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Malaysian households’ drinking water
practices: A case study
M. S. Aini, A. Fakhrul-Razi, O. Mumtazah and J. C. Meow Chen
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Key words: Drinking water, sustainable practices, bottled water, water filter
SUMMARY
Malaysia has abundant water resources and adequate rainfall and yet the nation has water
shortages and water quality problem. Various measures have been taken by the govern-
ment to address water issues but, in spite of these, quantity and quality of drinking water is
still one of the main concerns of Malaysian consumers today. An exploratory study was
undertaken to determine the level of awareness of respondents on water issues, assess
their perception on drinking water quality, and identify measures undertaken by house-
holds to improve drinking water quality and to determine sustainable water practices. A
cross-sectional research design, utilizing a survey was conducted among urban residents
of Seremban town. Data showed that each household had a mean of five members, with an
average household income of RM3788.00 (US$1000). The respondents were Chinese
(70%), Indian (23%) and Malay (7%). The majority of respondents rated the quality of
water supplied to their house as poor (70%), while 16% rated it very poor. The respon-
dents indicated that colour, odour and taste were the main problems with their tap water.
Due to the poor tap water quality perceived by respondents, most took additional
measures to improve its quality. Most (85%) purchased domestic water filters, 41% boiled
water and 17% bought bottled water. The reasons for purchasing water were: concern for
health, perception of poor tap water quality, and increasing water contamination and
pollution in the country. Almost a quarter of respondents that had water filters mentioned
the convenience because they did not have to boil water. Sustainable use of water by
respondents was moderate, with a mean of 2.9 on a scale of 1 (never) to 4 (all the time).
Some aspects of conservation, such as the promptness of repairing leaking pipes,
planning activities to conserve water, and method of car washing could be improved.
Advantages and limitations of different water technologies are discussed. Sustainable
water practices are also proposed.
INTRODUCTION
Water is the most important and precious resource
for human survival. Consequently, water issues
have always been on national and international
agendas. The first United Nations Conference on
Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 re-
sulted in the emergence of the UN Environmental
Programme (UNEP). The Stockholm Confer-
ence’s contribution to water resource management
included recommendations for ensuring the pres-
ervation of water quality and protection of the
environment from large-scale water develop-
ment projects. It also stressed the need to reduce
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 14 (2007) 503–510
Correspondence: M. S.Aini, Departmentof ResourceManagement andConsumer Studies,Faculty ofHuman Ecology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Email: ainims@putra.upm.edu.my
503
pollution of marine ecosystems and resources
resulting from industrial development. Water
issues were further emphasized in Chapter 18 of
Agenda 21 to enhance the protection of the quality
and supply of fresh water to satisfy the needs of
all countries for their sustainable development
(United Nations 2005).
Water use
According to a report from the Global Water Out-
look to 2025, the world used 169 km3of water for
household consumption in 2002, and this will
increase by 72% to 289.6 km3by 2025 (IFPRI 2005).
It was further reported that people living in devel-
oping countries would be using 93 l of water per
day (LPD) while their counterparts in developed
countries would use 149 l per person per day. The
international standard for water use recom-
mended by the United Nations is 165 LPD. How-
ever Malaysian consumers on average were found
to use 300 LPD, and urban dwellers use 500 LPD
(Chan 2000). This illustrates a very high level of
consumption and indicates wastage and unsustain-
able use of water by individuals. The problem is
compounded further by a high percentage of
non-revenue water (NWR), 38% in 1998, and steps
are currently being taken to decrease NWR by
upgrading and repairing the water supply system
and improving its maintenance (Seventh Malaysia
Plan 1999). Water use inside the home varies
from household to household and individual to
individual. The population and the age of a house-
hold contribute significantly to water-use patterns.
The presence of teenagers tends to increase a
household’s use, while the presence of adults
working full-time decreases water use in the USA
(AWWA 2005). Table 1 shows the statistics for water
use (in 1998) in a typical American home, without
any conservation measures.
