The Effects of Droughts on Food Security in Kenya

Abstract

Abstract: Agriculture supports up to 75% of the Kenyan population and generates almost all the country’s food requirements. However drought are the major constraints to rain-fed agricultural production, especially in arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) of Kenya which form about 88% of the country. In the last 100 years, Kenya has recorded 28 droughts, three of them in the last decade. The frequency and severity of droughts seems to be increasing in the country over time. The result has been total crop failures and livestock deaths triggering severe food shortages in the country and more specifically in ASAL districts. Between 1993 to date, the government of Kenya has declared 7 national disasters out of which 5 were drought related. These declarations followed the droughts of 1992-93, 1996-97, 1999-2000, 2005-06 and 2008-09 when the Kenya government requested international communities for food aid. About 28 ASAL districts in Kenya have been placed under Emergency Operation Programme (EMOP) due to the heightening food insecurity caused by droughts. This paper highlights the effects of drought on food security in Kenya with special reference to Central and Mukogodo Divisions of the semi arid areas of Laikipia District, Kenya.

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The Effects of Droughts on Food Security in Kenya
Julius M. Huho and Edward M. Mugalavai

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The Effects of Droughts on Food Security in Kenya
Julius M. Huho, Maseno University, Kenya
Edward M. Mugalavai, Maseno University, Kenya
Abstract: Agriculture supports up to 75% of the Kenyan population and generates almost all the
country’s food requirements. However drought are the major constraints to rain-fed agricultural
production, especially in arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) of Kenya which form about 88% of the
country. In the last 100 years, Kenya has recorded 28 droughts, three of them in the last decade. The
frequency and severity of droughts seems to be increasing in the country over time. The result has
been total crop failures and livestock deaths triggering severe food shortages in the country and more
specically in ASAL districts. Between 1993 to date, the government of Kenya has declared 7 national
disasters out of which 5 were drought related. These declarations followed the droughts of 1992-93,
1996-97, 1999-2000, 2005-06 and 2008-09 when the Kenya government requested international
communities for food aid. About 28 ASAL districts in Kenya have been placed under Emergency Op-
eration Programme (EMOP) due to the heightening food insecurity caused by droughts. This paper
highlights the effects of drought on food security in Kenya with special reference to Central and
Mukogodo Divisions of the semi arid areas of Laikipia District, Kenya.
Keywords: Drought, Food Security, ASALs, Kenya
Introduction
CLIMATE CHANGE CAN be dened as a change of climatic patterns which is at-
tributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alter composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural variability observed over a comparable
time period (Awuor, 1997). Frequent droughts experienced today are consequences
of climate change. Drought is a form of environmental stress that originates from a deciency
in precipitation over an extended period of time long enough to cause moisture deciency,
biotic loss, crop failure, loss of lives both human and bovine and general hardships (Ngaira
2004). Approximately 60% of the world’s population is affected by drought. About 630
million of this population live in the arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) of the world (Ngaira,
2005; O’Hare and Sweeney, 1986) and mainly engage in rain-fed subsistence farming for
their livelihoods (Ribot et al., 1996).
Parry et al. (1990) observe that the 1970s and 1980s were decades of drought in which
most parts of the world received less than average rainfall that reduced crop productivity.
Rural hardships and suffering were common in California, Mexico, Peru, India and
throughout much of Africa. In parts of the arid and semi arid northern Mexico, the summer
of 1970 led to more than 35% of the cropland being lost to drought. The 1987 drought ad-
versely affected 960,000 hectares of cropland reducing rice production by about 8.2% from
the previous season (Panturat and Eddy, 1992). In the semi arid northeastern Brazil, the 1987
drought resulted in a 7% reduction in area under cultivation (Ribot et al., 1996). In the Eyre
Peninsula of South Australia, Heathcote (1996) observes that the dry season from 1975 to
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1980 caused some 937 (42.3%) of the 2187 total rural land holders to apply for drought relief,
of which 858 were given loans totalling US dollars 13.4 million.
