speed of play (such as EGMs) are especially appealing (Griffiths 2008;Harris and Griffiths 2018). Additionally, it has repeatedly been observed that for problem gamblers who seek treatment or interventions, gambling which involves a faster speed of play (such as EGMs) are identified as a major contributor for their disordered gambling (e.g., Griffiths 2008;Meyer et al. 2009;Turner and Horbay 2004). ...
Speed of play has been identified as a key structural characteristic in gambling behaviour, where games involving higher playing speeds enhance the experience of gambling. Of interest in the present study is the consistent finding that games with higher event frequencies are preferred by problem gamblers and are associated with more negative gambling outcomes, such as difficulty quitting the game and increased monetary loss. The present study investigated the impact of gambling speed of play on executive control functioning, focusing on how increased speeds of play impact motor response inhibition, and the potential mediating role arousal and dissociative experience play in this relationship. Fifty regular non-problem gamblers took part in a repeated-measures experiment where they gambled with real money on a simulated slot machine across five speed of play conditions. Response inhibition was measured using an embedded Go/No-Go task, where participants had to withhold motor responses, rather than operating the spin button on the slot machine when a specific colour cue was present. Results indicated that response inhibition performance was significantly worse during faster speeds of play, and that the role of arousal in this relationship was independent of any motor priming affect. The implications of these findings for gambling legislation and gambling harm-minimisation approaches are discussed.
... free spins, the ability to bet on in-game random outcomes such as card flips) as well as local and linked jackpots. Outcomes are determined entirely by chance using a random number generator set to return approximately 90% of total wagers to players [13]. ...
Purpose of Review
Skill-based gaming machines (SGMs) add interactive and/or skill features to electronic gaming machines (EGMs), often modelled on elements from arcade, video, online, or mobile games. Availability of SGMs is expanding in the USA and internationally, but evidence of the impacts of these machines is lacking. To provide direction to policymakers and the scientific community, this review critically evaluates the relevant literature and suggests future avenues for research and consumer protection measures.
Recent Findings
Early data suggests that SGMs are most appealing to younger demographics and are likely to attract participation from regular gambling or gaming populations, potentially those with pre-existing problems. Studies of skill elements within other gambling activities indicate that players tend to overestimate their level of control in gambling situations that are determined by chance. Skill involved in SGMs could elicit illusions of control in players, which may contribute to the development of gambling problems.
Summary
The impact of introducing SGMs is still relatively unknown. There is limited robust ecologically valid research on the use of these machines within gambling venues. It is possible that, like other new gambling activities, the introduction of SGMs may lead to harm. Vulnerable populations may include young adults, those with pre-existing problems, and those already involved in gambling and video/mobile gaming. Preliminary consumer protection strategies include player education techniques and account management tools, paired with an empirical evaluation framework. Future studies, including laboratory and field trials, are needed to examine if SGMs more strongly appeal to at-risk gamblers, to determine whether players recognise skill versus chance components, and understand the relationship between involvement, increased cognitive distortions, and problem gambling.
... Supply-side approaches draw upon the logic of traditional psychological research in the area of learning theory. The EGM offers a variable or random ratio schedule and the aim is to examine how player behavior varies when aspects of the schedule or reinforcement is modified (Turner & Horbay, 2004). For example, experiments might be conducted to manipulate the speed of play (Blaszczynski, Sharpe, Walker, Shannon, & Coughlan, 2005), the return to player (RTP; Haw, 2008), the percentage of LDWs (Dixon et al., 2014), the presence or absence of sound (e.g., Delfabbro, Falzon, & Ingram, 2005;Dixon et al., 2013;Loba, Stewart, Klein, & Blackburn, 2001), or the role of losses (Canale, Rubaltelli, Vieno, Pittarello, & Billieux, 2017). ...
Background and aims:
This paper proposes that future research into electronic gaming machines (EGMs) is likely to benefit from conceptual and methodological approaches that capture the dynamic interplay between game parameters as well between the psychological needs of gamblers and their behavior.
Methods:
The argument concerning the importance of player dynamics is developed in two sections. The first involves an analysis of existing work, which investigates individual gaming machine features and then a discussion; the second reappraises the value of Apter's (1982) Reversal Theory as a framework for understanding behavioral dynamics and the interplay between gambler's need states and their play choices.