According to Global Water Outlook 2025, the
demand for the world’s increasingly scarce water
supply is rising rapidly, challenging its availability
for food production, and putting global food secu-
rity at risk. Agriculture, upon which a burgeoning
population depends for food, is competing with
industrial, household and environmental uses
(Rosegrant et al. 2002). As freshwater supplies are
further stretched to meet the demands of industry,
agriculture and an ever-expanding population, the
shortage of safe and accessible drinking water will
become a major challenge in many parts of the
world (WHO 2000). Drinking water is one of the
most important current issues, and presently 1.2
billion people in the world do not have safe drink-
ing water, and the resulting water-borne diseases
kill 4.6 million children a year (Foltz 1999). Thus, it
is imperative that sustainable water management is
practiced at all levels, be it government, industries
or consumers.
Water quality assurance
The water sector has, and will always have, an impor-
tant role in the development of a nation. With the
inception of the first public water supply system in
Penang in 1804, water acts and regulations were
formulated, such as the Water Regulations 1920,
Environmental Quality Act 1974, Land Conserva-
tion Act 1960 (revised 1989), National Drinking
Water Quality Surveillance Programme (NDWQSP)
1983, EIA Order 1987, etc. The importance and
concern for water by the nation is also manifested in
the formation of the Ministry of Energy, Water and
Communications in March 2004.
The Government of Malaysia has undertaken
various measures to improve the quality of drinking
water supplied to the people. A national monitor-
ing network was established in 1978 by the Depart-
ment of Environment to monitor river quality
and detect changes in water quality as a result of
development. A National Drinking Water Quality
Surveillance Programme (NDWQSP) was further
launched in 1983 as a result of concerns about
increasing pollution and contamination of surface
waters that resulted in increased frequency and
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
504 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
Activity
Litres per day
(LPD)
% of
total use
Toilets
Washing clothes
Showers
Faucets
Leaks
Other domestic use
Baths
Dishwasher
Total
73.5
63.7
50.0
43.2
35.6
6.1
4.9
3.8
280.8
26
22.7
17.8
15.4
12.7
2.1
1.8
1.4
100
Source: American Water Works Association, 1998.
(AWWA)
Table 1 Pattern of water usage in an American home
incidence of waterborne diseases. In 1992, the con-
cept of quality assurance was further incorporated
into the NDWQSP in order to enhance the quality
of drinking water supply and to reduce the disparity
between levels of quality in different states in the
country (Siru 1994). However, in spite of these mea-
sures, quantity and quality of drinking water is still
one of the main concerns of Malaysian consumers
today. Developed countries such as the USA,
Canada, Denmark and Britain have also had cases
of waterborne disease due to contamination of
municipal supplies (Hrudey et al. 2002).
In Malaysia, major water pollution sources in
2001 were from sewage treatment plants (51%),
manufacturing industries (39%), pig farming (7%)
and agro-industries (4%) (Mohd Norli 2004).
Although there have been no major outbreaks of
waterborne diseases in the country, there have
been reports of sporadic occurrences. Data from
the annual report of NDWQSP (2004) showed
non-conformance in terms of total coliforms, resid-
ual chlorine, high or low pH, turbidity, aluminum
content and colour; all of which increased in 2003.
Different states in the country reported different
levels of non-conformance for some parameters
and these are being addressed by NDWQSP. In
addition, sanitary surveys of public water supply
systems, which involved identification of pollution
sources in catchment areas, weaknesses of water
treatment processes in the water treatment plants
and problems in distribution systems, were also
conducted and short- or long-term remedial
actions were recommended.
Water technologies
There are five types of water technology available to
consumers: tap water, bottled water, home purifica-
tion systems, vending machines and rural home
wells. The question is which of these provides the
best solution to drinking water problems.