The incidences of drought from 1970 to 2006 accounted for 20% of the natural disasters
that hit Africa and affected over 80% of the population (Ayoti, 2008). In 1983-85, hundreds
of thousands of people died as a result of famine necessitated by poor plant growth that re-
duced agricultural yields in Ethiopia and Sudan (Pickering and Owen, 1994). Between 1989
and 1990 twenty-one nations in Africa faced severe food shortages, which required emergency
aid amounting to 243 million US Dollars. This accounted for about half of the Food and
Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) total external aid (Fahmey, 1992). In 1991-92 about 85%
of the crop areas in Southern Province of Zambia, 67% in Lusaka Province, 61% in Western
Province, 37% in Eastern Province and 51% in Central Province were affected by drought
(Tiffen, 1995). The 2006 incidence of drought in the Horn of Africa was severe with over
18 million people in ve countries suffering from food shortages in Ethiopia, Djibouti,
Somalia and some parts of northern and eastern Kenya (Ayoti, 2008). In Kenya, famine relief
has become a regular feature in some parts of the ASALs such as Machakos, Laikipia,
Turkana and Isiolo Districts (Government of Kenya (GoK), 2002).
Droughts in Kenya
Drought events associated with climate change and climate variability have become more
pronounced in Kenya in recent years, adversely affecting agricultural production (UNEP,
2007). In the last 100 years, Kenya has recorded 28 major droughts, three of them in the last
decade. The severity and frequency of droughts seem to increase in the country over time
(Murungaru, 2003). During the last half of the 20th Century droughts in Kenya occurred in
1951, 1952-55, 1957-58, 1974-76, 1980-81, 1983-85, 1987, 1992-93, 1995-96, 1999-2000
and 2004-06 (Downing et al., 1985; Ngaira, 2004). Between 1993 to date, Kenya has declared
seven national disasters in 1992-93, 1995-96, 1999-2001, 2004-2006 and 2008-09 due to
droughts and 1997-98 and 2003 due to oods related effects. In between these years, a series
of severe weather related emergencies, particularly droughts, oods and landslides, not de-
clared a national disaster, but fairly threatening were experienced (Murungaru, 2003). Ac-
cording to Oxfam (2006) drought conditions in Kenya today are becoming the norm and
non-drought years the exception in ASALs. The rapid recurrence of drought-related shocks
leaves inadequate recovery time before the next shock occurs. This means that an increasing
number of households, the majority of them being pastoralists, are losing their capacity to
participate economically and to be self food-sufcient through the practice of rain-fed agri-
culture. About 70% of the Kenya’s land mass is affected by drought. Table 1 shows the area
and the effects of recent droughts in different parts of Kenya.
Due to widespread drought prone areas in Kenya, vulnerability to food insecurity is high,
especially among the pastoralists and small-scale agriculturalists in the ASALs of the country
(UNDP, 2005). ASALs are home to more than 30% of its total human population and nearly
50% its livestock population. These areas receive low and erratic bimodal rainfall that is
highly variable both in time and space causing severe food shortages. Approximate rainfall
expectancy in arid areas range from 150-450 mm in arid areas and between 500 and 800
mm in semi arid areas in a year (GoK, 2004). Kenya has in the past recorded decits of food
due to drought resulting from a shortfall in rainfall in 1928, 1933-34, 1937, 1939, 1942-44,
1947, 1951, 1952-55, 1957-58, 1974-1976, 1980-81, 1983-85, 1991-92, 1995-96 1999-2000,
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2004-06 and 2008-09 (Downing et al., 1985; Ngaira, 2004; Muchemi, 2005; OCHA, 2009).
About 28 ASAL districts in Kenya, Laikipia District included, have been placed under
Emergency Operation Programme (EMOP) due to the heightening food insecurity caused
by droughts.
