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Evaluation of a novel method of horse personality assessment: Rater-agreement and links to behaviour
Abstract
The efficacy of questionnaire-based personality assessment has been shown in a variety of animal and human personality studies. There has been a recent increase in questionnaire-based studies focussing on equine personality but with a lack of comparability to studies on other species. The aim of this study was to test the reliability of an assessment method originally developed for primates and demonstrate reliability using three criteria (1) assessments by independent observers must agree with one another, (2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and (3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individuals rated, not merely the observer's implicit personality theories about how traits co-vary. The personality of 61 horses (Equus caballus) was assessed using a questionnaire constructed of 30 behaviourally defined adjectives (BDAs). Horses were each assessed by three judges, in addition to a total of 2h behaviour observations recorded per horse. Rater agreement was demonstrated for 72.1% of the horses and 25 of the BDAs. Principal component analysis was carried out on the rating data and revealed six underlying personality components that were labelled “dominance”, “anxiousness”, “excitability”, “protection”, “sociability” and “inquisitiveness”. Component scores for horses were correlated against behavioural observations for the same horses and revealed significant correlations with 20 of the recorded behaviour variables. Correlations between specific components and their associated behaviours were logical and consistent with the types of behaviours that would be expected to be linked with such personality types. The data were shown to meet all three criteria and provided strong evidence that the assessment method was reliably measuring horse personality.
... An alternative approach to objective testing is subjective assessment [8]. This consists in rating the personality traits by questionnaire, as in humans [21][22][23][24]. The assessor needs to be familiar with the focal animal. ...
... Different personality tests have been developed, in order to assess horses' personality, recording physiological and behavioural responses and some of them have been validated on the long term [19,[28][29][30][31]. In order to evaluate the general attitude of horses in everyday life rather than in standardised situations, questionnaires have also been developed which are lled out by caretakers [17,21,22,27,[32][33][34][35][36]. As example, Momozawa, Kusunose [21] worked with 20 adjectives and three factors were extracted, i.e."Anxiety", "Trainability", and "Affability". ...
... As example, Momozawa, Kusunose [21] worked with 20 adjectives and three factors were extracted, i.e."Anxiety", "Trainability", and "Affability". Another research group, developed their own questionnaire, Horse Personality questionnaire (HPQ) [22,34], which works with 30 behaviourally de ned adjectives. They revealed, through principal component analysis, six underlying personality components, i.e. "Dominance", "Anxiousness", "Excitability", "Sociability" and "Inquisitiveness" and correlate them with behavioural observations. ...
The personality of a horse is thought to influence the quality of horse-human relationship. In this study, we developed a questionnaire to assess horse’s personality. For validation, 2431 horse-owners filled it out for their horse along with an existing questionnaire to determine their personality. Out of this sample, 39 horses were tested in personality tests, to monitor the owners' responses to the questionnaires. We then compared the results of the equine questionnaire to the results of the personality tests and then investigated which components of the equine personality and of the owner, were similar. Personality scores obtained from the questionnaire showed, first, that owners with a higher Emotional stability score perceived their horses to be also easily stressed (r = 0.26, N = 2431, p < 0.05) and secondly that Conscientious owners described their horses as Conscientious as well (r = 0.26, N = 2431, p < 0.05). The personality tests confirmed the scores for the Emotional stability trait, i.e. easily stressed horses were more active during personality tests (r = 0.56, N = 39, p < 0.05). These results do not allow us to exclude the effect of the owner's personality on his horse in the long term.
... These industry-relevant outcomes may be predicted through accurate personality assessment. Equine personality may be assessed subjectively through trait ratings provided by a familiar observer (Momozawa et al., 2003;Lloyd et al., 2007;Ijichi et al., 2013). This allows quick assessments without the logistical difficulties associated with standardised behavioural testing (Gosling, 2001). ...
... In addition to the quality of the psychometric instrument itself, reliability of scoring may be impacted by the degree of familiarity of the rater with the target animal and the variety of contexts in which the target animal could be observed (Gosling, 2001). This has been tentatively identified in the horse (Lloyd et al., 2007). Finally, personality represents "temporally stable patterns of affect, cognition, and behaviour" (Gosling, 2008). ...
... The Equine Personality Test (EPT) provides a trait-based assessment of horses on 5 personality factors: Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extroversion, Gregariousness towards People and Gregariousness towards Horse . While other questionnaire-based personality tests are available for equines (Le Scolan, Hausberger and Wolff, 1997;Morris, Gale and Howe, 2002;Seaman, Davidson and Waran, 2002;Momozawa et al., 2003;Lloyd et al., 2007), the EPT offers several advantages over these. Most of these questionnaires were not designed using formal scale construction methods recognised by psychometric research (Le Scolan, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Hausberger and Wolff, 1997;Seaman, Davidson and Waran, 2002;Momozawa et al., 2003) or are not specific to the target species (Morris, Gale and Howe, 2002). ...
Subjective equine personality questionnaires have the potential to predict a range of industry-relevant outcomes including fear reactivity, compliance with human cues, pain expression and susceptibility to stereotypies, in a time- and cost-efficient manner. However, to produce meaningful measures of target animals’ behavioural tendencies, subjective personality assessment tools must satisfy four criteria: internal consistency, predictive validity, inter-rater reliability, and test-retest reliability. The Equine Personality Test (EPT) has been developed to assess horses on five personality factors based on trait ratings from a familiar observer. While the EPT has been shown to have predictive validity, it has not been assessed for internal consistency, inter-rater reliability or test-retest reliability. To this end, three experienced primary caregivers and three riding instructors assessed 25 familiar horses using the EPT. The internal consistency, inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability of the five subscales of the EPT were investigated using Cronbach’s α and intra-class correlation (ICC) analyses. The Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extroversion and Gregariousness towards People subscales had high Cronbach α and inter-rater and test-retest ICC coefficients (α> 0.7; ICC>0.8). By contrast, the Gregariousness towards Horses subscale had low Cronbach α (α=0.39) and inter-rater ICC coefficient (ICC=0.498), and an adequate test-retest ICC coefficient (ICC=0.784). Primary caregivers had higher ICC coefficients than instructors for most subscales and questionnaire items. The EPT therefore provides internally consistent and highly reliable measures of Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extroversion, and Gregariousness towards People in equines, although measures of Gregariousness towards Horses should be interpreted with caution. The reliability of EPT scores can be further improved by targeting primary caregivers as raters. Taken together with previous findings demonstrating predictive validity for the questionnaire, these results contribute to making the EPT the only subjective equine personality questionnaire to have been checked against all four criteria of a valid and reliable personality assessment tool. This positions the EPT as a highly relevant equine personality assessment tool that may be used to predict behavioural tendencies in industry or research settings alike.
... McGreevy, 2004;Neave et al., 2018;Rice et al., 2016;Toscano et al., 2016), but aspects such as temperamental traits and lateralization are rarely taken into consideration in studies of equine feed selection mechanisms. Temperamental traits (Momozawa et al., 2003;Visser et al., 2001), in some studies also reported as personality (Ijichi et al., 2013;König v, 2013;Lloyd et al., 2007), are defined by specific behavioural characteristics that may be genetically inherited and influenced by past experience. Previous studies have mainly focused on the association between temperament and welfare. ...
... Subsequently the influence of temperamental traits on palatability test was investigated. The four temperament components assessed in our study, namely active, low activity, fearful and excitable, were selected considering previous research (Lloyd et al., 2008(Lloyd et al., , 2007Schork et al., 2018;Seaman et al., 2002). We found the active component to be positively correlated with trot-gallop, vigilance and walking and negatively correlated with standing and the average latency in shifting the body from one axis to the other, meaning that the ponies frequently moved within the testing arena. ...
... Fearful component, in our study, was linked to behaviours that express stress situations in horses (vigilance, snorting, whinnying) and additionally; the time passed before these animals went near the novel object/person were also long. Lloyd et al. (2007) defined a horse that "over reacts to any change" and is "easily excited and highly strung" as excitable. The excitatory component found in their research had a negative correlation with standing position. ...
Compared with other domestic animals, little is known about dietary preferences and feed palatability in equids. Furthermore, it is known that equids exhibit marked lateralization, that is, a preference for one side over the other, and that each individual differs in temperament. However, a gap in our knowledge exists regarding the influence of lateralization and temperament might have in palatability tests. The aim of the study was to assess ponies’ preferences for odour and taste of different flavours added to hay using palatability tests, taking into consideration both temperamental characteristics and their lateralization response. Twelve ponies were randomly enrolled. Three behavioural tests were carried out (arena test, novel object test, person test) to assess their individual temperament and lateralization. Their behavioural responses and movements were recorded. Two-choice tests were carried out to assess palatability using first-cut chopped hay with vs. without the addition of the following flavours: carrot (C), vanilla (V), milk protein (MP), and milk protein with sugar (MS). Each flavour was tested simultaneously against the negative control in which water was added to the hay to achieve the same moisture level (water, W). The evaluated variables were: first feed approached (flavoured vs. W); first bucket approached (left or right); and quantity of voluntary intake. Three groups were defined based on lateralization (left: N = 4; right: N = 6; none: N = 2) and four components were extracted by PCA from behavioural and activity variables. Six ponies were identified as excitable (E) (positive component 4) and six as non-excitable (NE) (negative component 4). All the ponies tolerated the addition of flavours to the hay, with the exception of MP. As regards first choice preferences, ponies showed a tendency to choose V (P = 0.06) and MS (P = 0.06) over unflavoured hay (W), and significantly choose MP as first choice (P < 0.05). No significant differences were seen concerning the intake of C, V or MS flavoured hay compared with W; whereas intake of MP was significantly lower. In general, flavoured hay was preferred as the first choice feed to consume before unflavoured hay (P < 0.01), above all for NE group (P < 0.01). With regards lateralization, the right-hand bucket was most frequently selected as first choice. In conclusion, new odours seem to enhance palatability in ponies, although preference for a new odour did not necessarily correlate with greater intake. This work shows that lateralization and temperaments in equines need to be taken into consideration when setting up palatability studies.
... The usefulness of questionnaires in assessing personality depends on validation of the instrument (Lloyd et al., 2007). Validation methods for equine personality questionnaires have included comparison to behavioral and physiological data, inter-rater agreement, repeatability, and identification of a factor structure ( Table 2). ...
... There are also questionnaires which have been used without validation (Table 2). A few studies have utilized more than one validation method (Visser et al., 2003;Lloyd et al., 2007). ...
... Use of questionnaires presents some distinct advantages. Using the same questionnaire, such as those developed by Momozawa et al. (2005a) and Lloyd et al. (2007), across multiple studies allows for comparison between studies and further aids in the development of a robust model of personality in the horse. The relative ease of questionnaire administration makes large sample sizes feasible without creating undue strain on time and budget resources as illustrated by the sample sizes recorded in Tables 1 and 2. Researchers should exercise care in choosing the most appropriate method of personality assessment. ...
Examining the literature suggests equine personality is of interest to behavior and welfare scientists and those involved in the equine industry. Study and assessment of personality is critical because of the profound implications certain traits have with respect to injury risk, the horse-human relationship, training processes, learning in horses, and management or breeding practices. The review summarizes the evidence for a genetic basis of personality, the evidence for modification of personality by environment and experience, the measures and tools used in assessing personality, and the traits comprising personality. The review also highlights key considerations for the researcher and areas warranting further study. A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar and Web of Science with the search terms equine and horse in combination with personality and temperament. One hundred thirteen articles were included in the review after exclusion of non-peer-reviewed articles, abstracts, theses, and dissertations. Differences of personality between breeds, estimates of heritability, and identification of specific genes and genetic markers relating to personality illustrate the genetic basis of personality. Further work in identifying specific genes and genetic markers of other personality traits would enable more targeted breeding programs. Experience with their dam, environmental factors such as housing conditions, and training or handling modify a horse’s expression of personality. These factors also present potential confounding variables for the researcher. The effects of the in vivo environment on personality in horses remains unexplored as does the importance of timing over the lifespan for modification and the duration of these effects. Personality is assessed via direct observation and measurement of behavioral, endocrine, cardiac response, or temperature correlates during structured tests or routine management procedures, questionnaires, or a combination thereof. Careful consideration should be given to selection of the most appropriate assessment method given the aims of the study, resources available, and previous validation of the method or methods. Reactivity, gregariousness, reactivity to humans, sensory sensitivity, and locomotor activity are some of the most assessed traits, but no unifying structure of personality is consistently identified across studies. Researchers should give attention to addressing and acknowledging potential confounding variables and selecting an appropriate trait to assess with validated measures.
... The first reflects a respondent's personal impressions and experiences and is thus subjective. On the other hand, a questionnaire is based on long-term observation and could include several innate emotional traits that are stable across time [34,38]. The second one, the behavioral test, is more objective; however, it reflects a 'snapshot' in time without any emotional relations between the horse and the handler [38]. ...
... On the other hand, a questionnaire is based on long-term observation and could include several innate emotional traits that are stable across time [34,38]. The second one, the behavioral test, is more objective; however, it reflects a 'snapshot' in time without any emotional relations between the horse and the handler [38]. Therefore, we the typical behavioral test to include the exchanging of emotional information between horse and human. ...
... The flightiness horses, showed signs of mental stress, anxiety, and nervousness mainly before starting the work with a new object. Similar to the recent research [32,38,43], our studded features related to anxiety and nervousness consistently account for the greatest amount of variation, taking into account the heart rate parameters as indicators of mental stress in horses [23,42]. It should be noted that more severe signs of stress during and after work were observed in timid horses. ...
A treadmill is an important tool in the equine analysis of gait, lameness, and hoof balance, as well as for the evaluation of horse rehabilitation or poor performance including dynamic endoscopy. Before all of these uses, horses have to be habituated to a treadmill locomotion. We used principal component analysis to evaluate the relationship between aspects of the horse’s temperament and emotional response, and progress in the behavioral habituation to a treadmill. Fourteen horses were tested, by the same familiar handler, using the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and negative emotional response tests. Then, four stages of gradual habituation of the first work on a treadmill were conducted. Each time, the horse’s behavior was filmed. Data obtained from ethograms and heart rate measurements were tested. Four principal components were identified in examined horses: “Flightiness,” “Freeziness,” “Curiosity,” and “Timidity.” Flightiness was connected with nervousness, agitation by new objects, and easy excitability, and gradually decreased of features during habituation. Timidity was associated with a lack of courage and stress in new situations, and those features strongly increased when the treadmill was introduced. Freeziness and Curiosity features showed strong stability throughout the whole habituation. The results of this study provide evidence for a connection between temperament, emotional response, and habituation process in a horse.