Results:
It is argued that existing methods based on the modification of single features are going to be limited and that differences in observed behavior may relate to measurable differences in motivational states before and during gambling sessions.
Discussion and conclusions:
It is concluded that a more dynamic and interactive approach to studying EGMs could be facilitated by innovations in Big Data and greater access to genuine player data. It is argued that such work may help to inform in situ research methods as well as clinical interventions for gamblers at risk or those already involved in interventions involving exposure and controlled gambling.
... The effect of the indirect near-miss on the player is supported initially with the sensation that the player gained some insight into the functionality of the machine (since s/he can see on the display more than the outcome of the machine, including an illusory movement of the reels and implicitly a false chronology). The functionality of such techniques has been analyzed in detail in the work of Harrigan (2007Harrigan ( , 2008Harrigan ( , 2009, and also in (Turner & Horbay, 2004) as concerns their statistics, ethical and legal aspects, and their causal connection with player's distorted cognitions. ...
The near-miss has been considered an important factor of reinforcement in gambling behavior, and previous research has focused more on its industry-related causes and effects and less on the gaming phenomenon itself. The near-miss has usually been associated with the games of slots and scratch cards, due to the special characteristics of these games, which include the possibility of pre-manipulation of award symbols in order to increase the frequency of these “engineered” near-misses. In this paper, we argue that starting from an elementary mathematical description of the classical (by pure chance) near-miss, generalizable to any game, and focusing equally on the epistemology of its constitutive concepts and their mathematical description, we can identify more precisely the fallacious elements of the near-miss cognitive effects and the inadequate perception and representation of the observational-intentional “I was that close.” This approach further suggests a strategy of using non-standard mathematical knowledge of an epistemological type in problem-gambling prevention and cognitive therapies.
Keywords: near-miss, mathematical education, gambling mathematics, cognitive therapy, epistemology of mathematics, mathematical modeling
... Why are slot machines so popular? Among different forms of gambling, slot machines have been acknowledged as the most addictive (Griffiths 2004;Turner and Horbay 2004). Their strong addictive power derives from a number of structural features that could facilitate risk-taking and betting frequency. ...
Two studies tested whether social exclusion can increase gambling behavior. In Study 1, participants were asked to relive a socially painful instance, a physically painful instance or a control condition and were then presented with a real online gambling device (i.e., a slot machine). The results revealed that participants who relived a socially painful instance played longer on the gambling device. In Study 2, we induced actual feelings of social disconnection and manipulated slot machine anthropomorphization. The results revealed a significant interaction between inclusionary status and anthropomorphism in predicting gambling. More specifically, excluded participants gambled longer when presented with an anthropomorphized slot machine. However, the gambling behavior of excluded and included participants was no different when participants were reminded that slot machines are inanimate objects. Finally, positive and negative game experience mediated the influence of both inclusionary status and anthropomorphism on gambling. Overall, this research identifies another potential vulnerability produced by experiences of social exclusion, namely, gambling behavior. Implications for pathological gambling and future research directions are outlined.
... The effect of the indirect near-miss on the player is supported initially with the sensation that the player gained some insight into the functionality of the machine (since s/he can see on the display more than the outcome of the machine, including an illusory movement of the reels and implicitly a false chronology). The functionality of such techniques has been analyzed in detail in the work of Harrigan (2007Harrigan ( , 2008Harrigan ( , 2009, and also in (Turner & Horbay, 2004) as concerns their statistics, ethical and legal aspects, and their causal connection with player's distorted cognitions. ...
forthcoming in Journal of Gambling Studies
Abstract
The near-miss has been considered an important factor of reinforcement in gambling behavior, and previous research has focused more on its industry-related causes and effects and less on the gaming phenomenon itself. The near-miss has usually been associated with the games of slots and scratch cards, due to the special characteristics of these games, which include the possibility of pre-manipulation of award symbols in order to increase the frequency of these “engineered” near-misses. In this paper, we argue that starting from an elementary mathematical description of the classical (by pure chance) near-miss, generalizable to any game, and focusing equally on the epistemology of its constitutive concepts and their mathematical description, we can identify more precisely the fallacious elements of the near-miss cognitive effects and the inadequate perception and representation of the observational-intentional “I was that close.” This approach further suggests a strategy of using non-standard mathematical knowledge of an epistemological type in problem-gambling prevention and cognitive therapies.
