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Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for apparel part II: Development of shape sorting software
Abstract and Figures
Sizing standards used in the United States that identify the body measurements used in the design and development of clothing were established from identified "best practices" of the apparel industry. However, the industry as a whole has not adopted a single system of clothing sizing. We know that manufacturers and retailers use their own sizing systems as a marketing tool, convinced that this is a differential advantage of their product for their market. Regardless of the sizing systems used, however, almost all are based on the myth that humans have mathematically proportional bodies and that they grow in proportional ways. In addition, the shapes and proportions of today's American population differ greatly from the shapes of the generations before. So a variety of issues impact our inability to 'fit' the American customer of today. These fit issues continue to be a growing concern. Mass customization methodologies appear to provide a "solution" by allowing customized fit of apparel. A significant underlying problem exists, however, when attempting to alter a garment for fit based on one standard shaped garment product. "Extreme" alterations seldom provide the desired fit in the final garment. This discovery has led us to understand that optimal customization can only occur if customization starts from the most correctly shaped garment for each customer's "figure type". Thus a system was developed to identify female figure types using 3-D body scan data. This article, as Part Two of two, describes the process involved in the development of an expert shape sorting system using 3D body scan data. This software will enable the identification of personal body shapes, allowing the use of the most correctly shaped garment for the customization procedure that will better ensure satisfactory fit of the final garment.
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... The fashion industry is starting to use 3D body scanners to capture body measurements to make custom and tailored apparel. For instance, Simmons and Istook [44] developed software based on the Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for apparel to differentiate the female population according to their body shapes using 3D body-scan data. They tested the software in nearly 700 subjects and identified nine body shapes that effectively represent the body types. ...
... However, it is important to emphasize that these devices can also lead to errors and present several disadvantages when compared with traditional physical measurement methods related to the type of technology (light, laser, or microwave) and how the image is collected [44]. In lightbased systems, the color of the scanning gear, hair, and skin has a massive impact on the collection of the image. ...
... In contrast, garments that are too tight are smaller measurements than they should be. Microwave systems are assumed to have no impact on the measurements obtained [44]. There are usually parts of the human body that cannot be 'seen' by the vision devices of the scanning system, such as the top of the head, the top of the shoulders, the bottom of the feet, the crotch at the junction of the legs, and the armpits depending on how many data-capturing devices there are in the system and their locations. ...
Recent developments in 3D graphic technologies enable the affordable and precise reconstruction of body scanned models that can be applied in a variety of verticals, such as fashion, fitness and wellness, and healthcare. The accuracy of body measurements is a crucial element for the successful application of avatars in the following use cases: Avatars that go beyond visual representation and offer intrinsic and precise anthropometric data defined as a smart body are discussed in this paper. In particular, this paper presents the Gate technology, an innovative, autonomous, sustainable body scanner, coupled with an automatic production pipeline and the concept of avatars as smart bodies. We present an accuracy study of scanning technology for scanning inanimate objects, as well as body parts versus the ground, by using an established accuracy scanning system. The results appear to be promising and confirm the hypothesis of applying the technology to the use cases discussed as well as broadening the research to other studies and future applications.
... Examples for methods that use body measures include 1) The WBSAT (The women's body shape analysis tool) developed by researchers at Auburn University, which identified four body types: the hourglass, the rectangle, the pear and the inverted triangle , The FFIT software (The female figure identification technique), developed by Simmons at North Carolina State University; which identified nine body types: hourglass, bottom hourglass, top hourglass, spoon, rectangle, diamond, oval, triangle and inverted triangle (Simmons, 2002). There are also new and improved technologies that allow more realistic image of the human body, in order to classify it into categories, among which are: Mega-computing power, three-dimensional (3D) body scanning, dimensional design programs and computer-aided-design software (Simmons,K & et al, 2004). ...
This study looks into challenges custom designers face in constructing garments for unique female figures and the satisfaction derived in terms of fit and comfort by the unique female figures, namely ‘A’, ‘V’, ‘H’ and ‘O’ body shapes, in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana. A total of 120 participants, comprising 60 custom designers and 60 unique figures, were purposively sampled and data collected using observational checklist and structured interviews. The study reveals that garment shaping is the most challenging process custom designers face in garment making for unique figures. Unique figures were barely satisfied with the overall garment fit of their custom-made garments. The ‘A’ body shapes were most displeased, whereas the ‘H’ body shapes were most pleased with the fit of their custom-made garments. This study observes that custom designers’ methods of adjustment are not suitable at the shoulders, bust, waist, hip, buttock, thigh and armhole areas of the garment resulting in fit problems for their customers. Also, custom designers are not aware of some garment areas such as the bust, armhole, sleeve length, waist, hip, thigh and buttock that gave problems to their clients. It is recommended that designers should always be abreast with how to manipulate patterns or incorporate adaptation techniques when cutting out fabric so that garments fit the different body types.