... Finally, staff was asked to complete a Horse personality questionnaire developed by Lloyd et al. (2007). The survey was translated into Swedish and contained 25 fully described adjectives (see Lloyd et al., 2007 for details) which the staff was asked to score for each horse using a seven-point scale: 1 "no expression," 4 "average," and 7 "total expression." ...
... Finally, staff was asked to complete a Horse personality questionnaire developed by Lloyd et al. (2007). The survey was translated into Swedish and contained 25 fully described adjectives (see Lloyd et al., 2007 for details) which the staff was asked to score for each horse using a seven-point scale: 1 "no expression," 4 "average," and 7 "total expression." The adjective scores for each horse were thereafter multiplied with the original principal component analysis loadings to achieve values on six different personality traits for each horse/pony (Lloyd et al., 2007): dominance (high negative loadings for reliability, subordinate and equable, and high positive loadings for irritable, aggressive, stubborn, effective, and eccentric), anxiousness (high positive loadings for fearful, apprehensive, tense, insecure, and suspicious), excitability (high negative loading for slow and high positive loading for active, intelligent, and excitable), protection (high loadings for protective, motherly, and understanding), sociability (high loadings for popular, playful, and sociable), and inquisitiveness (high loadings for opportunistic and curious). ...
... The survey was translated into Swedish and contained 25 fully described adjectives (see Lloyd et al., 2007 for details) which the staff was asked to score for each horse using a seven-point scale: 1 "no expression," 4 "average," and 7 "total expression." The adjective scores for each horse were thereafter multiplied with the original principal component analysis loadings to achieve values on six different personality traits for each horse/pony (Lloyd et al., 2007): dominance (high negative loadings for reliability, subordinate and equable, and high positive loadings for irritable, aggressive, stubborn, effective, and eccentric), anxiousness (high positive loadings for fearful, apprehensive, tense, insecure, and suspicious), excitability (high negative loading for slow and high positive loading for active, intelligent, and excitable), protection (high loadings for protective, motherly, and understanding), sociability (high loadings for popular, playful, and sociable), and inquisitiveness (high loadings for opportunistic and curious). ...
Hair cortisol is a promising biomarker to measure long-term stress since cortisol is incorporated into the hair shaft as it grows. However, few studies have previously assessed hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in horses. In this study, HCC was evaluated in both mane hair from the neck and body hair from the withers in 153 horses of different breeds, from seven different stables with three different management regimes (Free-roaming horses, Riding school horses, Trotter horses). In addition, 4 hours of behavioral observations were performed at each stable, and for 43 of the horses, a personality survey was completed. Mane and withers HCC correlated moderately, but significantly (rs=0.48, p<0.001). Differences between the stables were found for both mane and withers hair (both p<0.01) and the stable with lowest HCC also showed highest occurrences of positive social and resting behaviors (both p<0.01). There were no significant differences in HCC between the management regimes even though Free-roaming horses showed less negative social behavior compared to Riding school horses (p=0.041) and Trotter horses (p=0.055). The personality traits Dominance, Anxiousness, and Excitability revealed weak to moderate correlations with mane HCC (rs=-0.34, p=0.027; rs=-0.46, p=0.002; rs=-0.31, p=0.043 respectively) which might suggest that personality could also be related to long-term stress levels in horses.
... The staff was asked to complete a horse personality questionnaire (HPQ) developed by Lloyd et al. (2007). The minimum requirement was that the person filling in the survey had known and handled the horse for at least 6 months. ...
... The HPQ consisted of 25 fully described adjectives (Online Resource 2) which were translated into Swedish and the staff was asked to score each horse from 1 to 7 for each adjective, where 1 meant no expression, 4 meant average and 7 meant total expression. The adjective scores for each horse were thereafter multiplied with the original PCA loadings (Lloyd et al. 2007) in order to achieve values on six different personality traits (Online Resource 1): Dominance (high negative loadings for reliability, subordinate, and equable and high positive loadings for irritable, aggressive, stubborn, effective, and eccentric), Anxiousness (high positive loadings for fearful, apprehensive, tense, insecure, and suspicious), Excitability (high negative loading for slow and high positive loading for active, intelligent, and excitable), Protection (high positive loadings for protective, motherly, and understanding), Sociability (high positive loadings for popular, playful, and sociable) and Inquisitiveness (high positive loadings for opportunistic and curious). ...
... Personality traits are shown to be, at least to some extent, breed dependent (Lloyd et al. 2007). Full-sized horses are shown to be calmer than ponies during an open field test, while ponies are suggested to be less curious and attentive (Napolitano et al. 2008). ...
Due to our long history of living in close association with horses, these animals are suggested to have enhanced skills in understanding and communicating with humans. Today, horses have become important to humans for sport and leisure and their understanding of human behaviour and their human-directed behaviour are therefore of great importance. In this study, we investigated 22 horses in a human contact-seeking experiment where they were presented with an unsolvable problem and a detour experiment with a human demonstrator. The unsolvable problem consisted of pieces of carrot in a closed bucket and the detour resembled the shape of V. Additionally, personality traits of the participating horses were assessed. Interestingly, the full-sized horses (N = 11) showed more human-related behaviours when presented with an unsolvable problem compared to before the carrots were made unreachable (p = 0.033), while the ponies (N = 11) did not. However, neither the full-sized horses nor the ponies were significantly more successful in the detour after human demonstrations than in control trials. When comparing the two experiments, we found the task-oriented behaviour in the detour test to positively correlate with human proximity and eye contact-seeking behaviour towards humans during the unsolvable problem in the contact-seeking test. Interestingly, again this was only true for the full-sized horses (p < 0.05) and not for the ponies. From the horse personality questionnaire results, the traits excitability and anxiousness revealed strong negative correlations with human-directed behaviour in the contact-seeking experiment (p < 0.05). Hence, size (full-sized horse/pony) and personality influenced the human-related behaviours of the horses and we suggest a future focus on these aspects to deepen our understanding of human–horse communication.
... In general, horse personalities can be classified into six, Dominance, Anxiousness, Stereotype, Liveliness, Inquisitiveness and Protection [2]. Every horse breeds has a distinctive behaviour and different personality [19]. Lloyd's [2], identified that Anxiousness and Excitability are the most variation between breeds, while Protection and Dominance show small variations. ...
... Questionnaire design. Horse Personality Questionnaire (HPQ) was used to assess horse personality in this study [19], a 25 rating method, adjusted into 15 characters (personalities) ( Table 1) due to housing management circumstances. There was no different questionnaire format was used to assess for all breeds. ...
... Each horse was assessed three times.Calculation of component scores and statistical analysis. Calculation of the component scores for individual horse are using the horse personality model that developed by Lloyd et al.[19]. Eigen value1st International Conference on Food and Agriculture 2018 IOP Conf. ...
Behaviour traits play important role in horse used for military purposes. The aim of this study was to assess the personality of different horse breeds which trained for military purposes in Cavalry Detachment, Parongpong, Bandung, West Java. This study was performed on 40 trained horses which comprised of 20 Thoroughbred (Tbh), 10 Andalusian and 10 Unknown and on 25 non trained horse as control, which comprised of 5 Tbh, 15 Andalusian and 5 Unknown. The Horse Personality Questionnaire (HPQ), a 25 item rating method, was used to assess the horse personality of 3 horse breeds in two groups, by adjusting into 15 characters due to housing management circumstances. Principal component analysis (PCA) on HPQ data has identified five underlying personality components in observed horses. These were Dominance, Anxiousness, Stereotype, Liveliness, and Inquisitiveness. Further, Kruskal Wallis procedure was employed to observe the personality differences among breeds and training status. The PCA result showed that there are five principal components which explained most of the variance in the datasets (73.4% and 74.86% for trained and non-trained horses, respectively). Kruskal Wallis results showed that breed and training status affecting seven of the applied 15 HPQ characters: Apprehensive, curious, eccentric, equable, fearful, protective and suspicious. Equable, protective and suspicious traits were only affected by training status regardless the horse breeds. We conclude that the variation of horses' behaviour among breeds and training status existed.
... This approach would however need to proceed mindful of the balance between genotypic determination of temperament and subsequent environmental modification of behavioural output. Whilst temperament and personality type research has been conducted in horses (for example see [24,33,44,45,47]), the way in which the result of this relates to dopaminergic function has yet to be determined empirically. Interestingly however, Momozawa et al. [46] observed a significant relationship between DRD4 (dopamine D4 receptor subtype) single nucleotide polymorphism, an A-G substitution causing an amino acid change from asparagine to aspartic acid [23]. ...
... It is for this reason that SBR and BIR were utilised here to examine the role of dopamine in the generation of temperament. A questionnaire was used to gather temperament data due to previous validation of this approach within the literature [33,44,45]. Results of this study could provide a valuable basis for the early identification of horses undergoing initial DA dysfunction thereby improving welfare through timely intervention. ...
... breed) shown by other studies to impact upon temperament [20,34]. Section 2 was based on previous equine temperament questionnaires [33,44,45]. A 1-9 Likert scale was used to assess 41 temperament descriptions. ...
A relationship between dopamine and temperament has previously been described in human cases of dopaminergic dysfunction. Adjustment in temperament prior to disease manifestation can enable the early identification of individuals at risk of such conditions, and scope exists to extend this application of temperament alterations to cases of dopaminergic dysfunction in horses. A multivariate and mixed-methods approach utilising a questionnaire along with two inferred measurements of dopamine activity (Spontaneous Blink Rate [SBR] and Behavioral Initiation Rate [BIR]) were recorded from direct observation of animals (n=99) to identify the potential relationship between dopamine and temperament in horses. Principal components analysis (PCA) of 36 temperament variables revealed nine Principal Components, including 'Anxiety' and 'Docility', which accounted for 72.4% of the total variance. Component scores were calculated and correlated with SBR and BIR utilising Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient analysis. The component 'Anxiety' was found to have a significant positive relationship with SBR, whereas 'Docility' was observed to have a significant negative relationship with SBR. These results indicate a relationship between dopamine and temperament within the horse that is certainly worthy of further study. Potential mechanisms involving neural dopaminergic and GABAergic systems are presented, in addition to how such alterations could be utilised to probe for equine dopamine dysfunction pending future research.
... Lansade and Bouissou, 2008;Lansade et al., 2008aLansade et al., , 2008bLansade et al., , 2008cVisser et al., 2001) and questionnaire techniques (i.e. Momozawa et al., 2003Momozawa et al., , 2005Morris et al., 2002;Lloyd et al., 2007;McGrogan et al., 2007). ...
... Despite these examples of similarities to human temperament theories, the proposed concept is one of the few personality models where the dimensions are not adapted from other species but developed specifically for horses. Although derived from trainers' experience, many factors similar to the proposed dimensions have been previously studied in horses: tEN (Lansade et al., 2008b), tFR (Lansade et al., 2008a;Lloyd et al., 2007;Mills, 1998;Anderson et al., 1999;Visser et al., 2003;Momozawa et al., 2003), tSN (Lansade et al., 2008c;Mills, 1998;Visser et al., 2003;Lloyd et al., 2007), cSB (Anderson et al., 1999;Lloyd et al., 2007), cCS (Anderson et al., 1999;Hausberger and Muller, 2002;Lansade and Bouissou, 2008), and cAG (Mills, 1998;Seaman et al., 2002;Lloyd et al., 2007). Counterparts to tAD and cSR are the least frequently occurring in the literature on equine personality, but their components were also the subject of previous cognitive studies (Bergvall et al., 2011;Lansade and Simon, 2010;McCall, 1990;Murphy and Arkins, 2007). ...
... Despite these examples of similarities to human temperament theories, the proposed concept is one of the few personality models where the dimensions are not adapted from other species but developed specifically for horses. Although derived from trainers' experience, many factors similar to the proposed dimensions have been previously studied in horses: tEN (Lansade et al., 2008b), tFR (Lansade et al., 2008a;Lloyd et al., 2007;Mills, 1998;Anderson et al., 1999;Visser et al., 2003;Momozawa et al., 2003), tSN (Lansade et al., 2008c;Mills, 1998;Visser et al., 2003;Lloyd et al., 2007), cSB (Anderson et al., 1999;Lloyd et al., 2007), cCS (Anderson et al., 1999;Hausberger and Muller, 2002;Lansade and Bouissou, 2008), and cAG (Mills, 1998;Seaman et al., 2002;Lloyd et al., 2007). Counterparts to tAD and cSR are the least frequently occurring in the literature on equine personality, but their components were also the subject of previous cognitive studies (Bergvall et al., 2011;Lansade and Simon, 2010;McCall, 1990;Murphy and Arkins, 2007). ...
Equine behaviour is crucial for all kinds of equestrian activities, and therefore behavioural traits are considered as selection criteria in horse breeding programs in many countries. Since neither a desired profile of equine personality for particular riding disciplines nor detailed preferences of different groups of equestrians have been clearly established, the aims of present study were: personality model development, establishing of equestrians preferences regarding this model, and determination of general equestrians’ opinions in the subject. The personality model proposed here, based on the opinions of 16 experienced equestrians (two independent expert groups), classifies equine personality into temperament and character. Combining the results with existing human personality models we define temperament as simple, innate properties of the nervous system, whereas character includes complex features acquired through learning. Four dimensions were distinguished for temperament: energy (tEN), fearfulness (tFR), sensitivity (tSN), adaptability (tAD), and four other dimensions for character: submissiveness (cSB), aggression (cAG), human contact seeking (cCS) and self-reliance (cSR). These dimensions were used to establish a desired equine personality profile. A Survey on Equine Personality was completed by 701 women and 100 men, representing 15 professions and 10 disciplines. Respondents were of the opinion that psychological traits are equally important for success in equestrian sports as physical traits (Chi-square test: X = 3.15; P = 0.21). All dimensions were assessed as important or very important (Median ≥ 4 on 1-5 scale). Our study not only refutes common beliefs that there is some mismatch between leisure and sport riders’ expectations, but also indicates in detail a desired personality profile which includes high tEN, tSN, tAD, cSB, cCS, cSR; low tFR and cAG, regardless a respondent’s discipline, age, gender, profession and level of experience or qualification. Respondents declared that present breeding selection for behavioural traits in Poland, lacking clear criteria like in Germany, is not efficient (X = 478; P < 0.0001). The proposed personality model was shown to be versatile and covered all important psychological traits. It was proposed that the breeding selection for equine personality should be based on personality profile that could be implemented regardless of the specific type of horse use.