Keywords: near-miss, mathematical education, gambling mathematics, cognitive therapy, epistemology of mathematics, mathematical modeling
... Fruit machines are said to be most addictive form of gambling because of their highly stimulating sounds and colours. According to Turner and Horbay (2004), it takes just over a year to become addicted to them, whereas it takes over three years with traditional table games, such as roulette. ...
People who appear to believe in the hot hand expect winning streaks to continue whereas those suffering from the gamblers’ fallacy unreasonably expect losing streaks to reverse. 565,915 sports bets made by 776 online gamblers in 2010 were used for analysis. People who won were more likely to win again whereas those who lost were more likely to lose again. However, selection of safer odds after winning and riskier ones after losing indicates that online sports gamblers expected their luck to reverse: they suffered from the gamblers’ fallacy. By following in the gamblers’ fallacy, they created their own hot hands. Some gamblers consistently outperformed their peers. They also consistently made higher profits or lower losses. They show real expertise. The key of real expertise is the ability to control loss.
... The tendency for slot machine players to use the stop button may be explained by two distinct psychological mechanisms. The dominant account is that stopping devices facilitate the 'illusion of control' (Ladouceur & Sevigny, 2005;Turner & Horbay, 2004). The illusion of control is a common cognitive distortion in gambling, in which game features typically associated with games of skill create a false perception that players can influence (i.e. ...
Stopping devices are a structural characteristic of modern slot machines that enable the player to brake the spinning reels manually, but with no influence on the predetermined outcome. This study tested two mechanisms for why players might use a stopping device: (1) enhanced ‘illusory control’, and (2) faster game speed. Thirty student participants and 31 past-year slot machine gamblers played a multi-line slot machine equipped with a stop button, situated in a laboratory environment. During 20 minutes of play, participants could use the stop button as often as they wished. Contrary to predictions, the Gamblers’ Beliefs Questionnaire (GBQ), a trait measure of illusion of control, did not predict stop button usage. Participants who did and did not endorse the stop button as effective did not differ in their actual use of the device. Stop button use was associated with faster spin initiation latencies, and specifically increased following spins on which the use of the stop button coincided with a win. The data are interpreted as more consistent with a low-level operant conditioning account of slot machine gambling than a higher-level account based on cognitive distortions. By increasing speed of play, stopping devices may increase gambling losses and exaggerate gambling-related harms.
... Games with fast speeds of play are frequently associated with problem gambling. For example, it has frequently been observed that problem gamblers seeking intervention or treatment for their disordered gambling often report rapid forms of gambling (such as electronic game machines [EGMs]) as a primary cause of their disordered gambling (e.g., Griffiths 2008;Meyer et al. 2009;Turner and Horbay 2004). In the psychological gambling literature, speed of play is inextricably associated with event frequency, a structural characteristic referring to the number of gambling events within a given time period (and operationalized as the time interval between successive wagers on any given gambling game ). ...
Conceptually, there is a common association between gambling games with fast speeds of play and problem gambling. This relationship however, is largely correlational in nature, which comes at the expense of carefully controlled empirical investigation. Research that does exist aimed towards investigating the impact of gambling speeds on psychological and behavioural factors, is in its relative infancy, and the research possesses disparate methodologies and variables of interest. The aims of the current review is therefore to evaluate and summarise the existing body of evidence relating to speed of play in gambling, as well as discuss how this evidence can be used to inform harm minimisation approaches aimed at facilitating self-control during gambling. Eleven studies were selected for review based on the inclusion criteria, comprising nine experimental and two qualitative studies (one self-report focus group study and one observational study). There was a consistent finding across studies that games with faster speeds of play were preferred and rated as more exciting for all gamblers, ranging from non-problem to problem gamblers. Of concern, was the repeated finding that fast games are particularly appealing to those suffering with a gambling problem. Behavioural results were more inconsistent across studies, though the general trend supports the notion that games with faster speeds of play encourage more wagers, longer game play, and caused players, particularly problem gamblers, to experience difficulty in ceasing gambling. The implications of these findings for gambling policy, harm minimisation approaches, and future research are discussed.