Tap water: According to the Department of
Statistics (2001), 98% of the urban Malaysian popu-
lation and 92% of the rural community has munici-
pal water. The Department of Statistics (2000) also
indicated that waterborne diseases have declined
over the last 10 years (1989–1998). In general, the
municipal water meets standards set by the WHO
and is safe. However, it is important to educate
the public about water safety. Sources of water
problems include: untreated water, inadequate
water treatment, chemicals used in water treatment
and distribution systems. Common public com-
plaints on tap water relate to air in water, high
turbidity, high colour and presence of foreign
particles, taste and odour (traces of chlorine)
(Chan 2004). Consumers are unaware of chemical
or microbiological toxicity that could lead to health
problems from contaminated drinking water, e.g.
from lead, arsenic and benzene, or from bacteria,
viruses and parasites such as Vibrio cholera, hepatitis
AorCryptosporidium parvum. There are additional
measures that households can take to ensure safety
of water: sealing household water storage tanks;
only drinking mains water; avoiding large storage
water containers that cannot be refrigerated to
minimize growth of organisms; and boiling tap or
bottled water to kill bacteria.
Bottled water: The first bottled water in Malaysia
was imported from Belgium in earthen jars in the
1700s (Denny 1996). Today, the global bottled
water trade is estimated at RM3.04 trillion by the
World Bank and is growing at more than 10% per
annum (Dean 2003). Many reports indicated that
bottled water consumption is becoming the most
dynamic sector in the food and beverage industry.
Bottled water is on average 1000-times more expen-
sive than tapwater and Western Europeans are the
world’s major bottled water consumers, at 85 l per
person per year (Ferrier 2002). In the USA, people
spend from 240- to over 10,000-times more per
gallon of bottled water than they typically do for tap
water. The Minister of Internal Trade and Con-
sumer Affairs Trade of Malaysia had examined the
pricing of bottled water, which varies from RM1 to
RM2 per half liter but only cost 41 sen to produce.
This represents a significant cost to the consumer
as tap water costs only 0.57 sen for 1000 l (1 m3) for
the first 20 m3of usage.
Reasons cited by consumers for purchasing
bottled water or using home purification systems
are: improved taste, greater safety, better quality,
healthier, untreated natural mineral water is per-
ceived as natural; affordability, convenience, and
rising social status (Ferrier 2002). Consequently,
water industries echo these arguments in their pub-
licity material. Are these perceptions and claims
that bottled water is better and healthier than tap
water true? The Natural Resources Defense Coun-
cil (NRDC) of the USA conducted a 4-year study of
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 505
the bottled water industry, including studies of
bacterial and chemical contamination. They con-
cluded that: i) nearly 22% of the waters tested
violated limits for arsenic or cancer-causing man-
made organic compounds; ii) about 33% con-
tained more bacteria than allowed under micro-
biological purity guidelines; and iii) 20% of
samples contained synthetic organic chemicals
such as toluene or xylene. Thus, the report con-
cluded that there is no assurance that bottled water
is any safer than tap water and that manufacture of
billions of bottles causes unnecessary energy and
petroleum consumption, leads to increased land
fill or incineration, and can release environmental
toxins (NRDC 1999). The results were confirmed
by Consumer Reports, which found contamination
with arsenic, trihalomethanes (suspected carcino-
gens), and the endocrine disrupter, bisphenol A
(Consumer Reports 2003). Research from Geneva
University found that bottled water sells for up to
1000-times the price of tap water, but the quality is
no better. In 50% of cases, the only difference is
that bottled water has added minerals and salts
which do not actually mean the water is healthier
(Doole 2001).
According to the World Health Organization
(2000), some substances may prove more difficult
to manage in bottled than tap water because bottled
water is stored for longer periods and at higher
temperatures. Control of materials and sealing of
containers for bottled water is, therefore, of added
concern. In addition, some microorganisms, which
are normally of little or no public health signifi-
cance, may reach higher levels in bottled waters.
Although certain mineral waters may be useful in
providing essential micronutrients, such as cal-
cium, the WHO is unaware of any convincing
evidence to support the beneficial effects of con-
suming such mineral waters. As a consequence,
WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality do
not make recommendations regarding minimum
concentrations of essential compounds. The above
data and other reports (Sullivan 1995; Razzi 1995)
provide a general consensus that there is little
scientific evidence that bottled water is healthier
than tapwater.
Water filters: Concernovertapwaterqualityhas
led to the expansion of water filtration plants.