... Some concepts involve all psychological properties as a whole, calling them interchangeably either personality or temperament (e.g. Visser et al., 2001;Momozawa et al., 2007;Lloyd et al., 2007), while others consider temperament and character to be separate qualities of equine personality (e.g. König von Borstel, 2013;Suwała et al., 2016). ...
... Several personality traits/dimensions have been distinguished in horses, including sociability/gregariousness Lloyd et al., 2007;Lansade et al., 2008). However, sociability or gregariousness could be interpreted as a willingness of animals to gather in groups, while the cited authors also tested the reaction to social separation/isolation, i.e. social dependence. ...
The effect of the sex of horses in personality studies seems an underestimated aspect, specifically for the social dependence personality trait. A simple two-choice test could be a promising tool to address the strength of social dependence in riding horses. The present study aimed, at exploring the effect of sex on social dependence, hypothesising that females will react with more anxiety than castrated males when exposed to social separation. We examined whether a two-choice test will predict social dependence in horses. Twenty-four experienced leisure horses (7 mares and 17 geldings) were tested with a simple two-choice (food vs equine companion) preference and subsequent social dependence test in three sessions within the test (Session1: separation with a preferred companion; Session2: isolation, and Session3: social stimulus, i.e. conspecific passing nearby). During the test, six horses chose the companion (companion-motivated, CM), and 18 horses chose the treats (food-motivated, FM). The choice was skewed for mares, as significantly more mares than geldings preferred the companion over the food (CM: Nmares=4, Ngeldings=2 and FM: Nmares=3, Ngeldings=15). In isolation, CM horses displayed significantly reduced feeding duration and standing still towards increased arousal, i.e. locomotor activity: trotting, cantering, pawing and vocalizations, as compared to FM horses that were calmer and more comfortable without companions than CM horses. Our results indicate that mares, compared to geldings, showed weaker interest in feeding, and longer bouts of movement (walk and trot), which indicated the prevailing willingness to reunite with the companions and were more socially dependent compared to castrated male horses. The authors propose that this simple two-choice test can be used as another test to assess social dependence in horses.
... Items included demographic data (i.e., geographical region), volunteer service (i.e., frequency, duration), volunteer tasks (i.e., type of EAS, role in session, enjoyment of roles, and satisfaction with therapy horses), center-provided trainings, and horse experience (i.e., prior experience, amount of experience, perceived competency). Items regarding volunteer perceptions of EAS horse traits were adapted from the equine personality assessment developed by Lloyd et al (2007), along with items asking respondents about how these traits impacted their ability to perform a task (i.e., leader, side walker) [24] . ...
... Items included demographic data (i.e., geographical region), volunteer service (i.e., frequency, duration), volunteer tasks (i.e., type of EAS, role in session, enjoyment of roles, and satisfaction with therapy horses), center-provided trainings, and horse experience (i.e., prior experience, amount of experience, perceived competency). Items regarding volunteer perceptions of EAS horse traits were adapted from the equine personality assessment developed by Lloyd et al (2007), along with items asking respondents about how these traits impacted their ability to perform a task (i.e., leader, side walker) [24] . ...
Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) gained a foothold in the healthcare industry as a unique modality addressing the physical, cognitive, and psychological health issues for people across the lifespan. These services require a team approach, with volunteer support playing a prominent role in service delivery. Volunteers are a precious resource for EAS programs and step into a variety of support roles, including preparation and handling. However, little is known about the horse-volunteer relationship or factors that influence their working relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this web-based survey was to characterize the volunteer experience and explore factors that may impact volunteers’ ability to accurately identify equine behavior. A total of 240 volunteers from 25 Professional Association for Therapeutic Horsemanship, International (PATH, Intl.) Premier Accredited Centers participated in this survey. The results of the correlational analyses and a general linear model suggested certain volunteer characteristics can be linked to accurate identification of horse behaviors. Horse leaders (p < 0.001) and volunteers who help with adaptive riding (p = 0.048) or therapeutic driving (p = 0.031) sessions more accurately recognized behaviors than those who held other roles. Volunteers who had any amount of horse experience prior to volunteering correctly identified more behaviors than those who came with none. A qualitative content analysis showed that volunteers felt most unprepared when a horse exhibited a behavior they were not trained to handle, and volunteers indicated their preparation to assist in EAS could be improved with more general training and education related to equine behavior.
... To conduct trait rating assessment, we compiled a personality questionnaire, based both on the "bottom-up traits" (Stevenson-Hinde and Zunz, 1978;Uher, 2008Uher, , 2011aUher, , 2011b, relevant for the species' behavioral repertoire, and the "top-down traits", previously used in other questionnaires on deer (e.g., Bergvall et al., 2011), elephants (Seltmann et al., 2018) and primates (Eckardt et al. 2015;Koski et al., 2017;Weiss, 2017). We started with a larger set of items (47 items from Bergvall et al., 2011, 30 items from Lloyd et al., 2007, 30 items from Seltmann et al., 2018, 23 items from Stevenson-Hinde and Zunz, 1978. However, since our sample size was limited, we decided that the final questionnaire should not have included more than 15 items. ...
... However, the observed between-rater agreement was much lower than in some other studies (e.g., Lloyd et al., 2007;Bergvall et al., 2011;Seltmann et al., 2018), which was an unexpected result. Given that descriptions of the items were kept simple and all three raters had several months of observational experience with all focal deer, such an exposure time should have been enough to reliably rate deer behavior. ...
Personality is not a uniquely human characteristic and it has been documented in a wide range of organisms, from mammals to birds, reptiles, fish and invertebrates. However, personality is still poorly understood in Cervids. Therefore, our study aimed to fill this gap by i) investigating personality and ii) exploring its links to dominance hierarchy, assessed by behavioral observations in 11 captive and tame male red deer (Cervus elaphus). Using questionnaires to assess personality, three trained volunteers rated these animals in 15 behaviorally composed adjectives with detailed descriptions, based on their overall impression at the end of the observation period. Behavioral data from animals was collected across three different situations, namely “feeding” (i.e., high competition for a scarce resource), “normal” (i.e., no external stimuli) in a group setting, and “handling” (i.e., stressful situation due to human manipulation) in an individual setting. We estimated dominance hierarchies between the individuals based on situations of average and high competition (i.e., “normal” and “feeding”) via the Clutton-Brock Index (CBI). Using Fleiss’ Kappa for inter-rater reliability, only five of our 15 behavioral adjectives showed acceptable reliability. Using principal component analysis, four of these adjectives formed one personality component labelled “Confidence/Aggressiveness”. We found that although “Confidence/Aggressiveness” did not correlate with CBI, ratings of two adjectives loading onto this component, namely “Confident” and “Submissive”, significantly correlated with the CBI, indicating that questionnaire ratings reflect real behavioral variation in red deer males. Our study provides the first assessment of personality in male red deer and adds to the growing literature on Cervid personality, offering the basis for future personality research in ungulates.
... In order to test whether the personality of the horse affected its behaviour during the modified SSP, all owners were asked to complete the horse personality questionnaire (HPQ) developed by Lloyd et al. (2007). The HPQ consisted of 25 fully defined adjectives where the owner was asked to score their horse from 1 (not expressed) to 7 (fully expressed) for each adjective (i.e. ...
... The horse personality questionnaire generated for each horse one score for each of the 25 adjectives. These scores were thereafter multiplied with the original Principal Component Analysis loadings according to Lloyd et al. (2007) to achieve values on six different personality traits: Dominance (high negative loadings for reliability, subordinate and equable, and high positive loadings for irritable, aggressive, stubborn, effective and eccentric), Anxiousness (high positive loadings for fearful, apprehensive, tense, insecure and suspicious), Excitability (high negative loading for slow and high positive loading for active, intelligent and excitable), Protection (high loadings for protective, motherly and understanding), Sociability (high loadings for popular, playful and sociable) and Inquisitiveness (high loadings for opportunistic and curious). ...
Humans have shared a long history with horses and today we mainly consider horses as companions for sports and leisure activities. Previously, the human perspective of the human-horse relationship has been investigated but there has been little focus on the horse’s perspective. This study aimed to reveal whether horses show attachment-related behaviour towards the owner compared to a stranger in a modified Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) consisting of a walking phase, a standing still phase, separation from the owner/stranger and lastly a reuinon. We tested 26 privately owned horses in an indoor experimental area of 20 × 14 m. In addition to testing, the owners were asked questions about their training methods. Based on these questionnaire results, owners were divided into groups depending on whether they mainly used negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement or a combination of both methods during training. They also completed a horse personality questionnaire. The results showed that the horses spent more time in door proximity when separated from the owner and the stranger (owner: Z = −3.46, P = 0.001; stranger: Z = 3.40, P = 0.001) compared to the reunion phase, and they sought human proximity during reunion. The horses’ heart rates were higher during the separation compared to the reunion with both the owner (Z = −3.44, P = 0.001) and the stranger (Z = −2.40, P = 0.016). These results are examples of attachment-related features and suggest that horses consider both the owner and the stranger as a safe haven. However, the results are not clear as to whether or not horses perceive their owners as a secure base since their exploratory behaviour during owner reunion was similar to that during stranger reunion. Interestingly, horses trained with positive reinforcement spent most time in door proximity during separation from the stranger (χ²(2) = 6.18, P = 0.045) and similarly there was a tendency also during owner separation (χ²(2) = 5.20, P = 0.074). The same group of horses also spent more time in stranger proximity (χ²(2) = 6.16, P = 0.046) and in physical contact with stranger (χ²(2) = 8.62, P = 0.013) than the other two training style groups during reunion. When correlating scores from the horse personality questionnaire with behaviours during owner reunion, we found few significant associations, but the trait Inquisitive correlated with both proximity to owner and ears forward (rs = 0.41, P = 0.035 and rs = 0.49, P = 0.011, respectively), and ears forward also correlated with the trait Excitability (rs = 0.39, P = 0.047) and Dominance (rs = 0.46, P = 0.019). Hence, this study revealed attachment-related behaviours of horses towards humans even though the results cannot resolve whether these fulfil all criteria for an attachment-bond.
... Personality questionnaires. To access the individuals' personalities, a questionnaire was constructed using 18 personality traits adapted from previous studies with horses [47][48] ( Table 1). The animals were ranked by four evaluators (three veterinarians and the horse's rider), for each personality trait, on a scale from 0 to 7, where zero meant no expression of the trait and seven, the total expression of the trait [49]. ...
... In the first component, the horses were more aggressive, irritable, confident, cooperative, equable and stubborn, and in the second component, the horses were more curious, intelligent, playful, and active. Similar results were found in other studies [47,[66][67]. These results point to a variation in the composition of the horses' personalities, affected by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. ...
An animal’s welfare depends on an individual’s capacity to adapt to the environment in which it lives. This adaptation is directly associated with the quality of the environment and to the possibility of expressing natural behaviours. Horses kept in stables often display a range of abnormal behaviours related to lack of control over their environment, which can lead to behavioural and health problems. An individual’s personality also plays an important role in its susceptibility and resilience to the development of diseases and abnormal behaviour; thus, an evaluation of horses’ personalities could be crucial to selecting individuals best able to cope with different work activities. This study aimed to assess the well-being of police horses maintained in a semi-confinement regime in Brazil by associating their personalities to the occurrence of abnormal behaviours and disease. Using a non-invasive approach, different tests were performed to investigate the horses’ behaviour, personality and welfare. A frustration test and a novel object test were conducted with 46 horses and the individuals’ personalities were assessed using questionnaires and behaviour tests. In addition, we evaluated their physical health through a survey of their veterinary records. The data for horses were evaluated individually. The results demonstrated the occurrence of multiple abnormal behaviours motivated by factors such as diet and lack of social contact. Moreover, the personality tests indicated this is an important component when evaluating welfare, since correlations were found between personality traits and abnormal behaviour expression, and between personality traits and health problems. According to our results, passive, stubborn, and confident horses are better suited to be selected as police horses. The ability to classify horses according to their personalities could help in selecting horses most suitable for patrolling, thereby helping to reduce behavioural problems and increasing animal well-being.
... Therefore, replicability and validity need to be emphasized. Currently, there is no standardized pig personality assessment in use, though there are standardized personality assessments designed for use in dogs (Jones, 2008), humans (Fruyt, et al., 2004), non-human great apes (Uher & Asendorpf, 2008), and horses (Lloyd, et al., 2007). It is also still unclear what methods of personality assessment are the most accurate. ...
Personality tests are utilized in a variety of settings, from being used by service dog organizations to select service dog candidates, to being used in clinical settings to screen for certain mental health problems. Pigs are highly social animals that are diverse in phenotype and possess cognitive skills that surpass or rival many more common species in behavioral research, making them a natural model species to study personality. Previous research has explored the degree of variation in personality within populations, and factors affecting personality in a variety of both domesticated and wild species, but pigs are relatively understudied, and the personality measures used tend to have questionable accuracy and validity. In the present study, I created a personality questionnaire for use in assessing pigs. I also collected behavioral observations of the pigs in the study. I found that inter-observer reliability and inter-item correlations of the personality questionnaire were low. I also investigated whether PERSONALITY IN PIGS 3 pigs' personality scores correlated with their behavior and found that there was little to no correlation. I also compared the pigs' demographics to their personality questionnaire scores and found that human-directed aggression was more common in male pigs than in female pigs and was more common in pigs from abuse and neglect backgrounds than pigs without a history of abuse or neglect. Results from this study can provide some preliminary insights on demographic factors that may contribute to aggressive personalities in pigs, and demonstrate the necessity of collecting data on the reliability and validity of personality questionnaires.