Table 1: Recent Drought Incidences in Kenya
EffectsRegionYear
Maasai cattle losses of about 80%Most parts of Kenya1974-76
Crop production paralyzed and water shortages in
towns
Eastern, Central, Western
Coast Provinces
1980
Crop failure causing famine in the provinceEastern Province1981
Migration of people and livestock in search of food,
water shortages
Countrywide1983
Large food decits leading to consumption of the
yellow maize and large food queues in the supermar-
kets
Central, Rift valley, East-
ern and North eastern
Provinces
1984-85
Severe food shortages in eastern, less in centralEastern and Central
Provinces
1987
70% loss of livestock, severe food shortagesNorth eastern, Eastern,
Rift valley and Central
Provinces
1991-92
Large food decits causing relief food importsNorth eastern, Central
and Eastern Provinces
1994-95
4.7 million people dependent on relief food, water
shortages
Countrywide1999-2000
Acute food shortages in pastoral and agro-pastoral
areas, 4.4 million people affected.
Most parts of Kenya2004-06
2.6 million people were at risk of starvation.
Up to 70% loss of livestock in some pastoral com-
munities.
Acute food and water shortages in pastoral and agro-
pastoral areas.
Most parts of Kenya2008-2009
About 3.8 million people urgently required food aid
and about 6.2 million were at risk of starvation
Loss of wildlife animals- 40 elephants died
Source: UNEP, 2000, Ngaira, 2004; KRCS, 2005; OCHA, 2009)
Agriculture in the ASALs of Kenya
Agriculture supports up to 75% of the Kenyan population and generates almost all the
country’s food requirements, which in turn depends on rainfall (UNDP, 2007). However,
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JULIUS M. HUHO, EDWARD M. MUGALAVAI

only about 12% of Kenya’s landmass is of medium to high agricultural potential due to ad-
equate and reliable rainfall. The rest of the country (about 88%) falls under ASALs which
are of low agricultural potential (Kinyua, 2004). Semi arid areas are only suitable for rain-
fed marginal crop production and livestock farming for subsistence. This form of agriculture
does not provide substantial contribution to the economies, producing barely enough food
for human survival (William and Balling, 1996). Two major types of rain-fed subsistence
agriculture practiced in the ASALs of Kenya are: small-scale mixed farming which involves
growing of crops and keeping of livestock practiced by small-scale holders in the sub humid
and semi arid zone and pastoralism which involve keeping of large herds of livestock only.
Pastoralism is carried out in the arid and the very arid parts of Kenya. The exchange of
livestock for grain and other consumer goods is common in these areas (Gok, 1991; GoK,
2007).
Droughts are the major constraints to rain-fed agricultural production in ASALs. Biamah
(2005) observes that rain-fed crop farming in the semi-arid areas have a 25-75% risk of crop
failure while the arid regions have a 75-100% risk of crop failure. Therefore, pastoralists
and marginal agriculturalist in the ASALs were considered to be the most vulnerable to the
effects of droughts because their livelihoods rely heavily on climate performance with a very
weak economic base. The most adversely affected by drought is the agricultural sector, which
has obvious implications on food security (Ngaira, 2005).
Study Area and Methods of Data Collection
This study was carried out in the semi arid areas of Laikipia District in Kenya. Data was
collected from Central and Mukogodo Divisions. The two divisions lie between longitudes
36034” and 37024” East and latitudes 0002” South and 0033” North (Fig 1). Rainfall follows
the seasonal movements of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) resulting in two
rainfall seasons, the long rains that occur in March, April and May and the short rains that
occur in October, November and December. The study area is located in the rain shadow of
Mount Kenya. Rainfall is generally low with mean annual rainfall of 636.6 mm and 507.8
mm in Central and Mukogodo Divisions respectively. The close proximity of Mukogodo
Division to the low corridors of the northern and north eastern Kenya, which forms part of
the dry region that covers northeastern Africa and Arabia, makes the division receive relatively
lower rainfall amounts. Food is mainly produced through small-scale rain-fed mixed farming
in Central Division and pastoralism in Mukogodo Division. The main methods of data col-
lection were the use of questionnaires, interview schedules and observation. A total of 383
farmers were interviewed, 55 pastoralists from Mukogodo Division and 328 mixed farmers
from Central Division. Relevant literature was obtained from libraries and Laikipia District
documentation centre to supplement information obtained from the eld.