American consumers spent more than US$1 billion
on home water-filtering equipment in 2002, and one
third of the water they drank was bottled (Consumer
Reports 2003). Malaysian consumers are following
this trend and most houses, particularly in urban
areas, have some form of water filtration, and con-
sumption of bottled water is on the increase. There
are two major types of home purification system:
point of use (POU) which is attached directly to the
tap, and point of entry (POE) which is attached
where the water enters the house. Tests conducted
by Consumer Reports (2003) in the USA concluded
that all filters tested (carafes, faucet-mounted,
under-sink systems, reverse osmosis) were good at
removing lead and chloroform. The whole-house
system (POE) was least effective, and clogged faucet
aerators must be regularly cleaned. Filtering can
actually make the water more contaminated if filters
are not changed regularly (Gorman 1996).
Vending machine technology is a hybrid of the
home purification system and bottled water. It has
recently penetrated the Malaysian market, where
consumers can fill their bottles at machines for 20
sen per litre, much less than the price of bottled
water. It is claimed that the water quality from
machines complies with the Ministry of Health’s
Food Act Schedule 25 and the machines are tested
and approved by SIRIM. Nonetheless, studies con-
ducted in the USA by the Environmental Toxi-
cology Bureau reported that water vending
machines in southern California were selling water
with bacterial counts as much as 163-times higher
than tapwater, and 30% of tested machines
contained trihalomethane exceeding state limits
(Foltz 1999). Maintenance of the machines and the
cleanliness of the containers people used may be
contributory factors.
Home wells: In some rural and remote parts of
Malaysia, wells are still used as a source of water.
They are not regulated by any federal drinking
water standards. A survey among residents of Pacur
village (11 km from Batu Pahat town) showed that
some residents only have water from wells, while
some utilized both well and municipal piped water
(Goh 2000). The use of wells is declining as more
rural communities (82% in 1995 to 87% in 2000)
have access to piped water.
Sustainable water practices
Malaysia has abundant water resources and rainfall,
yet the nation has water shortages and poor water
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
506 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
quality. The 1998 water crisis that badly affected the
state of Selangor and the Federal territory was
attributed to factors such as wastage of water by con-
sumers and industries, a high rate of non-revenue
water (NRW), destruction of water catchment areas
and pollution of the rivers that are the main source
of water supply (Aini et al. 2001). Chan (1998) high-
lighted the pollution, destruction of catchments,
poor management, poor enforcement, apathetic
attitudes and wastage of water which have reduced
the total available water for the nation. Conserva-
tion of water resources and water saving is the
responsibility of all parties, including the govern-
ment, industries, water authorities and citizens.
Within households, women play a vital role in
the conservation of water: in rural areas, women
fetch water from wells or rivers, wash the clothes for
the family, cook, clean, bathe children, and under-
take other household activities such as watering of
plants. Studies have shown that women play more
roles in water use than men and it is apparent that
they are the users, managers and guardians of
household water and hygiene (Makoni et al. 2004;
Upadhyay 2005; Stratford 1995). Domestic con-
sumers use more than half of total water demand
(excluding agriculture); hence, water saved by
domestic consumers could be substantial (Chan
1999). With some minor conservation measures, an
average household can reduce water use by approx-
imately 30%. Measures include installing water-
efficient fixtures and appliances, minimizing leaks
and adjusting personal water use habits (Heaton
1999).
METHODS
A survey was conducted among women who repre-
sented 100 households in a residential area in
Seremban. Data were collected in 2003. There were
four main objectives:
1. To determine the level of awareness of
respondents on water issues;
2. To assess their perception on drinking water
quality;
3. To identify measures undertaken by house-
holds to improve drinking water quality; and
4. To determine levels of sustainable water
practices.
