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Brandishing Guns in American Media: Two Studies Examining How Often and in What Context Firearms Appear on Television and in Popular Video Games
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to determine the amount and context of gun violence across 2 electronic media. Study I focuses on the landscape of gun violence on television, including the number of high risk portrayals. Study 2 provides data on the attributes of gun violence in video games. Results for each study are reported in terms of amount per medium and context of portrayals. Finally, differences between televised gun violence and video game gun violence are reported to illustrate how each medium may contribute to problematic behavior.
... Some Material May Be Inappropriate For Children Under 13") increased steadily during this period, a phenomenon called "ratings creep" (Potts & Belden, 2009). A high prominence of violence has also been identified in other media, such as television and video games (Smith et al., 2004), music videos (Smith & Boyson, 2002), books, and cartoons (Kirsh, 2010). ...
... Beyond the frequency of violence in the media, qualitative research has analysed the ways in which it is portrayed and has identified several features of how violence is presented in the media that are relevant to the understanding of harmful effects. Violence is often associated with positive consequences for MEDIA VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION 73 the aggressor (such as progressing to the next level of a violent video game), presented as justified by a good cause (such as fighting evil forces), depicted without showing the consequences of violent actions on the victims (such as a cartoon character that is quickly re-assembled after being smashed by a weapon), and accompanied by humour (e.g., Smith et al., 2004). ...
... Increased normative acceptance of aggression. Content analyses of films and video games show that violence in the media is often presented as appropriate and justified (Smith et al., 2004). Violence in the service of a good cause against an evil enemy or committed to progress in a game conveys the message that under certain circumstances harming and killing others is normatively acceptable or even imperative. ...
... Violence is present in not only the news, but also in video games, movies, and television programs. Thus, in addition to video games becoming more widespread, they have also become increasingly more violent (Gentile & Anderson, 2003;Smith et al., 2004). Older video games included characters that were more cartoon-like and blood and gore that were fairly stylized (Hasan, Bègue, & Bushman, 2012). ...
... Thus, violence was still present in video games in the past, but it was much less drastic. Research shows that guns were only present in eight percent of violent interactions in the 60 most popular video games of 1999 (Smith et al., 2004). However, as a result of advancements in technology, the graphics in video games are now much more realistic. ...
The relationship between media exposure, demographics, and perceptions of campus safety
... Besides the reduction of access to guns and knives, changing of cultural and social norms that support violence was stressed. Guns figure prominently in the culture of violence, with a heavy contribution from the media (Smith et al., 2004). Indeed, "violence in screen entertainment media (i.e., television, film, video games, and the Internet), defined as depictions of characters (or players) trying to physically harm other characters (or players), is ubiquitous" (Anderson et al., 2017, p. 142). ...
Threatening cues and surrounding contexts trigger specific defensive response patterns. Posturography, a technique for measuring postural strategies, has been used to evaluate motor defensive reactions in humans. When exposed to gun pointed pictures, humans were shown to exhibit an immobility reaction. Short and long-term exposure to violent video games was shown to be a causal risk factor for increased violent and aggressive behavior. Assaultive violence with a gun is a major trigger for motor defensive reactions, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most characteristic psychiatric sequelae. Recent studies point to links between PTSD symptoms and emotional shortfalls in non-clinical trauma-exposed samples. The present study investigated defensive reactions to gun threat and PTSD symptoms in heavy players of violent video games compared to non-players. Male university students were screened according to use of violent video games and divided in three groups: non-players, moderate players, and heavy players. Stimuli were pictures depicting a man pointing a gun directed at the participant. In matched control pictures, non-lethal objects replaced the gun. Posturography was recorded and PTSD symptoms were assessed. When exposed to the threat pictures, non-players exhibited the expected reduction in amplitude of body sway (immobility), heavy players presented atypical augmented amplitude of body sway, and moderate players showed intermediate reactivity. Heavy players presented a significant distinct reaction compared to non-players. They also scored significantly higher in PTSD symptoms than non-players. Disadvantageous defensive reactions and higher vulnerability to PTSD symptoms, revealed in the present study, add to other shortcomings for heavy players.
... According to the weapons effect, seeing a picture of a gun can increase aggression in the viewer (Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998;Berkowitz & LePage, 1967;Leyens & Parke, 1975). This is important given that there is more repetitive and extensive gun violence in video games compared to other screen media (Smith et al., 2004). In addition, new gun controllers, designed to mimic the look and feel of real-life firearms, are often marketed as a way for the user to feel more "in" the game, and research finds that these controllers can increase immersion (McGloin et al., 2015). ...
In addition to individual risk factors, recent findings surrounding the effects of violent video game play have provided compelling evidence that the contextual features of games also contribute to increased outcome aggression. The current study focuses on the relationship between violent video game play and the use of gun controllers on both social norms related to aggression and real-life behavioral aggression. As predicted, both violent video game play and gun controller use were positively related to behavioral aggression. The implications of these findings are discussed along with their influence on future research in this area.