Compressive stockings are mainly produced in order to improve the lives of people
with venous diseases and circulatory problems, contributing to the prevention of
motor deficiencies. The present study refers to the way in which the design, as an
interdisciplinary research field, with assistive technologies, can contribute to improve the quality of products and, consequently, their usability. Through an exploratory research this work aim to conceptualize and characterize compressive stockings. The investigation highlights the need for investment in research that contributes to more inclusive and adaptive products, and also the use of new technologies
Digital image processing has been widely used for researches in the fashion industry. This study presented a method to classify women’s waist-hip-leg position based on body images. 135 healthy female students were selected as the experimental subjects, and then photo and 3D body measuring methods were used to obtain 40 shape parameters. Through factor analysis, five factors were extracted for the waist-hip position and eight factors for the leg position. The waist-hip and leg were separately classified into four categories after clustering analysis with optimised factors. The distribution of waist-hip-leg shape was analysed by combining the waist-hip and leg classification results. The results showed that 12.31% of the subjects had prominent abdomens, flat buttocks, and round and thin legs. The landmarks and parameters were automatically extracted for waist-hip-leg shape identification. The image-based shape analysis approach (ISA) was finally verified with an accuracy rate of over 90% with 30 new subjects.
Practitioner summary: This study will propose an image-based shape analysis approach (ISA) to realise the quick automatic shape identification of the waist-hip-leg position based on body images. In addition, the method can be applied to pants’ pattern alteration for different body types by analysing the relationship between the waist-hip-leg shape and pants.
With garment fit being a driving force behind all apparel decision-making processes, sustainability initiatives are intrinsically linked to anthropometric data acquisition and analysis. 3D measurement technology is vital for collecting this data. The full benefits of apparel digitization technologies, however, remain untapped as the application of acquired fit data fails to satisfy both virtual and physical environments. A fresh perspective on traditional body-to-garment workflows offers a streamlined approach for the application of acquired fit data toward optimized size selection, made-to-measure for outlier body types, and reduced physical product sampling. Further use of 3D technologies toward deconstructing and tracking data hidden within heuristic practice offers an opportunity to bridge difficulties between virtual and physical practice while limiting change management for an industry dependent on artisanal technique. Body-to-garment practice suited to both virtual and physical space fitting processes will permit the tracking of garment fit through circular product lifespans, encourage widespread adoption of 3D technologies, and drive sustainable apparel manufacturing practices.
With the rapid development of clothing online shopping, customers have a higher demand for more accurate clothing size recommendation systems. The work this paper presented is compatible with the four body types specified in the Chinese standard. Then, the subdivision was performed where each of the major body types corresponded to four characteristic indices. In addition, each characteristic index had three attributes. Therefore, the female body can be subdivided into 81 types for each major type. Subsequently, this paper suggests an improved clothing size recommendation system that considers subdivided body types. The recommendation criteria in the approach were refined by a pressure distribution analysis through a virtual fitting simulation. Finally, case studies were conducted on customers of body type A (accounting for 52.73% of bodies) to demonstrate the procedures of the proposed approach.
Practitioner summary: This study proposes an improved clothing size recommendation approach based on the subdivision of code-specified female body types. Compared with existing clothing size recommendations, the proposed approach can help customers find formfitting sizes more accurately.
O envelhecimento da população traz problemas que influenciam as mais
diferentes sociedades. O emprego de tecnologias de apoio (TAs) na promoção
da reintegração social dos idosos pode ser um indicador-chave da melhoria da
autonomia pessoal e da qualidade de vida desses indivíduos. O presente estudo
visa discutir as tecnologias de apoio e suas influências na qualidade de vida dos
idosos. Apresenta como exemplo o Telecare (Espanha) como uma alternativa
viável para o cuidado e autonomia dos idosos e pessoas que necessitam de algum
tipo de assistência, em países periféricos.