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Figure 1: Location of Laikipia District in Kenya (Source GoK, 2002)
Results and Discussion
Droughts in the Study Area
Droughts in the study area occurred when annual rainfall received was below the means of
636.6mm and 507.8mm in Central and Mukogodo Divisions respectively. Between 1975
and 2008, Central Division recorded 16 droughts, which ranged in severity from mild to
severe droughts. These droughts occurred in 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988,
1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2006 and 2009. Mukogodo Division recorded a
total of 19 droughts with severity ranging from mild to extreme. The droughts occurred in
1976, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000,
2002, 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2009. Droughts in the study area occurred in runs more than
singly with a return period of 2-3 years. About 85.7 and 70.5% of the droughts in Central
and Mukogodo Divisions respectively occurred in runs as prolonged drought events an in-
dication that persistent rather than occurrence of single events. The prolonged drought oc-
curred concurrently in both the divisions in 1982-85, 1991-96, 1999-2000 and 2008-2009.
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JULIUS M. HUHO, EDWARD M. MUGALAVAI

Effects of Droughts on Food Security
Low Crop Yields
Lack of planting seeds, wilting of crops, stunted growth and crop failures, all caused by
droughts, were the major causes of low crop yields in the study area. During drought periods,
peasant farmers in the study area consumed all harvested yields together with the planting
seeds. In Central Division, for example, apart from maize, planting of other food crops, es-
pecially beans and potatoes relies on uncertied seeds originating from on-farm storage or
local markets. The surplus yields were sold to buy certied maize seeds (Kohler, 1985).
Therefore, consumption of stored yields affected the availability of planting seeds resulting
in late planting due to lack of seeds. According to the respondents, late planting resulted due
to lack of seeds. Since circumstances sometimes forced farmers to sell the treated seeds and
fertilizers donated to them by the Kenya government and Non Governmental Organizations
(NGOs). This led to planting of less suitable seeds for areas with low rainfall. Kairu (2002)
notes that low crop production in the semi arid Laikipia District is partly caused by inappro-
priate cultivar for high altitude and arid areas. Use of uncertied seeds, which is a common
practice, has also resulted in low yields in ASALs. Between 1990 and 2005, the mean annual
maize and bean yields per hectare were 18.7 and 3.6 bags respectively. However, during
drought years annual crop yields dropped from the mean by between -9.6 and -84% in maize
yields and between -2.8 and -72.2% in bean yields depending on drought severity (Figure
2). This translated to hunger and famine especially during severe droughts such as the 1999-
2000 drought.
Figure 2: Percentage below Average in Annual Maize and Bean Production (1990-2005)
Source: Field Data, 2008
The progressive decline in crop yields between 1991 and 1994 was partly due to declining
rainfall amounts and partly to lack of farm inputs due to the cumulative effects of drought.
Poor yields for the year 2001 were as a result of lack of planting seeds other than rainfall
deciency as per the eld data. Since the year had above normal rainfall.
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Reduced Rain-fed Crop Farming Activities
The impacts of droughts are mainly seen in poor crop and animal production, culminating
into food insecurity, hunger, starvation and loss of livestock (Ngaira, 2005). Massive crop
failures in Central Division had incapacitated farmers, forcing them to reduce the acreage
under subsistence agriculture in favour of paid jobs in urban areas and hence, triggering
rural-urban migration of the labour force. The study established that farmers had reduced
cultivated lands by between 30 and 60% in Central Division. The reduction was caused by
lack of farm inputs, out migration and the need to increase the area under pasture for livestock.