... So far, most studies only used one method; questionnaires or standardised tests (Rankins and Wickens 2020). In horses, personality in general has been well studied and many different personality tests and questionnaires have been developed and some are even validated (Ijichi et al. 2013a, Lansade 2005, Lansade and Bouissou 2008, Lansade et al. 2008a, 2008b, Lloyd et al. 2007, Momozawa et al. 2003, Rankins and Wickens 2020. Regarding the personality test, several studies used this approach to assess horses' personality profiles which led to the definition of other variate personality traits. ...
For animal welfare reasons, cow-calf contact systems in dairy farming are preferred by consumers and are becoming more common in agricultural practice. However, cows that are allowed to nurse their calf show signs of tension and disturbed milk let-down in the milking parlour. Potentially, these effects could be reduced by a positively associated milking environment. Parameters of milkability and agitation behaviour during milking of 22 cows without and 12 cows with whole-day full calf contact were therefore compared in a retrospective evaluation using data from the 5th–8th week of lactation, considering the presence of a positively or negatively
associated person. The experimental cows were always milked by the same milker. In addition, one of two other persons was present who milked the non-experimental cows and whose interactions with these animals were categorized as rather neutral and positive (P+) or rather neutral and negative (P-). However, there were differences between morning and evening milking: P+ showed fewer positive, more neutral, and more noise interactions in the evening than in the morning. P- interacted less neutrally in the morning, and negative interactions remained at the same level compared to the evening. In general, cows with calf contact showed more agitation
behaviour during udder preparation and marked signs of disturbed milk let-down. Cows without calf contact kicked more frequently in the morning in the presence of P- than in the evening and compared to milking in the presence of P+. This could be a response to the reduced number of neutral interactions of P- in the morning. Cows with calf contact kicked more in the evening in the presence of P+ compared to the morning and compared to the presence of P-, which may be a response to the increased noise interactions by P+ at this time of day. The presence of P- in the milking parlour caused more elimination behaviour (p < 0.05) and the presence of P+ a less reduced fat content (p < 0.1) in cows with calf contact, regardless of time of day, suggesting a slight reduction in tension in the presence of P+. In contrast, P+ caused a slight increase in milkings with elimination behaviour and a slightly reduced fat content in the cows without calf contact. The contrary reactions of the cows with and without calf contact to the differently associated persons could be due to the different basic tension during the milking process. The partially negative effects of P+ on cows without calf contact are difficult to explain. Vocal interactions or whistling could not be included due to lack of sound recordings but could play a role. In conclusion the results suggest that a positive human-animal relationship of all employees to cows with calf contact could be a promising measure to counteract
cows’ tension in the parlour and disturbed milk let-down.
... Animal personality is defined by the behavioural characteristics of an individual that are relatively consistent over time and across contexts (Gosling and John, 1999;Carere and Eens, 2005;Andersson et al., 2014). Personality factors have been demonstrated in most taxa: mammals, birds, reptiles, arthropods, fish, and even cephalopods (Gosling and John, 1999;Lloyd et al., 2007;Andersson et al., 2014;Cabrera et al., 2021). ...
... Different superscripts indicate significance at P < 0.05. and kick threats have been observed in prior studies ( Feh, 1988 ;Lloyd et al., 2007 ). In the present study, differences may be due to altered horse feeding behavior as a result of not having a round bale net. ...
Hay nets are often used while feeding horses in order to reduce hay waste and slow consumption. While feeder style affected agonistic behavior in group fed horses in prior studies, little work has evaluated the effect of round bale hay nets on horse aggression. Fifteen horses were split into three groups (n = 5 per group), balanced for sex and age. Following a two-week acclimation to pastures and groups, horses were evaluated over three weeks using a 3×3 Latin Square experimental design. Horses were given a round bale within a ring feeder (B&W Farm and Ranch, Humboldt, KS) via each treatment for one week: (1) without a hay net (no net; control), (2) surrounded with a hay net with small diameter openings (small opening; 4.445 cm diameter; Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS) or (3) surrounded with a hay net with large diameter openings (large opening; 7.62 cm diameter, Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS). Horse behavior around the feeder was recorded and video was continuously analyzed from 0800 to 1100 hours twice per week during the three treatment weeks. Agonistic threats (head threats and kick threats), aggression (bite, kick, chase), and avoidance behavior of horses within a 3 m x 3 m area surrounding the feeder were recorded. The total frequency of agonistic threats was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to the large opening net or no net (P ≤ 0.026). No difference in total frequency of agonistic threats between the large opening net and no net were observed (P = 0.908). Net provision or opening size did not affect the total frequency of aggressive behaviors observed (P = 0.187). Frequency of avoidance behavior was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to no net (P = 0.005) but did not differ from avoidance frequency of large opening nets (P = 0.173). No difference in avoidance frequency was observed between large opening or no net treatments (P = 0.114). In conclusion, horses fed using round bale hay nets with small openings were observed to have increased agonistic threats and avoidance behavior. Therefore, round bale hay nets with large openings may be a better choice for group fed horses.
... Questionnaire for horse trainers/owners. Horse owners or trainers received a paper-and-pencil HPQ, adapted from Lloyd et al. 50 (Supplementary Table S2) that consisted of a list of 30 adjectives with a number scale from one to seven. The HPQ was filled out by marking the appropriate number based on a list of adjective definitions. ...
We tested 35 Lipizzan horses older than 5 years, ridden and healthy in three behavioural tests (handling, fear-reaction, and target training test). Physiological (heart rate and heart rate variability) and anatomical measurements (120 head and body distances and angles) were collected to validate parameters that reliably inform on handling/cooperation, fear/exploration and trainability in horses. Utilizing a standard clustering methodology on the behavioural data, we identified four general types of responses and categorised an individual as intermediate, low fearful, horses with low cooperation or low trainability. We additionally analysed the head morphology following Tellington-Jones and Taylor recommendations and correlated the measurements with data from a horse personality questionnaire. Although allocation to a particular personality group was not associated with these two methods, these groups differed in six anatomical characteristics of head and body. Regardless of the group, our results indicated that shorter horses (<75.9 cm) with a wider muzzle (>10.5 cm) are trustworthy, less fearful and easier to handle and train. We also demonstrated that horses with stronger legs and a wider base of the head have a lower heart rate when exposed to the second trial of the handling test.
... Horse owners or trainers received a paper-and-pencil HPQ, adapted from Lloyd et al. (43) (Supplementary Table S2) that consisted of a list of 30 adjectives with a number scale from one to seven. The HPQ was lled out by marking the appropriate number based on a list of adjective de nitions. ...
We tested 35 Lipizzan horses older than five years, ridden and healthy in three behavioural tests (handling, fear-reaction, and learning ability test). Physiological (heart rate and heart rate variability) and anatomical measurements (120 head and body distances and angles) were collected to validate parameters that reliably inform on fear/exploration and learning ability in horses. Utilizing a standard clustering methodology on the behavioural data, we identified four general types of responses and categorised an individual as intermediate, low fearful, hard to handle or with low learning ability. We additionally analysed the head morphology following Tellington-Jones and Taylor recommendations and correlated the measurements with data from a horse personality questionnaire. Although allocation to a particular personality group was not associated with these two methods, these groups differed in six anatomical characteristics of head and body. Regardless of the group, our results indicated that shorter horses (˂75.9 cm) with a wider muzzle (˃10.5 cm) are trustworthy, less fearful and easier to handle and train. We also demonstrated that horses with stronger legs and a wider base of the head have a lower heart rate when exposed to the second trial of the handling test.
... To assess the fear response, behavioural reactions indicative of alarm and avoidance and physiological measures of stress (heart rate, HR, and the root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats, RMSSD) were recorded, as both are confirmed indicators of the stress and flightiness e.g., [14][15][16]. Finally, we investigated whether human evaluation of the magnitude of a horse's fearfulness toward an unfamiliar object correlated with physiological measures of fear; it was reported that an experienced horse handler can reliably assess fear levels [8,17]; therefore, this could have implications for rider and handler safety. ...
Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses' perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to all stimuli. During hand-leading, the cow elicited the highest HR and lowest RMSSD. Led horses' responses to the cow and box were rated as more fearful as the distance to the stimulus decreased. Mares had a higher HR than geldings across all tests. HR positively correlated with the fearfulness rating at the furthest distance from the cow and box, and RMSSD negatively correlated with this rating in cow and control conditions. Our results show that these horses' avoidance response to cows was similar or higher to that shown towards a novel moving object, demonstrating that potentially, both neophobia and heterospecific communication play a role in this reaction.
... Dicho estudio, fue uno de los primeros que evaluó la personalidad en animales no humanos mediante una metodología innovadora: la adaptación top-down del modelo humano de cinco factores (FFM) (p.e., Uher, 2008a). Desde entonces, varios estudios han aplicado otras metodologías innovadoras para evaluar la personalidad en animales (p.e., Dutton, Clark y Dickins, 1997;Lloyd, Martin, Bornett-Gauci, y Wilkinson, 2007). En nuestra investigación con chimpancés [Estudio 1] hemos aplicado una adaptación del cuestionario de personalidad de King y Figueredo (1997) -basado en FFM para chimpancés-, pero también hemos realizado la primera adaptación del modelo psicobiológico de Eysenck (Eysenck y Eysenck, 1964) a esta especie. ...
La metodología rating se basa en los juicios de una serie de evaluadores respecto
al comportamiento de los animales de estudio, usando para ello listas de ítems
descriptivos recogidos en un cuestionario. Una serie de argumentos psicométricos y pragmáticos se han traducido en que un gran número de autores elijan el método rating para evaluar comportamientos en animales que pueden ser representados mediante ítems descriptivos. En la presente Tesis se evalúan una serie de constructos psicológicos mediante metodología rating en un número variable de chimpancés y orcas alojados en cautividad. En el caso de los chimpancés se evaluaron personalidad y psicopatologías, mientras que en el caso de las orcas personalidad, bienestar y bienestar subjetivo (o felicidad).
En primer lugar, en el estudio de personalidad en chimpancés alojados en santuario (n=11) (Estudio 1) se aplicaron adaptaciones del modelo psicobiológico de Eysenck (PEN) y del Five Factor Model (FFM), con un total de 12 y 38 adjetivos respectivamente. La reducción de datos evidenció, 3 factores para PEN —Extraversión, Neuro-Psicoticismo y Dominancia— y 4 para FFM —Extraversión, Responsabilidad-amabilidad, Dominancia y Responsabilidad-apertura— con valores adecuados de validez y fiabilidad. Los resultados obtenidos fueron altamente comparables a los esperados para humanos con dichas teorías, aunque con características idiosincráticas de la especie y el tipo de muestra. Por otra parte, en el estudio de trastornos mentales en chimpancés (Estudio 4) se presenta por primera vez una herramienta de diagnóstico de trastornos mentales para chimpancés basada en la herramienta de diagnóstico humana: el Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Para crear el Chimpanzee Psychopathology Questionnaire (CPQ), un total de 66 ítems del DSM fueron retenidos. El CPQ fue evaluado en 23 chimpancés utilizados previamente como mascotas y en el ámbito del espectáculo, que actualmente residen en un santuario y un zoológico. La reducción de datos evidenció 8 factores de diagnóstico — «Trastornos destructivos del control de los impulsos y de la conducta», «Trastornos de ansiedad», «Trastornos bipolares y trastornos relacionados», «Trastornos parafílicos», «Trastornos depresivos», «Trastornos relacionados con ansiedad, traumas y factores estresantes», «Trastornos derivados de traumas» y «Trastornos desinhibidos» — con valores adecuados de validez y fiabilidad y altamente comparables con las categorías de diagnóstico humanas equivalentes. Por tanto, el presente estudio evidencia las consecuencias a nivel de trastornos mentales derivadas del uso de chimpancés como mascotas o en el ámbito del espectáculo. Así pues, este tipo de estudios aportan (Estudio 5) argumentos empíricos para promover: (a) la concienciación por parte del público y (b) un cambio en el marco legal en relación a los usos y tenencias que se les dan a esta especie. Además, este tipo de estudios, pueden contribuir a (c) aumentar los conocimientos sobre los orígenes evolutivos de la enfermedad humana desde una perspectiva filogenética y comparada, y (d) mejorar las terapias aplicadas a la especie y los individuos, tanto a nivel farmacológico como terapéutico. Por otra parte, en el estudio de personalidad de orcas (n=24) (Estudio 2) se evaluaron 38 adjetivos basados en la teoría de FFM. Tras la reducción de datos se obtuvieron cuatro factores de personalidad —Extraversión, Responsabilidad-amabilidad, Dominancia y Cuidado— con valores adecuados de validez y fiabilidad. Los resultados obtenidos fueron muy similares a los obtenidos para chimpancés (Estudio 1) y humanos (Goldberg, 1990) según la misma teoría en la que estaba basada (FFM). Además, con parte de la muestra inicial (n=6) (Estudio 3), se obtuvieron correlaciones entre el factor de personalidad de Dominancia y los factores de bienestar «Bienestar general», «Sociabilidad», «Nerviosismo» y «Comunicativo», mientras que la felicidad apareció asociada a los factores de bienestar de «Bienestar general» y «Sociabilidad» y con el factor de personalidad de Dominancia. Los resultados fueron similares a lo obtenido para humanos (p.e., Diener, 2009; Steel, Schmidt, y Shultz,
2008) y a lo obtenido en nuestro estudio de coautoría de chimpancés (Robinson et al.,
2017). Además, dichas correlaciones evidenciaron la validez de la herramienta novel de evaluación de bienestar en cetáceos, que sumada a los valores de fiabilidad, evidencian la utilidad de la misma.