Awareness level was gauged through eight closed-
ended questions. The respondents were asked to
rate their perception of the level of quality, ranging
from very poor, poor, good or very good. They were
also asked to indicate the criteria used to ascertain
drinking water quality and, consequently, to point
out the most common phenomena observed. The
third objective of the study was assessed through a
combination of open-ended and closed questions
on their current practices. Eight questions used a
four-point scale of 1 (never) to 4 (all the time) to
measure the level of sustainable water use practices
of respondents. The questionnaire was pre-tested
for suitability and reliability. The Cronbach’s Alpha
value for sustainable water management was 0.70
and is thus acceptable.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The women respondents had a mean age of 37.5
years, with a minimum of 21 and a maximum of 64
years old. Almost an equal number were married
(57%) or unmarried (43%). Each household had a
mean of five members with a mean household
income of RM3788.00 (US$1000). Most respon-
dents were Chinese (70%) while the others were
Indian (23%) and Malay (7%). Many (67%) only
had a secondary school education, while 33% had
received tertiary education.
The four main sources of information on water
issues were newspapers, television, radio and maga-
zines, in descending order. Other studies also
found that mass media plays an important role in
providing information on environmental issues
(Aini et al. 2003). Most respondents (94%)
reported that they were aware of river pollution and
increased water demand. Less respondents (87%)
agreed that many other countries also suffer from
water scarcity. All respondents agreed that every
individual has an important role in promoting a
better environment for future generations, but
50% think that the government is fully responsible
for maintaining environmental quality.
When asked to indicate the level of air, water and
sound quality in the country from a scale of 1 (very
poor) to 4 (very good), the respondents rated water
lowest, at 1.81. Air quality and sound quality was
rated 2.09 and 2.25, respectively. Overall, the mean
quality of the three environmental factors was
2.05, indicating a lack of perception. Table 2
shows which sources of pollution the respondents
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 507
thought contributed most to environmental degra-
dation. Most placed the blame on industry (92%)
and development (77%). However, 58% placed
responsibility on themselves as individual agents of
environmental problems. Understanding of the
sources of environmental problems more or less
corroborates national data, where major water
pollution sources in 2001 were found to be from
sewage treatment plants (51%), manufacturing
industries (39%), pig farming (7%) and agro-
industry (4%) (Mohd Norli 2004).
Most respondents rated the quality of water
supplied to their house as poor (70%) and 16%
thought it was very poor. The criteria used by
respondents to evaluate tap water quality and the
problems faced are shown in Table 3. Respondents
indicated that colour, odour and taste were the
main problems with their tap water. Utilization of
water-testing kits was mentioned by 38% of the
respondents but only 6% used them. Most respon-
dents took additional measures to improve water
quality: 85% purchased domestic water filters, 41%
boiled water, and 17% bought bottled water. Those
that purchased bottled water spent about RM4.59
per day, withan average consumptionof 2.62 l. This
amounts to about RM140 per month and is
3000-times more expensive than piped water.
For households that opted for water filters to
improve tap water quality, a quarter had two filters
at home while the rest had only one. Table 4 shows
the types of water filters used by respondents at
home (25% did not know their type of water filter).
The price of filters ranged from RM40 to RM
4000.00. The expected functions of the water filters
are shown in Table 5, and Table 6 indicates reasons
for purchasing them. Respondents said that the
main function of filters was to remove odours, chlo-
rine and microorganisms. However, 42% of respon-
dents intended to add minerals to their water but
only 16% purchased appropriate systems for this.
The reasons for purchasing filters seem to be health
concerns, perception of poor tap water quality and
increasing contamination, and pollution in the
country. Almost a quarter of those with water filters
said that they are more convenient than having to
boil water for drinking. These reasons are similar to
those cited by Ferrier (2000), where bottled water
was perceived to be safer and more convenient.