To address the clothing needs of an aging society, this study developed a scale using three-dimensional (3D) scan data that determine elderly women’s lower body shapes to improve the way garments fit the elderly. Body type elements that play an important role in garment fit were identified and five body type elements were selected for use in this study. A stepwise discriminant analysis using 176 dimensions was performed to extract parameters reflecting body shape features, resulting in 37 parameters. A scale for determining body shapes was developed using the discriminant function equation. This study differs from existing studies on body shape classification in that we determined the diverse body shape features of individuals by extracting the lower body type elements related to garment fit. This study demonstrated an organic relationship among lower body types, where a greater posterior pelvic tilt was associated with a protruding lower abdomen, flat buttocks, and an o-type frontal leg shape. The significance of this study lies in the extraction of 3D parameters that reflect the body shape features of elderly women. Such 3D parameter data can be used to create personal virtual bodies in online shopping malls in the future.
This paper demonstrates the effects of slight differences in measurement definitions on resultant body shape classification. Ergonomic researchers consider the Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) a ‘gold standard’ body shape classification system to describe variation in a population’s 3D profile. Nevertheless, researchers use FFIT without a scientific basis or considering their ergonomic suitability. This paper rigorously evaluates FFIT, focusing on ergonomics, garment construction, and scientific research applications. Through analysing 1,679 3D Body Scans, we assess the level of agreement between the FFIT’s body shape classification when measurements placed following FFIT’s or SizeUK’s guidance. We establish how different interpretations of FFIT’s measurement placement cause the same body to be categorised into different shapes - in up to 40% of cases. FFIT omits shoulder measurements that have little relationship to body shape yet are vital in garment construction. Using FFIT with different datasets and definitions, therefore, leads to inconsistent conclusions about shape differences.
Practitioner Summary: To increase the effectiveness of body shape classification, research must appraise current systems through statistics. This paper demonstrates how current body definitions are too unspecific and exclude relevant body morphology for garment construction. Our paper suggests alternative anthropometrics and demographics for inclusion in a more advanced model.
Somatotyping is a method of description and assessment of the body on three shape and composition scales: endomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness), and ectomorphy (relative linearity). This book (the first major account of the field for thirty years) presents a comprehensive history of somatotyping, beginning with W. J. Sheldon's introduction of the method in 1940. The controversies regarding the validity of Sheldon's method are described, as are the various attempts to modify the technique, particularly the Heath-Carter method, which has come into widespread use. The book reviews present knowledge of somatotypes around the world, how they change with growth, ageing and exercise, and the contributions of genetics and environment to the rating. Also reviewed are the relationships between somatotypes and sport, physical performance, health and behaviour. Students and research workers in human biology, physical and biological anthropology and physical education will all find valuable information in this book.
Most apparel sizing systems are based on one or two body dimensions and rely on assumptions about proportional body relationships to project other dimensions necessary to design the garment pattern. Garments from these systems will not fit a population with large variations in body proportions. Using nonlinear optimization methods and anthropometric data of US Army women three multidimensional sizing systems were derived that are designed to provide improved fit for women from the USA, a population with much variation. These systems range from an optimized linear system with a regular grade to an unconstrained optimized system with a grade break at each size. The optimized sizing systems compare favorably with D5585‐94 in their ability to accommodate variation in the population based on a mathematical test of the aggregate loss of each system. Issues related to pattern grading, size selection, and calculation of stock keeping units are discussed.
From a sample of 317 women students studying at the London College of Fashion 18 body measurements were taken. Results are given in terms of range, mean and standard deviation for each variable, together with values for 5th and 95th percentiles. A correlation matrix was calculated for all the variables and the study was completed by a factor analysis transformed by a varimax rotation. The results are compared, where appropriate, with information from other anthropometric surveys and factor analyses.
The Industrially Developing Countries (IDC) today, to a great extent, depend on Industrialized Countries (IC) for the supply of most industrial goods. An attempt has been made to ascertain the degree of design incompatibility experienced by users of these imported goods due to differences in the body sizes of people in producer and user countries. A comparative study of variations in body sizes is made from data available in literature and from anthropometric surveys. The results reveal differences in almost every part of the human body. The need for reliable anthropometric data in respect of IDC is stressed. Urgent measures are required to introduce changes in equipment, particularly for the benefit of users in IDC.
Typescript (photocopy). Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Minnesota, 1987. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 220-228). Photocopy.