La presente Tesis presenta una serie de resultados principales. En primer lugar, cada uno de los constructos analizados tanto para orcas como para chimpancés en esta Tesis mostró niveles adecuados de validez y fiabilidad, evidenciando en última instancia la utilidad de las herramientas utilizadas, incluso de aquellas que eran utilizadas por primera vez —Chimpanzee Psychopathology Questionnaire, cuestionario de evaluación del bienestar en orcas y el modelo psicobiológico de Eysenck (PEN) para medir personalidad en chimpancés—. En segundo lugar, en el caso de los estudios con chimpancés (Estudios 1 y 4), se obtuvo tanto una estructura de personalidad, como de categorías diagnóstico de trastornos mentales, muy similares a la humana, evidenciando una posible continuidad evolutiva entre dichas especies. Por su parte, las similitudes encontradas en esta Tesis entre orcas y primates (Estudio 2 y Estudio 3) tanto en estructura de personalidad, como a nivel de correlaciones entre personalidad, bienestar y felicidad, podrían ser consideradas como convergencias evolutivas entre ambos Órdenes.
... Historically, owner-sourced data on horse temperament often required respondents to interpret behaviour. For example, questions that derive such data related to how "anxious" a horse is in a given environment require owners to observe behaviours, decipher which are relevant and, finally, score the behaviour without a reference point to benchmark its current frequency against [44]. Individuals likely differ in how they interpret behaviour and the assumptions they make about what motivates the horse to behave in a particular way [45,46], thus compromising survey reliability. ...
The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad: training, management and behaviour. It can be taken repeatedly, thus collecting longitudinal data to enable evaluation of how changes in a horse's training and management are reflected in that horse's behaviour over time and how these changes can impact horse welfare in the longer term. Questionnaire validation and reliability were tested by determining (a) whether an owner's subjective ratings of their horse's problematic behaviours or undesirable temperament traits were reflected in the questionnaire scores obtained for that horse (construct validity), (b) whether two respondents, equally familiar with a particular horse, reported comparable scores for that horse through the questionnaire (inter-rater reliability), and (c) whether the same respondent, scoring the same horse after a known interval of time, recorded similar responses (intra-rater reliability). Construct validity testing of 1923 responses showed significant alignment between owners' reported experience of focal horses' behaviour and those horses' E-BARQ scores, with scores varying from 1.13 to 1.34 for ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001) and from 1.06 to 1.43 for non-ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability testing of ten horse-rider pairs revealed that 203 of the 215 question items were significantly aligned (p < 0.001) when tested by two independent raters. Of the remaining 19 items, four had fair Animals 2020, 10, 1982 2 of 14 alignment (ĸ = 0.174-0.316; p = 0.281) and ten items, largely related to whether the horse shows behavioural signs related to anxiety when taken away from home, did not align (ĸ = 0; p = 1). Intra-rater reliability tests showed that the responses significantly aligned on all 215 question items tested (p < 0.001). The results of these tests confirmed the construct validity and reliability of E-BARQ as a standardised behavioural assessment tool for horses.
... Attempting to guess a horse's motivations for behaving in a certain way can lead to erroneous assumptions and jeopardise welfare [48]. For example, Lloyd et al. [49] asked participants to assess their horses' personality using a 7-point Likert scale with pre-defined adjectives such as 'Motherly-Provides warm receptive secure base for others, is tender and caring', and concluded that, despite the answer requiring considerable participant interpretation, the use of the anthropomorphic terminology was more useful than an objective description of the animal's behaviour. However, as respondents likely differ in their definition of 'tender and caring', perhaps the insertion of requests for objective behavioural observations might be a useful addition to such inquiries. ...
Owner-reported behavioural observations form an essential part of the veterinarians' diagnosis and treatment plan. The way we train and manage horses affects their behaviour and, in turn, their health and welfare. Current horse training and management practices are largely driven by traditional techniques and longstanding methodologies. These approaches generally lack an evidence base for evaluation purposes. The absence of evidence and evaluation contributes to the persistent use of risky practices and this, in turn, increases risk of potential harms for both horse and rider, and fuels questioning of the equine industry's current social license to operate. Objective evidence is required to make training and management decisions based on demonstrable best practice. Large-scale experimental or intervention studies using horses are generally not practical because of the associated costs and logistics of gaining ethical approval. Small studies generally lack statistical power and are subject to the effects of many forms of bias that demand caution in the interpretation of any observed effects. An alternative to collecting large amounts of empirical data is the use of owner-reported observations via online survey. Horse owners are ideally placed to report on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour. The current article highlights three sources of potential bias in a systematic review of literature on large-scale online studies of horse owners' observational reports that met the following selection criteria: English-language, published, peer-reviewed articles reporting on studies with over 1000 respondents and open access to the survey instrument. The online surveys were evaluated for three common forms of bias: recall, confirmation, and sampling bias. This review reveals that online surveys are useful for gathering data on the triad of horse training, management, and behaviour. However, current use of online surveys to collect data on equitation science (including horse training, management, and behaviour) could be improved by using a standardised and validated tool. Such a tool would facilitate comparisons among equine and equitation science studies, thus advancing our understanding of the impacts of training and management on horse behaviour. The authors of the current review suggest the use of a standardised behavioural and management assessment tool for horses. Such a tool would help define what constitutes normal behaviour within geographically disparate populations of horses, leading to improvements in rider safety and horse welfare.
... Ainsi, l'attention de l'individu est augmentée vers la tâche et rend les individus moins sensibles aux perturbations extérieures. Ce phénomène peut être illustré par une étude menée chez l'Homme où il a été montré que les éléments centraux d'une histoire sont mieux retenus lorsque ceux-ci ont une valeur émotionnelle forte, mais que cela s'accompagne également d'une moindre rétention des éléments périphériques d'arrière-plan (Reisberg et Heuer 1995 Lloyd et al. 2008Lloyd et al. , 2007Momozawa et al. 2007). Ensuite, nous avons fait le choix de ne pas rechercher de nouvelles dimensions à ajouter à ce modèle car cela aurait nécessité un important travail expérimental qui ne nous aurait sans doute pas laissé assez de temps pour explorer également les performances cognitives et l'effet du stress. ...
... Estas evaluaciones en perros de trabajo se usan, ampliamente, en los programas de selección (Paroz, Gebhardt-Henrich & Steiger, 2008); de este modo, uno de los factores más básicas en las evaluaciones es el "juez" o evaluador, debido a la interpretación objetiva y con precisión sobre el comportamiento canino (Gosling, Lilienfeld & Marino, 2003b). Lo anterior, implica la responsabilidad entre los evaluadores como parte fundamental de los test para la toma de decisiones, que unan esfuerzos y establezcan objetivos en común (Lloyd, Martin, Bornett-Gauci & Wilkinson, 2007). ...
... Even if several studies have aimed at assessing the personality of horses (48)(49)(50)(51)(52)(53)(54)(55), investigations of the personality of stereotypic horses are scarce. The evidence so far seems to suggest that crib-biters are less anxious and show no difference in trainability compared to non-crib-biters (56). ...
Although stereotypic behaviors are a common problem in captive animals, why certain individuals are more prone to develop them remains elusive. In horses, individuals show considerable differences in how they perceive and react to external events, suggesting that this may partially account for the emergence of stereotypies in this species. In this study, we focused on crib-biting, the most common stereotypy displayed by horses. We compared how established crib-biters (“CB” = 19) and normal controls (“C” = 18) differed in response to a standard “personality” assessment test battery, i.e., reactivity to humans, tactile sensitivity, social reactivity, locomotor activity, and curiosity vs. fearfulness (both in novel and suddenness situations). Our analyses showed that crib-biters only differed from control horses in their tactile sensitivity, suggesting an elevated sensitivity to tactile stimuli. We suggest that this higher tactile sensitivity could be due to altered dopamine or endogenous opioid physiology, resulting from chronic stress exposition. We discuss these findings in relation to the hypothesis that there may be a genetic predisposition for stereotypic behavior in horses, and in relation to current animal husbandry and management practices.
... Diversi sono i metodi che sono stati utilizzati per qualificare il carattere equino. In alcuni studi le liste da compilare, da parte degli osservatori, per qualificare i tratti del temperamento, hanno utilizzato punteggi predefiniti per indicare il livello complessivo dell'emozionalità, in altri casi è stata valutata la correlazione tra le performance di apprendimento e il temperamento di cavalli e puledri differenziati sulla base di punteggi, ed è stata stilata una graduatoria di livelli di emotività di puledri sottoposti a test di isolamento in recinto o al passaggio su un corridoio, correlandoli con i valori desunti dalla contemporanea misurazione di parametri fisiologici, quali la frequenza cardiaca e respiratoria (Anderson et al., 1999;Christensen et al., 2005;Forkman et al., 2007;French, 1993;Heird et al., 1986;Lloyd et al., 2007;McCall et al., 2006;McCann et al., 1988;Noble et al., 2013). Dall'insieme di queste indagini è emersa la correlazione positiva tra i valori della frequenza cardiaca e il punteggio medio del livello di emotività (Average Emotionality Score, AES). ...
The national guidelines for Animal Assisted Interventions (AAIs) of the Italian Ministry of Health define the operating standards for the correct and uniform application of AAIs in our country. The effectiveness of these innovative interventions depends strongly on the quality of the relationship that the patient establishes with the animal, and, therefore, on the welfare of the animal itself. To date there is a lack of widely shared criteria and tools for the assessment of well-being as well as criteria for eligibility and preparation of the animals involved in the AAIs. With the help of some experts in the field we have therefore summarized the most recent scientific acquisitions and, on the basis of these, elaborated protocols useful for this purpose. This Report represents the starting point for a desirable implementation of the national guidelines for AAIs, currently in force, in order to improve the therapeutic efficacy of such interventions through a more conscious management of the animals involved.
... Judges' scores did not differ between evaluations at home and during breed shows for any other personality traits, indicating that these traits might be assessed independent of location and event. Still, not all horses might be reliably evaluated regarding their personality [44], perhaps indicating the complexity of personality that includes the possibility (but not necessity) to react in a flexible manner, that is, with different behavior in each evaluation situation [45]. ...
The study compared results of the traditional horse judging system (T) using subjective grades with those of a novel system of linear scoring (LS) using an application (“Breed Show App”). The horse's quality in relation to the total breeding aim was evaluated based on weighting factors for 57 individual traits commonly regarded in T, thus allowing immediate ranking of the horses. Results were stated as total grade in percent for both systems. One thousand nine hundred nine American Quarter horses were judged at regular breed shows with either T (n = 883), LS (n = 1,026), or both systems (n = 17). In addition, suitable traits for personality evaluation using LS were selected (n = 559 horses). Mixed-model analysis (F-test throughout) and Pearson correlations were used to assess agreement between systems and to identify highly correlated personality traits. Mean total grade was slightly greater in T (83.3 ± 0.2%) than LS (81.7 ± 0.3, P < .0001). Overall grades showed a wider range with LS, thus likely better reflecting phenotypic variance and improving comparability between horses without affecting overall horse ranking (r = 0.95, P < .00001) and thresholds for licensing minimum standards. Most personality traits deviated from a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov: P < .01), potentially indicating that genetic or phenotypic preselection took place in the participating horses. Foals that were perceived as more “bright” by the observers kept a larger distance from their dam (r = 0.4) and showed more exploration of the environment (r = 0.2, all P < .01). Especially with more complex traits, including personality traits, variation of results and thus possibilities for differentiating between horses seem to be increased in horse judging using LS.
... Tests that involve reading and assessing an animal's emotional reactions are also common. Other studies also involve measurement of the frequency of occurrence of various elements of behaviour, their duration and intensity (Lloyd, Martin, Bornett-Gauci, & Wilkinson, 2007). The most often used element includes a "new object" test which involves exposure to a new object and letting it be observed by an animal under assessment (Górecka-Bruzda, Jastrzębska, Gajewska, Muszyńska, & Pieniążek, 2015;Górecka-Bruzda et al., 2016;Wolff, Hausberger, & Le Scolan, 1997). ...
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of selected rider‐related factors (riders’ age and experience, type of preparatory activities, test variant) on the behaviour of recreational horses being prepared for use. Six adult, hot‐blooded recreational horses were handled by two female riders that the horses knew and by another two that the horses did not know (two of them were aged 12 and two aged 30). The horses were assessed by a behaviourist for their behaviour during the pre‐training activities (entering the box, grooming, cleaning the hooves, bridling, saddling up, taking a horse to a riding arena). These actions were performed in a basic variant in complete silence and in a variant with an added sound stimulus (human voice) as a riding (supporting) aid. An analysis of variance for repeated measurements, Tukey t‐test and Spearman's correlations were performed. It was found that the behaviour of recreational horses being prepared for use can be better if they are handled by people whom they know. However, the age of the handler and a supporting factor (human voice) is not expected to have any effect on horse behaviour. A horse's behaviour can change during various preparatory activities. Horses can misbehave mainly when a person enters the box and when the horse is being bridled.
... These multiple facets can be assessed by using the questionnaire approach, and this has been successfully applied to study personality differences in humans and other primates like chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans [10]. Although the majority of animal personality research does not employ approaches more common in human personality research, there has lately been an increase in these kinds of studies [8,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. Besides primates and cetaceans, elephants are an informative study system to link research on differences in personality in humans and non-human species. ...
Data on personality for long-lived, highly-social wild mammals with high cognitive abilities are rare. We investigated the personality structure of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) by using a large sample of semi-captive timber elephants in Myanmar. Data were collected during 2014 to 2017 using questionnaires, for which elephant riders (mahouts) rated 28 behavioural adjectives of elephants. Repeated questionnaires were obtained for each elephant from several raters whenever possible, resulting in 690 ratings of 150 female and 107 male elephants. We started by performing a confirmatory factor analysis to compare the fit of our data to a previously published captive elephant personality structure. Due to a poor fit of this model to our data, we proceeded by performing explanatory factor analysis to determine the personality structure in our study population. This model suggested that personality in these elephants was manifested as three factors that we labelled as Attentiveness, Sociability, and Aggressiveness. This structure did not differ between the sexes. These results provide the basis for future research on the link between personality and reproductive success in this endangered species and more generally, help to resolve the selective pressures on personalities in long-lived, highly-social species.
... All procedures involving animals were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University. From 27 healthy horses, 20 healthy Thoroughbred stallions (n = 10) and mares (n = 10), aged three years, were selected for the study based on a 25-item rating questionnaire survey used for characterising equine temperament on a 7-point scale (Lloyd et al., 2007). The traits 'excitability' and 'anxiousness' were used in this study. ...