... In the United States, personal possession of firearms by adults is guaranteed by the Constitution, and national surveys indicate that guns are present in approximately 40% of American homes (Pew Research Center, 2013;Swift, 2015). Beliefs about personal need to use firearms may be impacted by exposure to many fictional entertainment media sources, in which the violent use of firearms is pervasive ( Smith et al., 2004;Smith, Nathanson, & Wilson, 2002;Wilson et al., 1997), often with gross exaggerations of their use beyond any conceivable real life situations. Also relevant to perceptions of firearm use are demonstrated influences of media violence on viewerséxpectations of aggression in others, known as a hostile attributional bias (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007;Krahe´& Krahe´& Möller, 2004), as well as on beliefs about criminal danger in their social environments, or a "mean world syndrome" (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1994). ...
Construct validity was investigated of a measure of remote past television viewing in which adults reported their childhood viewing of specific television series. Good recall of past viewing was predicted due to two robust memory capabilities, specifically, high accuracy at estimating frequency of exposure to stimuli, and durable long-term memories for repeatedly-encountered material. Validity was tested by examining relationships between self-reported childhood TV viewing and current aggression. Results indicated that recalled childhood viewing of programs containing violent content was positively related to adult aggressive behavior directly, and aggressive cognitions indirectly, independently of adult exposure to violent TV programs, exposure to nonviolent TV programs, parental disciplinary style, and sex. A valid self-report measure of remote past TV viewing behavior can enable researchers to examine, in a relatively quick and inexpensive manner, long-term relationships between early viewing of any television content and any later psychological outcomes of interest.
... However, children who played more violent video games had more positive beliefs about guns, were more likely to view gun violations as less serious, and thought that these same violations deserved less punishment. Given that gun violence is more frequent and more extensive in video games than on TV, this finding makes sense (Smith et al., 2004). ...
Although there is a long empirical record exploring links between violent videogame play and aggression, little is known about how these games potentially affect players’ political attitudes. Specifically, with firearms frequently featured in videogames, including games where players are required to use firearms to succeed during gameplay, it is worth examining whether players’ experience with firearms relates to their attitudes toward guns and gun policy. Utilizing the General Learning Model, this survey explores whether public policy outcomes regarding gun control and public safety are related to exposure to violent video games, first-person shooter games, and realistic gun controllers. Results show that increased exposure to first-person shooter games was related to more negative attitudes concerning gun control. In addition, more experience using realistic gun controllers was associated with negative attitudes toward gun control and greater support for the idea that greater gun availability can help guarantee public safety. Thus, video game exposure may shape the gun attitudes of young people in small but important ways.
... shooting). Regardless of players' experience with real guns, it is very likely that participants would have a mental model for one from previous media exposure given the amount of gun violence that is featured in contemporary media (Smith et al., 2004;Smith, Lachlan, & Tamborini, 2003). Thus, compared to a traditional button and joystick controller, a natural mapping motion capturing controller would allow for easier model matching, thus resulting in greater perceptions of game realism (H2). ...
This study examined the salience and valence of frames in community and national newspaper coverage of the 2018 Parkland shootings, after which several survivors became well-known activists. Of the most common frames found in previous coverage of mass shootings (gun control, popular culture, school safety), only gun control was prominent following the shootings in Parkland. Newer frames (partisan divide, activism, mental health) instead followed gun control in popularity, likely because these were utilized by the activist Parkland survivors themselves. With a few important exceptions (e.g., community newspapers used community change, law responsibility, and family responsibility more; national used gun control, activism, and partisan divide more), local and community newspapers were similar in their use of frames. Perhaps most importantly, the findings indicate the survivors’ activism seemed to disrupt the “settling” of news coverage into well-established frames for mass shootings. This suggests the ongoing conversation about mass shootings remains complicated and more dependent on shootings’ specific circumstances than may have been previously assumed.
In diesem Kapitel sollen Persönlichkeitsmerkmale von Amokläufern analysiert werden, um mögliche Ursachen für die Entstehung eines School Shootings zu identifizieren. Was wissen wir über die Person der Täter? Was kennzeichnet sie? Können psychische Störungen das Auftreten von Amokläufen erklären? Und lassen sich dadurch potenzielle Amokläufer rechtzeitig erkennen, um künftige Taten zu verhindern? Es wird zunächst ein Überblick über die Forschung zur Persönlichkeit von Amokläufern und deren Herausforderungen vermittelt. Anschließend werden Persönlichkeitsmerkmale, klinische Merkmale und soziale Merkmale von Amokläufern beschrieben und als mögliche Ursachen und Einflussfaktoren für deren Handeln diskutiert.