... However, there is limited research about the extent to which these regulations actually "protect" children from exposure to EGMs. While there have been a small number of studies examining how children interact with low-intensity fruit machines in the UK (which children under 18 are legally allowed to play) [30,31] , they are not of the same intensity as EGMs in Australia, [32] and so, the applicability of findings in an EGM context is questionable. In 2016, we hypothesised that gambling products may become normalised for children in community venues, particularly if these venues also offer family-friendly products which encourage venue attendance [25]. ...
Background
This research sought to explore whether children’s visual and auditory exposure to Electronic Gambling Machines (EGMs) in community clubs contributed to shaping their attitudes towards these types of potentially harmful gambling products. This research also examined children’s knowledge of EGM behaviours in adults within their social networks.
Methods
Qualitative interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of 45 children in a regional area of New South Wales, Australia. All children had attended a club that contained gambling products in the previous 12 months. Face to face, semi-structured interviews explored a range of themes including recall of and attitudes towards EGMs. Data were analysed using thematic techniques. Four social learning theory concepts—attentional, retention, reinforcement and reproduction—were used to explore the range of processes that influenced children’s attitudes towards EGMs.
Results
In relation to attentional factors, children recalled having seen EGMs in clubs, including where they were located, auditory stimuli and the physical appearance of EGMs. Children also retained information about the behaviours associated with gambling on EGMs, most prominently why adults gamble on these machines. Attitudes towards EGMs were reinforced by the child’s knowledge of adults EGM behaviours. Some older children’s attitudes were positively reinforced by the perception that profits from the machines would go back to their local sporting teams. Finally, while some children expressed a desire to reproduce EGM behaviours when they were older, others were concerned about the negative consequences of engaging in this type of gambling.
Conclusions
Despite policies that try to prevent children’s exposure to EGMs in community venues, children have peripheral exposure to EGMs within these environments. This exposure and children’s awareness of gambling behaviours of adults appear to play a role in shaping their attitudes towards EGMs. While further research should explore the range of other ancillary factors that contribute to children’s knowledge about these machines, policy makers should consider more effective strategies to prevent children from being exposed to EGMs in community venues.
... In casinos, slot machines are among the most popular gambling games and are the ones most likely to elicit problem gambling (Breen & Zimmerman, 2002;Griffiths, 1999;Turner & Horbay, 2004). In their simplest version, slot machines have a button or an arm that can be activated to spin three reels that each contain a set of images. ...
Slot machines are among the most popular forms of commercial gambling, and the high frequency of losses that come close to winning – near hits – in this game appears to contribute to its popularity. In the present experiment we tested if pigeons, similarly to humans, prefer an alternative that provides near-hit outcomes in a slot-machine-like task. The pigeons received series of three stimuli, one every two seconds: if the three stimuli matched, food was delivered (a win); if they did not match, food was not delivered (a loss). We gave pigeons a choice between two options that provided food with the same probability but they differed in the sequence of stimuli on loss trials. For the near-hit alternative the non-matching stimulus was the third one (defined as a near hit). For the clear-loss alternative the non-matching stimulus was the second one. We found that the pigeons preferred the clear-loss alternative, that is, they preferred to be given information about the outcome sooner. This result is consistent with prior research on suboptimal choice with pigeons that emphasizes the role of information in choice but is inconsistent with the results of research with humans.
With the previous technical reports, we presented the main insights from the qualitative analysis of the reflection of the mathematical dimension of gambling in gambling-related sites, in its structural, linguistic, epistemic, and informative aspects. In this report we will focus on the factors responsible for the patterns that the content of the gambling-related sites exhibit and the way that the mathematical dimension of gambling is reflected in this content, namely the factors that influence the content policies of these sites. The report will also point to further directions of research-for both this project and for other investigators-for finding the appropriate balance and relation between the commercial policies on the one hand, and the adequacy and ethics of the content on the other hand.
The current report presents results of the qualitative analysis of the usage of the key math terms in the content of the reviewed websites in the current sample, with emphasis on the necessary distinctions for the word and concept of ‘odds’.
Patterns, motivations, conceptual and contextual aspects of the usage are discussed.
The theoretical norms of adequacy of this usage in the context of gambling are briefly presented.