Temperament has not been taken into account in previous studies evaluating the stress response to exercise in horses. The aim of the present study was to investigate the cortisol response in Thoroughbred racehorses to a single exercise bout, and to analyse the results based on the basic personality of the horse examined. Twenty healthy Thoroughbred horses were selected for the study based on a 25-item rating questionnaire survey used for characterising equine temperament. Eight temperamental and twelve calm horses took part in the experiment. The horses trotted as a warm-up activity, and then galloped on a rounded sand track. Blood sampling was conducted four times for each horse. Horses with a more excitable temperament showed a higher cortisol response to the test (P = 0.036). In conclusion, cortisol levels in response to a mild intensive exercise can be affected by temperament in horses. Serum cortisol may be a relevant marker to quantify individual temperamental differences in racehorses.
... The use of questionnaires to measure a behavior or personality dimension has several advantages, such as allowing to reach a large population, providing a measure that summarizes the behavioral expression and/or personality over a period of time, and being practical, since the questionnaire can be completed within a short time. Furthermore, the evaluation of personality by proxy and in the form of questionnaires is a commonly used and recognized method with individuals that do not communicate in spoken or signed language, such as human infants or other animal species, including dogs [48,77,79,80,[94][95][96]. Questionnaires have been developed to assess a broad spectrum of behaviors, affective states, and personality dimensions in dogs, such as quality of life in relation to physical illness in general [97], pain [98], atopic dermatitis [99,100] or cardiac disease in particular [101], specific behavior problems, such as canine anxiety [102], canine attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [83], impulsivity [79] or behavioral problems in general [103], and canine personality or temperament [37,77,80,85]. ...
In humans, the personality dimension ‘sensory processing sensitivity (SPS)’, also referred to as “high sensitivity”, involves deeper processing of sensory information, which can be associated with physiological and behavioral overarousal. However, it has not been studied up to now whether this dimension also exists in other species. SPS can influence how people perceive the environment and how this affects them, thus a similar dimension in animals would be highly relevant with respect to animal welfare. We therefore explored whether SPS translates to dogs, one of the primary model species in personality research. A 32-item questionnaire to assess the “highly sensitive dog score” (HSD-s) was developed based on the “highly sensitive person” (HSP) questionnaire. A large-scale, international online survey was conducted, including the HSD questionnaire, as well as questions on fearfulness, neuroticism, “demographic” (e.g. dog sex, age, weight; age at adoption, etc.) and “human” factors (e.g. owner age, sex, profession, communication style, etc.), and the HSP questionnaire. Data were analyzed using linear mixed effect models with forward stepwise selection to test prediction of HSD-s by the above-mentioned factors, with country of residence and dog breed treated as random effects. A total of 3647 questionnaires were fully completed. HSD-, fearfulness, neuroticism and HSP-scores showed good internal consistencies, and HSD-s only moderately correlated with fearfulness and neuroticism scores, paralleling previous findings in humans. Intra- (N = 447) and inter-rater (N = 120) reliabilities were good. Demographic and human factors, including HSP score, explained only a small amount of the variance of HSD-s. A PCA analysis identified three subtraits of SPS, comparable to human findings. Overall, the measured personality dimension in dogs showed good internal consistency, partial independence from fearfulness and neuroticism, and good intra- and inter-rater reliability, indicating good construct validity of the HSD questionnaire. Human and demographic factors only marginally affected the HSD-s suggesting that, as hypothesized for human SPS, a genetic basis may underlie this dimension within the dog species.
... Behavioral methods are considered to be the most accurate. These include the test of a novel object and the test of an open area, as well as observations of some behaviors conducted according to special ethograms (Lloyd et al. 2007). However, behavioral assessment may often be misleading, or the manifestation and expression of behavioral reactions may be particularly difficult to observe and, consequently, to be judged objectively. ...
The aim of this study was to compare emotional excitability in purebred Arabian racehorses trained either with a standard method or with additional off-racetrack training. The study was carried out on 46 horses that were trained for racing in a home stud. The control group (CN, n = 23) was trained only on the training racetrack, whereas for the experimental group (EX, n = 23), the training schedule was alternated between work on the training track and off-racetrack training in a forest. The emotional excitability in horses was determined according to the heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV). The measurements (six times every 30 d) were taken at rest, during grooming and saddling, and during mounting and walking with a rider. The behavior of horses was also assessed. Higher activity of the parasympathetic nervous systems was found in EX horses during procedures preceding the training. This effect disappeared and the results paralleled those of CN horses once the training session with a rider began. The tested modification of the race training had a positive impact on the horse behavior of the horse during grooming, saddling, mounting, and walking with a rider. However, the modification influenced the autonomic system activity of horses only at rest and during the procedures preceding training sessions, whereas the effect was not seen during mounting and walking.
... The aim was not to cover all facets of personality, nor developing a tool to evaluate personality in horses, but defining a list of behavioural traits in horses which could be of potential relevance to a good match between horse and rider. Earlier studies [Morris et al., 2002;Lloyd et al., 2007;Visser et al., 2003Visser et al., , 2010I. Wolframm, personal communication, 6 January 2010 (descriptors of horse traits later published in Wolframm & Meulenbroek, 2012)] were used to collect behavioural adjectives to describe and evaluate horse personality and temperament. ...
... This result could be due to: 1) the periods of observations (e.g. early mornings and late afternoons): it has been demonstrated that the most active time period for bottlenose dolphins was found to be the afternoon (Sekiguchi & Kohshima, 2003); 2) the total duration of the focals: however the same duration (2hours/animal) has been already used to conduct a personality study in horses (Equus caballus) (Llyod et al. 2007) and Watters and Powell (2011) argued that ten 15-min observation sessions are enough to . Moreover, in rodents researchers complete assessment of exploration and anxiety in 5 minutes protocols (Locurto et al., 2003); and/or 3) the observed situation (absence of trainers and public). ...
... This result could be due to: 1) the periods of observations (e.g. early mornings and late afternoons): it has been demonstrated that the most active time period for bottlenose dolphins was found to be the afternoon (Sekiguchi & Kohshima, 2003); 2) the total duration of the focals: however the same duration (2hours/animal) has been already used to conduct a personality study in horses (Equus caballus) (Llyod et al. 2007) and Watters and Powell (2011) argued that ten 15-min observation sessions are enough to . Moreover, in rodents researchers complete assessment of exploration and anxiety in 5 minutes protocols (Locurto et al., 2003); and/or 3) the observed situation (absence of trainers and public). ...
Equid welfare in equine assisted services (EAS) is an area that has received attention, but less attention than the documentation of human outcomes in response to EAS. To safeguard the well-being of equids and minimize human risk of injury, continued research on the effects of EAS programming and participants on equids needs to occur. The aims of this systematic scoping review were to identify the approaches taken for describing and understanding equids in EAS and the methods employed in evaluating equids' responses to EAS programming, participants, or both. Literature searches were performed in relevant databases to identify titles and abstracts for screening. Fifty-three articles were identified for full-text review. Fifty-one articles met the inclusion criteria and were retained for information and data extraction. The qualitative grouping of articles by study aim resulted in four categories: 1) characterization and description of equids in EAS; 2) the acute responses of equids to EAS programming, participants, or both; 3) the effects of management practices; and 4) the chronic responses of equids to EAS programming and participants. The latter three areas are in need of more research, especially as it relates to differentiating acute and chronic effects of EAS on the equids involved. Detailed reporting of information on study design, programming and participant characteristics, equid demographics, and workload are needed to facilitate comparison among studies and permit eventual meta-analysis of studies. Multi-faceted approaches including an array of measurements as well as relevant and informative control groups or conditions are required to identify the complex effects of EAS work on equids, their welfare, well-being, and affective states.
Equine personality tests enable the selection of horses for roles based on their habitual behavioural responses to challenges, aiming to maximise performance and safeguard equine welfare. However, existing research has identified that behavioural responses to acute challenges do not correlate well with stress physiology in the horse. The aim of this study was to investigate whether chronic stress physiology is related to habitual compliance in horses. Hair cortisol concentration (HCC), a long-term biomarker of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity and stress, was assayed in mane hair from the withers, midpoint of the neck and poll of 24 riding school horses (66% male, mean age 13±4 years). Three caregivers provided scores for Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extroversion, Gregariousness Towards People and Gregariousness Towards Horses for all subjects using a validated equine personality questionnaire. A gamma GLMM was used to model HCC as a function of personality scores and potential confounders of HCC (age, sex, hair colour and sampling location). Individual horses were fitted as random intercepts in the model. Manual backward selection was used to identify the best-fitting plausible model. Mean HCC was 3.8±1.2 pg/mg. The final model only retained Agreeableness and sampling location as explanatory variables of HCC. A positive association was found between Agreeableness (reflecting habitual compliance) and hair cortisol concentration (t=2.7, p=0.01). Basal cortisol levels are known to drive sensitivity to punishment in humans. Therefore, horses with higher basal cortisol may be more sensitive to the aversive cues associated with negative reinforcement and consequently be more compliant. However, it is also possible that habitually compliant behaviour leads to higher chronic stress levels through increased exposure to stressors, as more subtle expressions of discomfort are not recognised by handlers. This result has important implications for welfare in the context of horse-human interaction and warrants further investigation to clarify whether a causal link exists between habitual compliance and higher levels of chronic stress. There was also a weaker but significant impact of sampling location (t=2.1, p=0.03; higher HCC at the poll), highlighting the importance of carefully standardizing sampling location for HCC analysis.
Animal welfare should include the possibility of animals experiencing positive emotions. Emotions influence the cognitive process, and judgment bias tests (JBTs) are employed in different species, to assess the optimistic or pessimistic expectation of an individual and its affective state. Only recently the JBTs have been applied to horses. This research aims to investigate the relationship between a spatial JBT and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) chronic and acute activation in forty-one animals hosted in different kinds of environments: traditional stables (TS), natural boarding (NB), and ethological stable (ES). Fecal (FC) and horsehair (HC) cortisol concentrations were quantified for each subject through Radio-Immuno-Assay (RIA). Body condition score (BCS), as an indirect index of animal motivation towards food, and personality traits were measured to explore their possible influence on JBT results. Horses had to distinguish from a positive position (P), where a bucket full of food was positioned, from a negative one (N), with an empty bucket. Then, three intermediate positions (Near Negative-NN, Near positive-NP, and Medium-M) with an empty bucket were presented to the subject one at a time. Only twenty subjects out of forty-one completed the JBT and were included in the statistical analysis, and both BCS and P position, whether at the right or the left of the subject, seems to have influenced the inclusion rate. Only the ES group registered a significantly lower score in NN, suggesting a more optimistic affective state, whereas NB and TS did not significantly differ in their responses. Despite this, horses from NB recorded higher FC concentration than TS subjects during all the phases of the test, but lower HC levels, which could suggest a generally lower level of chronic stress but its interpretation presents several confounding factors. These results put into question whether JBT is indeed a good test to monitor the quality of the management, as it does not seem to reflect the chronic physiological state of the animals and could be influenced by a state of acute stress, caused by the test procedure. Due to these confounding factors, this procedure should be accompanied by other indicators. Finally, to include more animals and exclude possible biases, the structure of the judgment bias test and the employment of food as a reward should be evaluated considering the peculiarities of the species and individual motivations.
One of the important factors that significantly affects the intensity and content of training and determines the performance it the horse interior. Character and temperament traits are described in the breeding goals of each breed of horse. The aim of this study was to analyze the horse interior and comparison the interior characteristics of two studied horse breeds Slovak warmblood horses and Lipizzan horses. Into the analysis were included 65 horses from National Stud Farm Topoľčianky, Slovak warmblood horses (n1 = 33) and Lipizzan horses (n2 = 32).Interior was analyzed through a questionnaire with 13 indicators with 10 point system, where 10 being the highest rating. Slovak warmblood horses become the highest ratings (average 89.1 pt, 74.42%) and Lipizzan horses (86.1 pt, 66.2%), so both breeds of horses can be considered as the breeds with balanced characteristics of temperament and character. But Lipizzan horses are more balanced, because their results had lower variability. There were insignificant differences between the analyzed horses in the studied breeds. Nevertheless, a several analyzes of individual indicators showed that between the Slovak warmblood horses and Lipizzan horses there is a significant difference in a single indicator of interior-10-Stress managing. In particular, it has been shown that Lipizzan horses manage stress significantly better than Slovak warmblood horses. © 2018, University of Zagreb - Faculty of Agriculture. All rights reserved.
Individual animals vary in their behaviour and reactions to novel situations. These differences may extend to differences in cognition among individuals. We tested twenty-six horses for their ability to detour around symmetric and asymmetric obstacles. All of the animals were able to get around the barrier to reach a food target, but varied in their approach. Some horses moved slowly but were more accurate in choosing the shortest way. Other horses acted quickly, consistently detoured in the same direction, and did not reliably choose the shortest way. The remaining horses shifted from a faster, directionally consistent response with the symmetric barrier, to a slower but more accurate response with the asymmetric barrier. The asymmetric barrier induced a reduction in heart rate variability, suggesting that this is a more demanding task. The different approaches used to solve the asymmetric task may reflect distinct cognitive styles in horses, which vary among individuals, and could be linked to different personality traits. Understanding equine behaviour and cognition can inform horse welfare and management.