Table 7 shows the level of sustainable water
practices among respondents. Overall, they seemed
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
508 International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology
Sources of pollution Percentage (%)
Industry/ Factory
Development
Household
Agriculture
Livestock farming
92
77
58
43
43
Table 2 Sources of water pollution assessed by
respondents
Criteria Percentage (%) Problems (%)
Colour
Odour
Taste
Floating debris
Foamy
Oily
Test kit
93
81
75
64
51
36
38
90
64
55
10
25
4
Table 3 Criteria of drinking water quality and prob-
lems faced by respondents
Type of water filter Percentage (%)
Do not know
Reverse osmosis
Mineral pot
Carbon filter
Distillation filter
Ultraviolet filter
Sediment filter
Water dispenser
Ozone filter
25
19
16
15
10
9
9
6
1
Table 4 Type of domestic water filter system owned by
respondents
Function of water filter Percentage (%)
Remove odour
Remove inorganic waste (clay, sand,
heavy metals)
Remove chlorine
Remove microbes
Remove organic waste
Add minerals
Remove pesticides
Do not know
72
66
61
56
48
42
41
6
Table 5 Function of water filter expected by
respondents
to behave in a somewhat unfavourable manner,
with a mean of 2.9 on a scale of 1 (never) to 4 (all the
time). However, some aspects of conservation, such
as promptness of repairing leaking pipes, planning
activities to conserve water and method of car wash-
ing could be improved. The correlation between
age and sustainable practices was insignificant. The
data indicate that respondents seldom (mean = 2.3)
reuse water, particularly rainwater, which is abun-
dant. Respondents were asked if any gadgets were
used to save water in the home: 17% had gadgets,
of which 13% have half-flush toilets, two used pails,
and two had installed water valves to save water.
Other water-efficient fixtures used by residents
were low-flow showerheads, ultralow-flow or high-
efficiency toilets, modified toilets, faucet aerators,
front-loading washing machines, and water-
efficient dishwashers. As evident from Table 1, the
highest water use is in toilets, and increasing
high-efficiency toilets would save a substantial
amount of water. Installation of such toilets by
housing developers is one way to ensure usage by
households. The data illustrate that unsustainable
water practices of respondents were instigated by
lack of planning to conserve water (mean = 2.90).
CONCLUSION
The dissatisfaction of households with tap water
quality was anticipated, as it had been highlighted
in the national news in relation to dirty water sup-
plied to the administrative capital of Putrajaya. To
overcome this problem, respondents have adopted
between one and three types of water technologies:
municipal tap water system, bottled water, and/or
home purification systems. However, the water
quality generated from these is uncertain: munici-
pal water quality varies from state to state
(NDWQSP 2003); purity of bottled water is some-
times doubtful; and ascertaining an appropriate
filtration system and maintaining it is crucial.
Consumers have to choose what kind of water they
drink, but it should be an informed choice, where
information on water quality for all sources should
be easily available and in a form that a lay consumer
can understand.
As well as concern for drinking water quality,
quantity is also of national and global importance.
Although the respondents’ level of environmental
awareness was high, it was not really translated into
sustainable behaviour. For households, there are
numerous ways to conserve water in all locations
and activities. The positive behaviours should be
reinforced and intensified by imparting awareness,
concern and knowledge on water by bodies such
as the government, water agencies and NGOs to
create greater public responsibility. The ever-
increasing demand for water by the domestic,
industrial and agricultural sectors, the rise in num-
bers of polluted rivers, and the decimation of water
catchment areas represent some of the challenges
faced by the nation with regard to water manage-
ment. Protection of the environment, preservation
of water quality and quantity cannot be achieved
without collaboration and cooperation of all con-
cerned parties, including the individual consumer,
households, industries, government and NGOs.
Drinking water practices Aini et al.
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 509
Reason for purchasing Percentage (%)
Health conscious
Perception of poor water quality
Increasing water pollution and
contamination
Family members suffered waterborne
diseases
Influenced by others
67
60
44
9
2
Table 6 Reasons for purchasing water filter system
Items Mean
Conservation
Repair leaking pipes immediately
Plan daily activities so as to conserve water
Turn on tap moderately
Turn off tap while brushing teeth
Use water efficiently while doing
household chores
Wash car using a bucket
3.09
2.82
2.90
3.24
3.48
3.40
2.71
Reuse
Reuse water (e.g. laundry water for
washing toilet floor)
Use rainwater for other purposes
2.31
2.68
1.94
Overall mean 2.90
Scale: 1 = Never; 2 = seldom, 3 = usually, and 4 = all the
time
Table 7 Sustainable water practices of respondents
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