Technical report of the research project 'Reflection of the mathematical dimension
of gambling in iGaming online content - A qualitative analysis'
The current technical report presents the partial results of the quantitative analysis of the research project, after the review of 247 gambling websites. It is focused on and discusses the usage of the math terms specific to gambling in the reviewed sample.
In particular, the fifth technical report discusses the usage of math terms associated with the game of slots, as found in the reviewed sample.
In light of the observations and research design presented in the previous reports, the current technical report is focused on the relationship between the quality and specificity of the content of the gambling sites and the site's SEO and marketing policy. This relationship is dependent upon the category of the gambling site and the difference in content quality, and the degree to which the mathematical dimension of gambling is reflected in this content is explained by this dependence.
The current technical report of the research project investigating how the mathematical dimension of gambling is reflected in the communication and texts associated with the gambling industry raises the problem of the adequacy of sampling and proposes a new approach in this respect. The qualitative analysis of the reviewed websites is extended to a deeper analysis of language and also to the organization and structure of websites' content. Although not stated as a goal of the initial project, the research will also try to identify relationships between the specificity of content relative to the mathematical dimension of gambling, and the management and marketing of the website. An overview of the results of the statistical analysis of the current sample is also presented.
Love, sex, and physical intimacy are some of the most desired goods in life and they are increasingly being sought on dating apps such as Tinder, Bumble, and Badoo. For those who want a leg up in the chase for other people’s attention, almost all of these apps now offer the option of paying a fee to boost one’s visibility for a certain amount of time, which may range from 30 min to a few hours. In this article, I argue that there are strong moral grounds and, in countries with laws against unconscionable contracts, legal ones for thinking that the sale of such visibility boosts should be regulated, if not banned altogether. To do so, I raise two objections against their unfettered sale, namely that it exploits the impaired autonomy of certain users and that it creates socio-economic injustices.
Recent changes in the Swiss gambling context include the introduction of a new gambling policy (Swiss Federal Act on Gambling; GA), and the associated opening of the online gambling market. Within this context it is important to observe evolving trends in gambling behavior. This study therefore aims to identify the gambling behavior and clinical characteristics of a treatment-seeking population over an 18-year period (2001 to 2018). Specifically, the proportion of referrals relating to the three most popular game-types; VLT play, slot machines and online gambling, and associated socio-demographic characteristics, gambling-related spending and clinical features. The results indicate the high addictive potential for VLT and slot-machine use, over the 18-year period with an increasing use of online gambling from 2012 to 2018 (even before the official opening of the market). Problem-gambling vulnerability factors such as low income, unemployment and debts as well as self-reported suicidal ideation, were also over-represented in the sample. This longitudinal overview provides a detailed picture of treatment-seeking referrals, for future comparisons and can be used to tailor clinical interventions.
Background and aims:
Casino loyalty programs are marketing strategies designed to foster attitudinal (i.e., identification and satisfaction) and behavioral (i.e., spending) loyalty among gamblers by offering rewards to members. Casino loyalty programs use a tier-based structure to segment members who spend more money into higher tiers, where they receive better rewards (compared to lower tiered members). Tier-based structures may encourage increased expenditure among patrons, especially among players living with a gambling disorder. The current work aimed to examine whether tier status and disordered gambling symptomatology interact to predict attitudinal and behavioral loyalty.
Methods:
Study 1 used a cross-sectional design to examine whether tier status and disordered gambling symptomatology interact to predict self-reported loyalty among a sample of American casino loyalty program members (N = 396). In Study 2, archival player account data from Canadian casino loyalty program members (N = 649) were analyzed to examine whether tier status and disordered gambling symptomatology interact to predict objective measures of behavioral loyalty.
Results:
The greatest effect of tier status on attitudinal and behavioral loyalty was observed among non-problem gamblers in the highest tiers. Tier status, however, did not influence loyalty among members high in disordered gambling symptomatology.
Discussion:
Results suggest that once gambling has become problematic, loyalty programs may not influence player attitudes and behaviors. Non-problem gamblers may be particularly susceptible to the tiered structure of the programs.
Conclusion:
Non-problem gamblers may benefit from casino loyalty programs in the short-term but longitudinal research is needed to understand the long-term influence of membership.