La Policía Nacional de Colombia (PNC), en el desarrollo de programas educativos que emplean equipos caninos (Perro-Manejador), utiliza pruebas de selección, fundamentales para determinar cuáles animales son Aptos o No Aptos para iniciar el adiestramiento, continuarlo y finalizar su certificación. Por lo anterior los objetivos de esta investigación fueron: 1). Proponer un conjunto de indicadores etológicos para evaluar el perro detector de sustancias, a partir de una prueba empírica de campo con base a instrumentos y 2). Determinar los criterios de calificación para el perro detector de sustancias durante el proceso de asociación, potenciación y certificación para cada una de las pruebas evaluadas. Lo anterior permite que los instrumentos se validen para que sean confiables y predecir los perros que aprueban o desaprueban las evaluaciones comportamentales, aportando al desarrollo de los programas académicos. Para alcanzar el propósito del estudio, se efectúo un análisis univariado utilizando tablas de contingecia de 2 por 2, estimando la Sensibilidad y Especificidad para cada una de las pruebas realizadas en los caninos detectores de sustancias narcóticas y explosivas (n=549); determinando los valores predictivos de los Test: Instrumento No 1 (Test-retest), Instrumento No 2 (Potenciación y Asociación) e Instrumento No 3 (certificación final). Estableciendo el nivel de acuerdo entre los evaluadores (Kappa de Cohen), correlacionando las 17 variables comportamentales individuales y agrupadas para predecir los caninos Aptos y No Aptos para el servicio policial. Dentro de los principales hallazgos se evidencia una sensibilidad y especificidad altas, con resultados estadísticamente significativos para la mayoría de las variables comportamentales analizadas individualmente (P<0,05). Siendo la “perseverancia”, la prueba que más influye en los Test antes del adiestramiento (Kappa de 1,0), además de un nivel de acuerdo “casi perfecto” entre los evaluadores para la mayoría de las pruebas, prediciendo en un alto grado los caninos Aptos y No Aptos para el servicio policial (Perros No Aptos en la certificación final, n=12; 3%). Es fundamental que los programas académicos que emplean binomios, validen sus pruebas, estableciendo cuales son las variables más representativas para cada evaluación en particular. Lo anterior mejora y ajusta los instrumentos de acuerdo a las necesidades de cada institución o especialidad del servicio canino, disminuyendo costos y mejorando los estándares de calidad, dependiendo del contexto operativo a desempeñar por cada binomio.
How does maternal style, experienced over the first few weeks of life, affect later outcomes? Equally important, what is the role of an adolescent’s temperament and cognitive skills? The quest to understand which factors early in development lead to positive life outcomes is an endeavor that transcends species boundaries. In this dissertation, I explore the nature of these relationships using data collected from birth to adolescence in a cohort of prospective guide dogs. In Study 1, I quantify the behavior of mothers (n = 21) toward their litters. The results revealed that canine maternal style can be summarized in one principal component that explained a significant proportion of the variation and was stable across weeks, variable across individuals, and related to maternal cortisol and experimental measures. In Study 2, I examine the influence of early maternal style on later behavior, as well as on success in the guide dog program up to two years later. I also evaluated the influence of young adult temperament and cognition on success. Measures of maternal style as well as adolescent temperament and cognition were significantly associated with outcome in the guide dog program, even when controlling for each other. Successful dogs had less involved mothers as puppies, and demonstrated superior problem-solving skills, lower levels of perseveration, and reduced anxious vocal behavior as young adults. Temperament and cognition are frequently assessed in tasks purporting to measure one or the other, but large-scale studies usually only include tasks assigned to either domain. Dogs in our study completed a battery of both temperament and cognitive tasks. Thus, in Study 3, I address the categorization of ‘temperament’ and ‘cognitive’ tasks using both confirmatory and exploratory analyses and validate the findings using subjective ratings from puppy raisers, salivary cortisol, and program outcome measures. Forcing tasks into groups defined by cognition or temperament led to poor results, whereas a bottom-up approach revealed that putative cognitive and temperament measures interact in unanticipated ways. Taken together, these results suggest that mothering and the not-so-straightforward interplay of temperament and cognition provide important clues to the future success of an animal.
It is often assumed that measures of temperament within individuals are more correlated to one another than to measures of problem solving. However, the exact relationship between temperament and problem-solving tasks remains unclear because large-scale studies have typically focused on each independently. To explore this relationship, we tested 119 prospective adolescent guide dogs on a battery of 11 temperament and problem-solving tasks. We then summarized the data using both confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory principal components analysis. Results of confirmatory analysis revealed that a priori separation of tests as measuring either temperament or problem solving led to weak results, poor model fit, some construct validity, and no predictive validity. In contrast, results of exploratory analysis were best summarized by principal components that mixed temperament and problem-solving traits. These components had both construct and predictive validity (i.e., association with success in the guide dog training program). We conclude that there is complex interplay between tasks of “temperament” and “problem solving” and that the study of both together will be more informative than approaches that consider either in isolation.
To increase the populations of the Norwegian horse breeds, it is desirable to improve their competitive edge in the market. One of the declared strengths of these populations are their robust temperament, which has not been described sufficiently to be utilized for breeding purposes. A horse personality questionnaire (HPQ), with grading of 43 behaviourally defined adjectives, was analysed with a factor analysis to condense the temperament of the four Norwegian breeds into main temperamental factors. The analysis consisted of 1018 horses and the respondents was in general handlers or owners of the objective horse. The Fjord horse, the Dole horse and the Nordland/Lyngen shared the same five factors in the analysis; ‘anxiousness’, ‘agreeableness’, ‘conscientiousness’, ‘openness’ and ‘dominance’. The Norwegian coldblooded trotter shared the same five factors, but in addition had a factor identified as ‘excitability’. In total, the factors explained a maximum of 44% of the variance, which is somewhat less than other studies using the HPQ or similar. An expansion of number of adjectives compared to earlier studies, with skewness in which factor they load on to and more non-loading adjectives, could be an explanation of this. The use of HPQ has contributed to simplify the phenotypic landscape, but for future development of assessing temperamental traits for breeding purposes, a horse personality questionnaire is not recommended, as it is probably highly influenced by personal preferences or possible benefits of the owner. The alternative is impartial observers unknown to the horses, demanding a test arena for the horses, where the observers can base their ratings on the horses’ performances.
An ethogram of agonistic and related behaviors among equid bachelor band members was developed. Several key English-language studies on equids were reviewed to derive a preliminary inventory of specific behaviors to be included in the ethogram. A bachelor band of domestic pony stallions pastured together was observed for approximately 50 daylight hours to obtain detailed descriptions of each behavior, enable photographic and video documentation of behaviors, and identify any behaviors to be added to the preliminary inventory. An initial draft of the ethogram was sent to 65 equine researchers for review. Twenty-eight critical reviews were received and their suggestions considered for the final draft.A total of 49 elemental behaviors including five distinct vocalizations was included in the ethogram. Three complex behavioral sequences were also included. Most of the behaviors catalogued from the direct observation of pastured pony stallions were also found in the equid literature. For many, references to these behaviors specifically among males or bachelor band members were not found.The results offer a practical tool for quantitative research and other studies of equid inter-male behavior as well as for teaching of equid behavior, and should facilitate progress toward development of a complete ethogram for the horse and other equids.
Forty-three trait-descriptive adjectives with representative items from the human Big-Five model were used to assess the factor structure of personality in 100 zoo chimpanzees. Interrater reliabilities were acceptably high, with an overall η of .75 and those of individual adjectives ranging from .55 to .81. Analysis of variance showed no significant interaction between zoos and individual trait descriptors or between zoos and factors based on those adjectives. There were therefore no between-zoo differences in patterns of intercorrelation among trait descriptors or among factors. Factor analysis showed that the chimpanzee ratings were accurately described by six factors, five of which resembled the human Big Five. The sixth factor was dominance related and was consistent with the central role of dominance in chimpanzee personality. Convergent and discriminant validity of the factor structure was excellent. These results are the first quantitative evidence of profound similarities in the personality structure of humans and chimpanzees.
We carried out a questionnaire survey of the caretakers, using 86 riding horses kept in the Equestrian Park, Tokyo (Japan Racing Association). The questionnaire survey used a 5-point scale and a 3-point scale to assess several caretakers’ impressions of each horse’s temperament, on the basis of the norm and the horse’s tendencies in ordinary care and daily training. Factor analysis of the temperament scores obtained with the 5-point scale questionnaire revealed three mutually independent factors that we named “anxiety”, “novelty seeking” and “understanding”. In order to verify the reliability of this questionnaire survey, a balloon reactivity test was conducted using the same horses. Each horse was introduced into an unfamiliar indoor arena (7m×12.5m×3m) in the center of which two balloons slowly revolved. The horses’ responses were assessed by recording changes in their behavior and heart rate (HR) during the 5min experimental period. By comparing the questionnaire survey and the balloon reactivity test, it was found that the horses evaluated as highly anxious by the caretakers tended to show greater HR increases and defecate more often during exposure to the balloon stimuli than did the other horses. Additionally, the horses assessed by caretakers to have problems with ordinary care and/or training showed greater increases of HR and frequency of defecation in the balloon reactivity test, and the horses assessed as having ‘a long adaptation time to unfamiliar objects’ were found to be unwilling to touch the balloons. Thus, the horses’ behavior during the balloon reactivity test was highly consistent with their temperament as determined by the questionnaire. These results suggest that the questionnaire survey would be an effective means to assess equine temperamental traits, especially those related to anxiety.
Individual behavioral variation of 44 adult captive-born cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, was assessed using observer and keeper ratings on a variety of behavioral attributes. Inter-rater consensus was high for most questionnaire items, several of which were significantly correlated with direct behavioral measures recorded in a mirror-image experiment. Principal component analysis was applied to identify patterns of individual variation as measured by observer and keeper ratings. Three major components, labeled as tense-fearful, excitable-vocal, and aggressive, accounted for 69% of the observed variation. Females showed significantly higher scores on the component tense-fearful than males. Non-breeders of both sexes scored significantly higher on the component tense-fearful than breeders. Assessment of individual behavioral variation through questionnaire ratings may therefore provide a simple and non-invasive tool for predicting an individual's ability to adjust to the constraints of certain husbandry regimens and to reproduce in captivity. Simple measures of behavioral attributes may offer new insights for solving breeding problems and improving conservation management of endangered species in captivity. Zoo Biol 18:335–349, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The five-factor model has recently received wide attention as a comprehensive model of personality traits. The claim that these five factors represent basic dimensions of personality is based on four lines of reasoning and evidence: (a) longitudinal and cross-observer studies demonstrate that all five factors are enduring dispositions that are manifest in patterns of behavior; (b) traits related to each of the factors are found in a variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait description; (c) the factors are found in different age, sex, race, and language groups, although they may be somewhat differently expressed in different cultures; and (d) evidence of heritability suggests that all have some biological basis. To clarify some remaining confusions about the five-factor model, the relation between Openness and psychometric intelligence is described, and problems in factor rotation are discussed.
For the past 2 decades the person–situation debate has dominated personality psychology and had repercussions in clinical, social, and organizational psychology. This controversy puts on trial the central assumption that internal dispositions have an important influence on behavior. According to emerging views of scientific progress, controversy serves the function of narrowing the field of competing hypotheses. We examine 7 hypotheses that arose during the course of the person–situation debate, ranging from most to least pessimistic about the existence of consensual, discriminative personality traits. The evidence fails to support the hypotheses that personality traits are (a) in the eye of the beholder, (b) semantic illusions, (c) artifacts of base-rate accuracy, (d) artifacts of shared stereotypes, (e) due to discussion between observers (who ignore behavior in favor of verbal self-presentation or reputation), or (f) by-products of situational consistencies. Evidence also fails to support the hypothesis (g) that although traits are related to behavior, the relationship is too small to be important. Research generated by these hypotheses has allowed us to better specify the circumstances under which personality assessments will be valid. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Personality ratings of 34 spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) were made by 4 observers who knew the animals well. Analyses suggest that (a) hyena personality traits were rated with generally high reliability; (b) 5 broad dimensions (Assertiveness, Excitability, Human-Directed Agreeableness, Sociability, and Curiosity) captured about 75% of the total variance; (c) this dimensional structure could not be explained in terms of dominance status, sex, age, or appearance; and (d) as expected, female hyenas were more assertive than male hyenas. Comparisons with previous research provide evidence for the cross-species generality of Excitability, Sociability, and especially Assertiveness. Discussion focuses on methodological issues in research on animal personality and on the potential contributions this research can make for understanding the biological and environmental bases of personality.
The author explores the viability of a comparative approach to personality research. A review of the diverse animal-personality literature suggests that (a) most research uses trait constructs, focuses on variation within (vs. across) species, and uses either behavioral codings or trait ratings; (b) ratings are generally reliable and show some validity (7 parameters that could influence reliability and 4 challenges to validation are discussed); and (c) some dimensions emerge across species, but summaries are hindered by a lack of standard descriptors. Arguments for and against cross-species comparisons are discussed, and research guidelines are suggested. Finally, a research agenda guided by evolutionary and ecological principles is proposed. It is concluded that animal studies provide unique opportunities to examine biological, genetic, and environmental bases of personality and to study personality change, personality-health links, and personality perception.
The evolutionary continuity between humans and other animals suggests that some dimensions of personality may be common across a wide range of species. Unfortunately, there is no unified body of research on animal personality; studies are dispersed across multiple disciplines and diverse journals. To review 19 studies of personality factors in 12 nonhuman species, we used the human Five-Factor Model plus Dominance and Activity as a preliminary framework. Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness showed the strongest cross-species generality, followed by Openness; a separate Conscientiousness dimension appeared only in chimpanzees, humans' closest relatives. Cross-species evidence was modest for a separate Dominance dimension but scant for Activity. The comparative approach taken here offers a fresh perspective on human personality and should facilitate hypothesis-driven research on the social and biological bases of personality.
The temperament of individual donkeys being sent to foster homes from the Donkey Sanctuary was evaluated with a calibrated-line rating method using eight pairs of contrary adjectives to describe traits, e.g. calm-nervous. The donkeys' attitude to other animals and people was also recorded. A factor analysis of normalized scores for the trait adjective pairs produced two factors: ‘obduracy’ and ‘vivacity’. Once in their foster homes, the donkeys appeared more overtly outgoing. One explanation of this change in temperament is that pairs of donkeys in foster homes experience less social intimidation than those living in groups. The donkeys' attitude towards other donkeys and people was un-affected by their change in surroundings, but their behaviour towards other animals could change. Temperament assessment can assist in matching potential pets with homes, e.g. donkeys that were perceived as liking humans had a higher ‘vivacity’ score and donkeys that were reported to like dogs, had a lower ‘obduracy’ score.
The evolutionary continuity between humans and other animals suggests that some dimensions of personality may be common across a wide range of species. Unfortunately, there is no unified body of research on animal personality; studies are dispersed across multiple disciplines and diverse journals. To review 19 studies of personality factors in 12 nonhuman species, we used the human Five-Factor Model plus Dominance and Activity as a preliminary framework. Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness showed the strongest cross-species generality, followed by Openness; a separate Conscientiousness dimension appeared only in chimpanzees, humans' closest relatives. Cross-species evidence was modest for a separate Dominance dimension but scant for Activity. The comparative approach taken here offers a fresh perspective on human personality and should facilitate hypothesis-driven research on the social and biological bases of personality.