Farmers stated that livestock had more returns than crops. Reduced farming activities were
common in other parts of Kenya during drought events. For example, during the 2003 drought
in Baringo District, communities turned to wild fruits and leaves in a bid to cushion them
from starvation thus reducing farming activities since most women who provided farm labour
were in the elds searching for wild fruits (GoK, 2007). Glantz (1987) asserts that in the
event of severe and prolonged droughts, farmers may drift to urban centres in search for
work or the entire family may abandon their land in search of emergency food supplies at
famine centres. Those who choose to farm in case the rains return operate under conditions
where most, if not all, of the necessary production assets have been destroyed. Such drought
conditions affect the amount of planted acreage hence threaten food security.
Changes in Planting Dates
There has been a gradual change in planting dates, cropping patterns and crop varieties in
the study area. The timing of rainfall onset was very important in determining the farming
calendar for rain-fed system. In Central Division of Laikipia District, the late onset, decline
and unreliability of the March rainfall led to changes in planting dates from early March to
mid March and April. The late onsets (early season droughts) caused delays in planting thus
triggering unregulated planting and delays in weeding and harvesting dates. Delayed onset
of rainfall enhanced rural-urban migrations and also consumption of on-farm storage yields
meant for seeds. Interviews with crop farmers in Central Division revealed that planting
dates shifted from late February and early March in the 1970s and 1980s to early and mid
April in the late 1990s and 2000s. As Parry (1990) observes, with changes in climate, there
are likely to occur very many alterations to the timing of various farm operations such as
tillage, sowing, fertilizing, and pest and weed control because the timing of these operations
are dependent on prevailing climates. Shifts in farm operations in Central Division largely
affected the availability of labour and farm input resulting in reduced agricultural productivity.
Changes in Crop Varieties
Maize is the staple food for most Kenyans and is grown virtually throughout the country
except in the arid and the very arid climates, where it can only be planted only under irrigation.
In the eyes of the rural small-scale mixed farmers, lack of maize means hunger and famine.
However, maize crops are quite sensitive to droughts than other crop types especially in the
ASALs. To reduce the risk of food insecurity due to low maize production, the Kenya Agri-
cultural Research Institute (KARI) has over the years developed maize and other crop vari-
eties that survive relatively well in the ever changing climate. Droughts have led to the intro-
duction of early maturing crop varieties that evade droughts. In the 1970s and 1980s, farmers
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JULIUS M. HUHO, EDWARD M. MUGALAVAI

in the Central Division grew the following maize varieties H511, H512, H614 and H625.
These varieties required higher amounts of rainfall and took long to mature (up to 8 months).
Increase in drought frequency and severity in the Division led to the introduction of new
maize varieties such as Dekalp 8031, 8053; Pioneer 30G19, 30V53, 30G97, 3253; Duma
41, 43, 53 and Western Seed Company 402 and 503 which had low water requirements and
were early maturing. Crop farmers stated that the new maize varieties were easily affected
by mid season droughts compared to the 5 and 6 series varieties. They argued that though
the new maize varieties matured faster, evading droughts, mid-season droughts caused crop
failure or very low yields. To farmers, these varieties were drought evaders but not drought
tolerant. Farmers also stated that the new crop varieties were easily attacked by pests, espe-
cially weevils, sometimes before harvesting. The storage time for these varieties was therefore,
limited. During periods of bumper harvest, farmers were forced to sell the yields due to
storage problems leaving little for household consumption that was often below their require-
ments through to the next harvest, a prerequisite for food insecurity. In addition, they stated
that the new maize varieties had lesser grain weight compared to those of series 5 and 6
varieties. More grains were required to make a 90kg bag, which was the standard measure
for market sale. To meet other needs farmers were therefore, forced to sell more of the har-
vested maize, reducing their food bank.