Computer games are highly immersive, engaging, and motivating learning environments. By providing a tutorial at the start of a new game, players learn the basics of the game's underlying principles as well as practice how to successfully play the game. During the actual gameplay, players repetitively apply this knowledge, thus improving it due to repetition. Computer games also challenge players with a constant stream of new challenges which increase in difficulty over time. As a result, computer games even require players to transfer their knowledge to master these new challenges. A computer game consists of several game mechanics. Game mechanics are the rules of a computer game and encode the game's underlying principles. They create the virtual environments, generate a game's challenges and allow players to interact with the game. Game mechanics also can encode real world knowledge. This knowledge may be acquired by players via gameplay. However, the actual process of knowledge encoding and knowledge learning using game mechanics has not been thoroughly defined, yet. This thesis therefore proposes a theoretical model to define the knowledge learning using game mechanics: the Gamified Knowledge Encoding. The model is applied to design a serious game for affine transformations, i.e., GEtiT, and to predict the learning outcome of playing a computer game that encodes orbital mechanics in its game mechanics, i.e., Kerbal Space Program. To assess the effects of different visualization technologies on the overall learning outcome, GEtiT visualizes the gameplay in desktop-3D and immersive virtual reality. The model's applicability for effective game design as well as GEtiT's overall design are evaluated in a usability study. The learning outcome of playing GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program is assessed in four additional user studies. The studies' results validate the use of the Gamified Knowledge Encoding for the purpose of developing effective serious games and to predict the learning outcome of existing serious games. GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program yield a similar training effect but a higher motivation to tackle the assignments in comparison to a traditional learning method. In conclusion, this thesis expands the understanding of using game mechanics for an effective learning of knowledge. The presented results are of high importance for researches, educators, and developers as they also provide guidelines for the development of effective serious games.
Multiline slots are popular electronic gaming machines. Research suggests that particular outcomes on these games, namely losses disguised as a wins or LDWs, may make these games particularly alluring to gamblers. LDWs occur when one wins less than they wager, but the machine celebrates these net losses with flashing lines and winning sounds (e.g., bet a dollar, win back a dime). Players are known to somatically, psychologically, and behaviourlly miscategorize LDWs as wins rather than losses. Furthermore, LDWs lead players to overestimate how many times they thought they won during a playing session – leading to what is known as the LDW-triggered win-overestimation effect. In this paper, we analyzed experienced players win-overestimates from 13 studies after playing slots with different LDW percentages. The combined data showed an inverted U-shaped function for win-overestimates. There appears to be a “sweet spot” for the LDW-triggered win-overestimation effect; wherein, a moderate number of LDWs maximizes this effect, but a high number of LDWs decreases the effect. In Study 2, we confirmed with 132 experienced gamblers that there appears to be maximal win overestimates at around 19.6% LDWs. We conjecture that a high number of LDWs may lead players to see a disconnection between the running total on the machine going down and the number of “wins”, leading to more accurate win estimates. This inverted “U” effect for win-overestimates parallels previous research showing that gamblers continue to play for longer during a losing streak following a playing session with a moderate (versus low or high) number of LDWs. LDW-triggered win-overestimates may contribute to the allure of multiline slots –games that cause significant problems for a subset of gamblers.
Immersive Virtual Reality (VR) is increasingly being explored as an alternative medium for gambling games to attract players. Typically, gambling games try to impair a player’s decision making, usually for the disadvantage of the players’ financial outcome. An impaired
decision making results in the inability to differentiate between advantageous and disadvantageous options. We investigated if and how immersion impacts decision making using a VR-based realization of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) to pinpoint potential risks and effects of gambling in VR. During the IGT, subjects are challenged to draw cards from four different decks of which two are advantageous. The selections made serve as a measure of a participant’s decision making during the task. In a novel user study, we compared the
effects of immersion on decision making between a low-immersive desktop-3D-based IGT realization and a high immersive VR version. Our results revealed significantly more disadvantageous decisions when playing the immersive VR version. This indicates an impairing effect of immersion on simulated real life decision making and provides empirical evidence for a high risk potential of gambling games targeting immersive VR.