Four methods of ranking horses on reactivity were evaluated and compared: isolation from conspecifics, presentation of a static novel stimulus, traversing a novel stimulus in a runway (isolation, novel stimulus and runway tests, respectively) and assigning subjective emotionality scores. In all tests, horses’ heart rates were recorded and behaviour was videotaped. To be considered a valid test of reactivity, at least one heart rate and one behavioural measurement in the test had to change significantly between treatments (tranquilizer administation versus sham tranquilizer administration), and behavioural measures had to be displayed in at least 75% of the trials. Forty horses performed each of the three tests daily on three different days in a switchback design. Horses were assigned randomly to a daily test sequence, which was maintained throughout the study. In the runway test, no significant difference in heart rate values in tranquilized and non-tranquilized horses was found, and no behavioural attribute was displayed in more than 52% of the trials; therefore it was rejected as a valid test of reactivity. Both isolation and novel stimulus tests produced valid measurements. Mean heart rate was the most precise physiological measure for these tests, and walking and defecation frequency were the most precise behavioural measures for novel stimulus and isolation tests, respectively. Mean heart rates on the novel stimulus and isolation tests were correlated (rs=0.79, P
An ethogram of play behavior among equids was developed. Several key English-language studies on equids were reviewed to derive a preliminary inventory of specific behaviors to be included in the ethogram. Our primary observations were based on a herd of semi-feral Shetland-type ponies kept at New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA. Greater than 100h of direct observation and photo-documentation focused specifically on play in order to identify play behaviors to be added to the preliminary inventory and to obtain detailed descriptions of each behavior. Additionally, these observations were supplemented with photographs obtained during several years of observational study of this herd for other purposes, and with the cumulative equid observational experience and study notes of the principal investigator with other equid species. An initial draft was sent out to 18 equine behavior colleagues for review.A total of 38 individual behaviors classified into four distinct categories were included in the ethogram. These included object play (14 entries), play sexual behavior (3 entries), locomotor play (14 entries) and play fighting (7 entries). All of the behaviors catalogued from direct observation of the herd were also found in the equid literature.The resulting ethogram offers a practical tool as a field guide or reference for quantitative research and other studies of equid play behavior as well as for teaching of equid behavior.
To establish a method for assessing equine temperament by use of a questionnaire, we carried out two surveys. The subject animals were all thoroughbreds maintained at the same farm. Respondents were the primary caretaker and two colleagues working with each horse. Factor analysis was performed on the responses to each survey. In both surveys, five factors were extracted and four of them were common between the two surveys. The common factors were ‘Anxiety’, ‘Trainability’, ‘Affability’, and ‘Gate entrance’. There were sufficient internal consistencies in responses about ‘Anxiety’, ‘Trainability’, and ‘Affability’ in the two surveys to indicate the validity of this questionnaire in evaluating these factors in equine temperament.
Personality traits of 43 captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at five zoos in the United Kingdom were assessed. Chimpanzees were categorised into one of three rearing conditions: mother-group-reared (MGR), reared with others but separated from mother (RO), and reared alone for a period of time during infancy (RA). This study was interested in the effects of early upbringing on the personality traits observed in later life. Individuals were rated for 25 adjectives. Inter-rater reliability was found to be affected by the rearing condition of the chimpanzee being rated, with MGR chimpanzees being easier to rate reliably than their non-MGR peers. Individual traits were compared between individuals from different rearing conditions. No differences in trait could be found that could be related to rearing condition. Although five personality components were identified by principal component analysis there was no difference in individuals’ scores for these animals from different rearing conditions. Cluster analysis revealed three distinct chimpanzee personality types: an aggressive male type, a confident, intelligent female type and a deferent, apprehensive female type. It was concluded that in many socially separated individuals personality in later life was unaffected by experiences in infancy, however, maternally separated individuals were distinguishable by a low-rater reliability. This supported earlier work that assessed behavioural differences between these different rearing groups. Both behaviour and personality show limited affects of upbringing-type once chimpanzees are passed juvenility.
A behavioral assessment of horses who were being used and not used in therapeutic riding programs was conducted to help determine useful methods of selecting horses for use in therapeutic riding programs. A total of 103 horses (76 horses from five therapeutic riding centers and 27 non-therapeutic riding horses from four sites) were used. Temperament survey for each horse were completed by three riding instructors at each therapeutic riding center or by the individual most knowledgeable about the horse at the other sites. Twenty personality traits from the survey were used to quantify temperament. Concentrations of plasma cortisol, norepinephrine and epinephrine were also measured in each horse. A reactivity test was then conducted which involved introducing three novel stimuli: a walking and vocalizing toy pig placed on a cardboard surface in front of the horse for 20 s; popping a balloon near the horse's flank area; and suddenly opening an umbrella and holding it open in front of the horse for 20 s. Reactions (expressions, vocalizations and movement) to each of the stimuli were scored and used to calculate an average reactivity score for each horse. The therapeutic riding instructors did not often agree on the temperament of their center's horses. The personality trait ratings made by the therapeutic riding instructors at each center were on average significantly correlated (P0.52) for only 37.8% of the horses for any two instructors and 7.8% for three instructors. No significant correlations were found between temperament, reactivity, and the hormone concentrations (r
The Behaviour of Horses in Relation to Management and Training is a unique and important work, being a fascinating mixture of scientific fact and original thinking which will stimulate all horse owners to look more closely into patterns of behaviour resulting in a greatly improved understanding of equine species. The book covers: * Feeding behaviour and digestion * How horses learn * Behavioural problems * Horse welfare * Horse language * Visual communication * Sex, maturity and the foal * Horse society
Differences in behavioural characteristics between individuals of the same species are often described as being due to the temperament of the individuals. These differences can have enormous implications for welfare with some individuals apparently being able to adapt to environmental challenge more easily than others. Such differences have resulted in animals often being described as either ‘active’ copers, which try to escape from or remove an aversive stimulus, or ‘passive’ copers, which show no outward signs of a situation being aversive, thus, appearing to be unaffected. Tests previously developed to assess the temperament of animals have been criticised for several reasons. Behaviour is often recorded and categorised using methods that are not objective and tests are generally carried out once with no consideration of whether or not behavioural responses are consistent over time. This study takes these factors into account. The behaviour of 33 horses was recorded in three types of test—an arena test, response to a person and response to an object. In order to test whether or not responses were consistent over time, the tests were repeated three times with an average of 9 days between trials. Test results were validated using responses from questionnaires completed by the farm team leader. The data were analysed using an initial principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis. The horses were found to behave consistently over the three trials in their responses in the arena test. The responses to the person test and the object test were similar to each other; however, these responses were not consistent over trials. The behaviour in the arena test was unable to be used to make a prediction of behaviour in the person and object tests and vice versa. The responses shown by the horses did not enable them to be categorised as either active or passive copers. Behavioural responses in the tests were not predictive of the response to a startle test (water spray), nor could they be used to predict status or response to being reintroduced to the group after testing. There was no relationship between the responses in the tests and the ratings given by the farm team leader. It was concluded that horses vary widely in their responses to artificial behavioural tests, with only the responses to an open-field arena test being consistent over time, and therefore, the only type of test which can indicate some core factor of temperament.
Personality ratings of ten adolescent pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were carried out by three experienced observers who used a simple three-point rating system. A modification of Stevenson-Hinde & Zunz's [1978] procedure, the agreement between raters on each of 21 traits was evaluated. When correlated with social rank, it was shown that dominant animals were rated as being, for example, confident, effective, and opportunistic. Subordinant monkeys were rated as insecure and dependent. Rank correlated negatively, however, with observers' impressions of popularity. Subjects who had undergone a brief maternal separation were rated as less sociable than their nonseparated counterparts. Furthermore, rank-related traits corresponded well with the three personality components that were derived by Stevenson-Hind & Zunz [1978]; this suggested that clusters of traits reliably accompanied and/or contributed to the attainment of social rank.
Goals of the Gorilla Species Survival Plan (SSP) include increased captive propagation, maintenance of genetic diversity, and consideration of the psychological well-being of the population. The SSP Propagation Group has attempted to accomplish these goals through recommendations based on assessment of genetic, behavioral, and demographic variables. A need is recognized for the development of a methodology to assess behavioral variables that contribute to the success of animal moves. Personality profiles have been used in the past to aid animal management decisions in laboratory settings. This paper describes personality assessment techniques, reviews historical perspectives on primate personality assessment, and reports on a study to assess gorilla personality.
The Gorilla Behavior Index (GBI), a subjective assessment instrument consisting of behaviorally based adjectives, was completed for 298 of 303 captive gorillas over 1 year of age. The results were subjected to common factor analysis, resulting in the identification of four main factors: extroverted, dominant, fearful, and understanding. Frequency distributions were calculated illustrating the ranges of each factor. Potential management uses for the GBI scores are discussed.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior and physiologic responses of mares to removal from an established pasture herd and to isolation in a pasture setting for 6 h (Group I, n 5). Responses of mares in Group I were compared to mares that were transported and returned to the herd (Group T, n 5) and to mares moved to the isolation pasture with a companion (Group C, n 5). Behavior was recorded continuously for 6 h on the day before the isolation procedures (baseline, Day 0) and again on the day of the procedure (test, Day 1). Plasma cortisol, white blood cell count (WBC), neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio (N:L), and hematocrit (HCT) were measured once on Day 0 (a.m.) and twice on Day 1 (a.m. and p.m.). Heart rate (HR) was monitored continuously during Day 0 and Day 1. Intradermal response to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) injection was measured 18 h following injection, which was administered at the end of Day 1. Average time spent standing alert increased (P < 0:05) in Groups I and C and average time spent grazing decreased (P < 0:05) in Group C from Day 0 to Day 1. Also, there was a signi®cant difference between groups (based on a calculated w 2 -square value) in the proportion of mares that autogroomed, defecated, urinated, rolled, and whinnied on Day 1. Activity shift rate (ASR) and temperament scores increased signi®cantly in Groups I and C from Day 0 to Day 1 (P < 0:05). Plasma cortisol increased signi®cantly in all groups from Day 0 to Day 1, a.m. (P < 0:05) and decreased signi®cantly from Day 1, a.m. to Day 1, p.m. (P < 0:05). HCT signi®cantly increased in all three groups from Day 0 to Day 1, a.m. (P < 0:05). WBC signi®cantly increased in Group T from Day 0 to Day 1, a.m. (P < 0:05). N:L ratio signi®cantly increased in Groups I and C from Day 0 and Day 1, a.m. to Day 1, p.m. (P < 0:05).
Animal studies can enrich the field of human personality psychology by ad-dressing questions that are difficult or impossible to address with human studies alone. However, the benefits of a comparative approach to personality cannot be reaped until the tenability of the personality construct has been established in an-imals. Using criteria established in the wake of the person–situation debate (Ken-rick & Funder, 1988), the authors evaluate the status of personality traits in animals. The animal literature provides strong evidence that personality does exist in animals. That is, personality ratings of animals: (a) show strong levels of inte-robserver agreement, (b) show evidence of validity in terms of predicting behav-iors and real-world outcomes, and (c) do not merely reflect the implicit theories of observers projected onto animals. Although much work remains to be done, the preliminary groundwork has been laid for a comparative approach to per-sonality.
Personality ratings were completed in 97 socially living vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) ranging in age from 19 months to 14 years. Monkeys were rated on 17 distinct items on three separate occasions over a 14 month period. For each rating session, factor analysis resulted in similar factors: socially competent, playful/curious, and opportunistic, which are provisionally labeled as personality features.
Individuals' scores on the three factors were linked to the subjects' social status, age, and sex. Relative to subordinate animals, dominant individuals had higher scores on the socially competent and lower scores on the opportunistic factors. Juvenile and subadult animals scored higher on playful/curious and opportunistic factors than adults. Females had higher scores on the opportunistic factor than males. Scores on the three factors changed during maturation, which suggests that some aspects of personality are age- and context-dependent.
When group composition and social status were unaltered, intraindividual differences in factor scores were as consistent over time as were the rates of social grooming, being in proximity to others, resting, and other overt behaviors. Alterations in social status, group composition, and group membership were associated with changes in factor scores among some, but not all animals.
These observations suggest that studies assessing personality can supplement ethological investigations of nonhuman primate behavior, and support the view that nonhuman Primates can serve as models for important features of human behavior.
Using behaviourally-defined adjectives, observers rated individuals in a colony of rhesus monkeys on a seven-point scale.
Principal component analysis of the ratings produced three main components: CI and CII were stable over three years, and CIII
arose from the introduction of new items in the third year. Component I can be described as ranging fromConfident toFearful; and adult males scored higher on it than did adult females or one- to five-year olds. Component II ranged fromActive toSlow; and adult males scored higher on it than did adult females. Component III ranged fromSociable toSolitary; and adult males scored less on it than did adult females or one- to five-year olds. In addition, there was a positive correlation
between scores of mothers and their one year olds on CI and CIII.
Using behaviourally-defined adjectives and a 7-point scale, observers rated all individuals over a year old in a colony of
rhesus monkeys every November for four years. Principal component analyses of the ratings provided a basis for the following
scores each year: CONFIDENT, EXCITABLE, and SOCIABLE. Two- and three-year old females had higher EXCITABLE scores than males,
and adult males were more CONFIDENT than adult females. At all ages, CONFIDENT scores were stable from year to year, whereas
EXCITABLE and SOCIABLE scores were not stable until adulthood. However for primiparous females, only their EXCITABLE scores
were stable from the ante-natal to post-natal year. One-year males who had had adverse experience in their first eight months
were more EXCITABLE, but no less CONFIDENT or SOCIABLE than control males. Finally, correlations between scores of mothers
and their yearlings showed that CONFIDENT mothers had CONFIDENT infants and SOCIABLE mothers had SOCIABLE infants, but EXCITABLE
mothers had infants who were not CONFIDENT. Scores of mothers and their 1-year olds were also significantly correlated with
some measures of their social behaviour taken when the infants were 8, 16, and 52 weeks old.