Loss of Livestock
Livestock production is a major economic and social activity for the communities living in
the ASALs of Kenya. Within the ASALs, livestock accounts for nearly 90% of the employ-
ment opportunities and 95% of family incomes. Their diet is mainly milk and meat (GoK,
2004). However, droughts pose major constraints to livestock production. A good example
was the 2008-2009 drought that put at risk a total of 3.3 million cattle, 16 million sheep and
goats and 10,000 camels affecting 524,000 thousand households in the ASALs (Administrator,
2009). Like in most parts of the ASALs, loss of livestock in Mukogodo Division was largely
caused by starvation. Drought diminished the quantity and quality of pasture in the Mukogodo
rangelands forcing pastoralists to migrate. Frequent and extremely severe droughts in the
Division had led to replacement of perennial grasses with the annuals and the encroachment
of non-palatable plant species such as “oldupai” (Sansavellia sp) and prickly pear (Opuntia
megacantha), which do not co-exist with grass (Huho et al., 2009; Huho et al., 2010). Very
poor livestock body conditions were common during droughts eventually leading to deaths.
Table 2 shows the estimated number of livestock lost during prolonged droughts. Massive
loss of livestock caused food shortages in the Division, forcing pastoralists to entirely depend
on relief food. The slow recovery from drought shocks made Mukogodo Division to be
placed under the emergency operation programme (EMOP). EMOP aimed at saving lives,
preventing high levels of acute malnutrition, and preserving livelihoods in ASALs and in
urban slums. In efforts to save lives and prevent acute malnutrition, feeding programmes
were introduced in schools and they are still operational to date.
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Table 2: Estimated Number of Livestock Lost During Prolonged Droughts in Mukogodo
Division
Number of Livestock LostDrought Severity IndexDrought Event
GoatsSheepCattle
726266675738-2.761983-1985
840093008800-6.491991-1996
697064605300-2.541999-2000
(Source: Huho et al., 2010).
Changes in Livestock Composition
Cattle were the most valued livestock by the Mukogodo Maasai pastoralists because of their
role in provision of food (milk), payment of dowry and as a sign of wealth. Droughts in
ASAL have resulted in reduction of vegetation cover, biomass productivity, carrying capacity
of rangelands and loss of valuable forage species that livestock depend on (Awuor, 1997;
Williams and Balling, 1996). The replacement of perennials with annual grasses and the
spread of non-palatable plants in Mukogodo Division (Huho et al., 2009; Huho et al., 2010)
led to a decline in the number of grazers (cattle and sheep) and an increase in the browsers,
goats, camels and donkeys. For example, during the 1992-93 and 1999-2000 droughts in the
Division cattle numbers recorded a -12% and -17.9% growth rates respectively (Kairu, 2002).
The reduction in cattle numbers, which was the main source of food (milk), caused food
shortages the Division leading to an increase in malnutrition cases among children. For ex-
ample, during the year 2000 drought, the number of children suffering from malnutrition
diseases at Doldol health centre in Mukogodo Division increased by 18.5% from 14.8%
during the 1999 mild drought to 33.3% during the 2000 extreme drought.
Drought Coping Strategies: Are they Sustainable Today?
Farmers in ASALs have evolved a lifestyle that enables them live in harsh environments.
Among the pastoralists, moving of livestock to areas where pasture and water is available
is the key coping strategy against drought. Other drought coping strategies included: increas-
ing the numbers of livestock by restricting commercial sales or slaughtering, allowing the
herd to increase when climates are favourable; distributing livestock among friends and rel-
atives in different ecological zones to avoid the loss of entire stock; keeping stock of mixed
species and feeding requirements such as a mixture of grazers and browsers; separating
livestock into grazers and browsers during drought in order to exploit different microhabitats
and keeping of indigenous stock species better adapted to tolerate drought conditions. Cattle
raiding is one of the methods of restocking a herd after the drought. Among the crop farmers,
diversication of crops has been the major coping strategy against the effects of drought.