Slot machines are one of the most played games by pathological gamblers. New technologies, e.g. immersive Virtual Reality (VR), offer more possibilities to exploit erroneous beliefs in the context of gambling. However, the risk potential of VR-based gambling has not been researched, yet. A higher immersion might increase harmful aspects, thus making VR realizations more dangerous. Measuring harm-inducing factors reveals the risk potential of virtual gambling. In a user study, we analyze a slot machine realized as a desktop 3D and as an immersive VR version. Both versions are compared in respect to effects on dissociation, urge to gamble, dark flow, and illusion of control. Our study shows significantly higher values of dissociation, dark flow, and urge to gamble in the VR version. Presence significantly correlates with all measured harm-inducing factors. We demonstrate that VR-based gambling has a higher risk potential. This creates the importance of regulating VR-based gambling.
Video slot machines are associated with both an accelerated transition into problematic forms of gambling, as well as psychosocial harm above and beyond other forms of gambling. A growing body of evidence is uncovering how key design features of multi‐line slot machines produce an inflated experience of reward, despite the fact that these features offer no overall financial benefit to the player. A pernicious example of this are “losses disguised as wins” (or LDWs), which occur when simultaneous bets placed on multiple lines result in a winning combination that returns an amount greater than zero, but less the total wager. These events are usually accompanied by the same celebratory sounds and animations that accompany true wins. We argue that LDWs may leverage neuropsychological phenomena that underlie reinforcement learning and contribute to extended or repetitive use and gambling related harm. While other characteristics of slot machine gambling have been examined by cognitive neuroscientists, this feature has not yet received attention. Neuroscientific methods can be used to assess the impact of LDWs on the human reward system, to assess the claim that these events are a reinforcing and contributing factor in the development of harmful play. Positive findings would provide further persuasive evidence in support of strategies to minimise gambling harm through the regulation of machine design.
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Problem gamblers are often bewildered by their ongoing behaviour. Furthermore, they make attributions about their gambling that do not allow for constructive change. Psychoeducation traditionally involves learning about gambling and probability (e.g. features of the electronic gaming machine (EGM) and independence of turns in probability). Learning about how the mind works is also helpful. Learning about intermittent reinforcement, about how the human mind uses heuristics, about illusions and about the role of dopamine can help the problem gambler understand and step back from hunches, intuitions and the presence of urges. Psychoeducation allows the problem gambler to develop an understanding of their gambling that does not involve attributions of character and by doing so creates opportunities for change. Vivid illustrations make concepts memorable, such as the Stroop test to illustrate automaticity of repeated actions or the Muller-Lyer illusion to illustrate paradoxical beliefs. The cunning self-management displayed by Ulysses in mythology can be an inspiration.
This chapter discusses six popular forms of gambling—lottery, scratch cards, roulette, fruit machines, sports betting, and card games—and indicates how they illustrate the way that people reason about money and probability. Then, it also discusses the economic, psychological and neurological roots of problem gambling. Roulette is a good game to discuss loss chasing. Loss chasing is characteristic of problem gamblers, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Problem gambling (gambling addiction, pathological gambling) is a mental disorder defined by DSM-5 as 'persistent and recurrent problematic gambling behavior leading to clinically significant impairment or distress'. For less severe problem gamblers, brief interventions such as warning messages have been used to reduce the gambling behaviour. This approach appears to be useful to some of them but not for others. Courses of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) typically last longer than brief interventions.
The present study was conducted to identify game parameters that would reduce the risk of abuse of video lottery terminals (VLTs) by pathological gamblers, while exerting minimal effects on the behavior of non-pathological gamblers. Three manipulations of standard VLT game features were explored. Participants were exposed to: a counter which displayed a running total of money spent; a VLT spinning reels game where participants could no longer stop the reels by touching the screen; and sensory feature manipulations. In control conditions, participants were exposed to standard settings for either a spinning reels or a video poker game. Dependent variables were self-ratings of reactions to each set of parameters. A set of 2(3) 2 2 (game manipulation [experimental condition(s) vs. control condition] game [spinning reels vs. video poker] gambler status [pathological vs. non-pathological]) repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted on all dependent variables. The findings suggest that the sensory manipulations (i.e., fast speed/sound or slow speed/no sound manipulations) produced the most robust reaction differences. Before advocating harm reduction policies such as lowering sensory features of VLT games to reduce potential harm to pathological gamblers, it is important to replicate findings in a more naturalistic setting, such as a real bar.