Numerous empirical studies have attempted to quantify the frequency and context of violence in popular videogames. While these studies have proven valuable, they overlook recent research suggesting that videogame content is far more complicated than that found in linear media. In particular, individual user characteristics, varying levels of gameplay, familiarity with the gaming environment, and length of time immersed in the game have been overlooked. But research suggests that these factors will play a critical role in how players use and respond to videogame violence. This chapter synthesizes the videogame content literature with recent behavioral research. It concludes by offering an updated conceptual model of violent content that includes not only the game, but also user and situational variables that may mitigate this content. Suggestions for future content-analytic methods are discussed in light of this conceptual model.
More than 30 years ago, Berkowitz and LePage (1967) published the first study demonstrating that the mere presence of a weapon increases aggressive behavior. These results have been repli- cated in several contexts by several research teams. The standard explanation of this weapons effect on aggressive behavior involves priming; identification of a weapon is believed to automatically increase the accessibility of aggression-related thoughts. Two experi- ments using a word pronunciation task tested this hypothesis. Both experiments consisted of multiple trials in which a prime stimulus (weapon or nonweapon) was followed by a target word (aggressive or nonaggressive) that was to be read as quickly as possible. The prime stimuli were words in Experiment 1 and pictures in Experiment 2. Both experiments showed that the mere identification of a weapon primes aggression-related thoughts. A process model linking weapons as primes to aggressive behavior is discussed briefly.
Evidence is presented suggesting that firearms violence is an important social problem. Research strongly suggests that the effectiveness of firearms as a cause of death and injury may be due to their widespread availability, their lethality, and the impulsivity of their use. The investigation of a possible causal link between firearms and impulsive aggression led to Berkowitz and LePage's (1967) weapons effect experiment. The results suggested that weapons can increase the instigation to aggression in aroused an uninhibited individuals. The researchers reasoned that weapons might stimulate aggression by classical conditioning processes resulting from learned associations between aggressive acts and weapons. Although a few studies have failed to reproduce an aggression‐enhancing effect of weapons, the original finding has been replicated in several countries with diverse subject groups both in field and laboratory settings. However, these studies also indicate that many individuals may react with anxiety or fear in the presence of weapons and inhibit aggressive reactions. Manipulations of evaluation apprehension, subject suspiciousness, and/or hypothesis awareness about the purpose of the weapons in the experiments all seem to lead to reduced levels of aggressive response in the presence of weapons. These findings offer a possible explanation for the few failures to replicate the original weapons effect; if researchers used apprehensive subjects or subjects who were aware of possible experimental deceptions, they were more likely to observe an inhibitory reaction rather than an aggression‐enhancing effect of weapons.
A meta-analysis is performed on studies pertaining to the effect of television violence on aggressive behavior. Partitioning by research design, viewer attributes, treatment and exposure variables, and type of antisocial behavior, allows one to interpret computed effect sizes for each of the variables in the partitions. We find a positive and significant correlation between television violence and aggressive behavior, albeit to varying degrees depending on the particular research question. According to research design, we find ZFisher values ranging from .19 for survey to .40 for laboratory experiments. Erotica emerges as a strong factor even when it is not accompanied by portrayal of violence. Additionally, the effect of television violence on the antisocial behavior of boys and girls is found to be marginally equal in surveys. A host of tests are performed to solidify these, and further results. Substantive interpretation is provided as well.
Forty-one male undergraduates participated in an experiment designed to investigate the hypothesis that overt aggression would be enhanced by prior exposure to hostile humor, but inhibited by prior exposure to nonhostile humor. In order to investigate this suggestion, subjects were first angered or not angered by a male confederate, next exposed to either nonhumorous materials, hostile humor, or nonhostile humor, and finally provided with an opportunity to aggress against the confederate. Results offered support for both portions of the hypothesis.
An attempt was made to replicate the Berkowitz and Le Page (1967) study with a Swedish population, and to extend it. A pilot study was conducted to find out what other possible stimuli carry aggressive connotations and what stimuli might have aggression-inhibiting qualities. One hundred male high school students were either angered or not angered by an accomplice of the experimenter and then given an opportunity to counter-aggress. For one group of subjects there were weapons near the shock key and half of these subjects were told to handle them. For another group there were aggression-inhibiting stimuli present, e.g., a baby bottle. In other conditions there were no stimuli present. Parts of the TAT were administered to shed some light on the catharsis phenomenon. Subjects exposed to weapons gave the largest number of shocks to their partners, whereas the control group and the group exposed to aggression-inhibiting stimuli did not differ. The “weapons effect” was obtained with a Swedish population.
Children aged 7 to 12 were interviewed about their favorite TV character. Nearly all boys and about half of the girls selected same‐sex favorites. Regression analyses used perceived character traits (attractiveness, strength, humor, intelligence, social behavior) to predict wishful identification and parasocial interaction with characters. For male characters, wishful identification was predicted by intelligence and (for girls only) humor; parasocial interaction was predicted by intelligence, attractiveness, and (for boys only) strength. In marked contrast, for female characters (chosen only by girls), attractiveness was the only significant predictor. Although girls rated female characters as more intelligent than male characters, this trait apparently was not an important determinant of attraction. Interpretations of the findings and implications for socialization effects are discussed.