Since drought affects different crop species differently, farmers intercrop different types of
crop hoping to get some harvest from one of the planted crops, which will be less affected
by drought. Cultivating larger portions of land in order to compensate for low yields and
use of small-scale irrigation to enhance their agricultural productivity are other drought
coping strategies. Keeping of small herds of livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats and poultry,
69
JULIUS M. HUHO, EDWARD M. MUGALAVAI

alongside crop farming is also practiced to ensure continuation of food availability from
animals when there is a crop failure.
The most common drought-coping strategy among the pastoralist in the study area and
other ASALs was moving with animals from dry to relatively wetter areas in search of pasture
and water. However, encroachment of the rangelands, especially in wetter areas such as
swamps and along the rivers, by the agro-pastoralists have reduced grazing areas preserved
for the dry spells. Replacement of the perennial with annual grasses and the spread of non-
palatable plant species have further reduced the carrying capacity of the rangelands. The
traditional migratory routes have been converted into arable lands leaving very narrow cor-
ridors for the migration. The consequences have been reduction in the number of livestock
owned by the pastoralists. Reduced dry season grazing elds have forced pastoralists to
move their livestock to higher lands such as Mount Kenya and Aberdare forest reserves
during severe droughts. However, the cold weather condition, unfavourable for dryland
livestock, has been the cause of more deaths. A case in point is the 2009 drought where
thousands of livestock died in Mt. Kenya forest reserve not because of lack of pasture and
water but due unfavourable cold weather.
Changes in crop varieties have been adopted by the crop farmers in the ASALs of Kenya.
However, farmers’ perceptions that the new maize varieties were easily attacked by pests,
have shorter storage time and are less in weight have led some farmers to revert to the former
species despite their vulnerability to droughts. The study revealed that most farmers were
pessimistic about the new varieties and had dedicated some portion of their land to the old
crop varieties despite high rates of crop failures during droughts. Farmers only chanced for
better harvest. In the eyes of the farmers, the new maize varieties were suitable in eradicating
food insecurity for the rst three seasons after which they cease to be productive. Land
fragmentation due to increasing population has reduced the viability of mixed cropping,
forcing farmers to reduce the number of crops grown on a single plot. The study observed
that the sustainability of the drought coping strategies in ASALs is threatened in part by both
increase in drought severity and increase in human population.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Drought has increased in frequency and severity in the last three decades with the number
of people affected increasing exponentially. Agriculture has been the most affected sector
leading to food insecurity especially in ASALs. As climate continues to change the most
vulnerable population will continue to suffer from chronic food shortage. More and more
out migrations from arid lands will be expected, which will in turn jeopardize agricultural
production in ASAL environment. The coping strategies employed are quickly becoming
unsustainable and increasing the number of people vulnerable to food insecurity. With increase
in drought frequency and severity, most of the Kenyan populace will live under chronic food
shortages. Therefore, it is important for the government to be fully involved in the improve-
ment of the rain-fed agricultural enterprises both in ASALs and humid areas. This is attainable
through supplemental irrigation, a strategy that is fast emerging in food production regions
of the world.
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About the Authors
Julius M. Huho
Maseno University, Kenya
Edward M. Mugalavai
Maseno University, Kenya
72
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE: IMPACTS AND
RESPONSES

EDITORS
Amareswar Galla, The University of Queensland, Australia.
Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Viraal Balsari, Vice President, ABN Amro Bank, Mumbai, India.
Erach Bharucha, Bharati Vidyapeeth Univeristy, Pune, India.
Tapan Chakrabarti, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India.
Thomas Krafft, Geomed Research Corporation, Bad Honnef, Germany.
Shamita Kumar, Bharati Vidyapeeth Univeristy, Pune, India.
R. Mehta, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, India.
Kranti Yardi, Bharati Vidyapeeth Univeristy, Pune, India.
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