(REGENERACIÓN DE CANTERAS EN MÉRIDA, YUCATÁN, MÉXICO: UNA REVISIÓN SOBRE SUS POSIBILIDADES Y LIMITANTES)

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Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 5 (2005): 101 - 108
101
QUARRY RECLAMATION IN MÉRIDA, YUCATÁN, MÉXICO:
A REVIEW ON ACHIEVEMENTS AND CURRENT LIMITATIONS
[REGENERACIÓN DE CANTERAS EN MÉRIDA, YUCATÁN, MÉXICO:
UNA REVISIÓN SOBRE SUS POSIBILIDADES Y LIMITANTES]
P. Montañez-Escalante1*, L. García-Barrios2, and J. Jiménez-Osornio1
1 Dep. Manejo y Conservación de Recursos Naturales Tropicales,
Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán,
Km 15.5 carr. Mérida-Xmatkuil, Apdo. 28 Cordemex 97110, Mérida, Yucatán, México.
E-mail: pimbalam@sureste.com, josornio@tunku.uady.mx
2 Dep. Agroecología, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, San Cristóbal de las casas,
Chiapas, México. E-mail: lgarcia@sclc.ecosur.mx
*Corresponding autor
SUMMARY
In Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, quarry exploitation is
one of the mining activities which most impacts the
environment, eliminating vegetation as well as soil.
This activity requires restoration measures after
exploitation. Nevertheless, few companies are
implementing reclamation projects. Motives are
diverse and range from legal to economic. The
Materiales Anillo Periferico Company (MAPSA) has
established and successfully managed several types of
agroforestry systems on exploited land. At present
they are evaluating native tree species which can grow
under quarry conditions. The goal is to establish multi-
species systems which satisfy owners´ needs and at the
same time provide conservation. Restoring sites to
this original condition is impossible. After
exploitation, no vegetation is left, and the remaining
substrate is only a layer of the bed-rock on the ground
water table. However, it is possible to stimulate
investment in productive quarry use. Among the
factors which make difficult the propagation of
experiences generated in MAPSA are high investment
costs of regeneration, clandestine mining, and lack of
enforcement. It is necessary to identify mechanisms
which link economic, ecological and social aspects.
At the same time it is necessary to establish links
among productive, business, and scientific sectors, and
publicize the results in order to stimulate reclamation
of quarry sites.
Key words: agroforestry systems, quarry exploitation,
regulations.
RESUMEN
En Mérida, Yucatán, México la explotación de
canteras es una de las actividades mineras que más
impacta al ambiente pues elimina tanto la vegetación
como el suelo. Está actividad requiere de la aplicación
de medidas de mitigación después de la explotación.
Sin embargo, son pocas las empresas con áreas ya
explotadas que están llevando a cabo algún proyecto
de regeneración. Los motivos son diversos y van desde
los legales hasta los económicos. La empresa
Materiales Anillo Periférico (MAPSA) ha establecido
y manejado con éxito diversos tipos de sistemas
agroforestales. Actualmente, se están evaluando
nuevas especies arbóreas nativas que puedan
desarrollarse bajo las condiciones de cantera. La meta
es establecer sistemas agroforestales que satisfagan
necesidades de los propietarios y al mismo tiempo
realizar prácticas de conservación. Alcanzar la
restauración histórica del sitio es imposible. Después
de la explotación no hay vegetación y el sustrato que
queda es sólo una fracción de la roca madre. Pero sí es
posible estimular la inversión en el uso productivo de
las canteras. Entre las limitantes que dificultan la
propagación de las experiencias generadas en MAPSA
están los altos costos de inversión en la regeneración,
el clandestinaje, la poca claridad en las leyes y sus
reglamentos. Es urgente identificar mecanismos que
vinculen los aspectos económico, ecológico y social.
Se requiere establecer vínculos entre los sectores
productivo, empresarial y científico, y difundir los
resultados generados para estimular la regeneración de
los sitios de cantera
Palabras clave: sistemas agroforestales, explotación
de canteras, reglamentación.
INTRODUCTION
Where open quarry mining takes place (i.e. the
exploitation of rock layers to obtain materials for
construction industry use), generally the soil is
denuded, the landscape is altered, and the ecosystem is
destroyed. Inappropriate management of mining
activities may provoke severe impacts on neighboring
sites. This is due to discharge of contaminants,
sediments, chemicals or metals (Gardner 2001). Many
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Subtropical
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102
exploited mines are abandoned and their sites are left
highly disturbed, with little or no recovery. These sites
are then often used as public dumps. As a
consequence, they are a source of bad odors,
contaminated soils, leachates containing pathogens or
toxins that contaminate groundwater, and promote
proliferation of bothersome fauna (mosquitoes, rats,
etc.) (Meyer et al., 1999).
Mining near cities is an undesirable economic activity,
even though it plays an important role in the
development and maintenance of living standards
(Gardner 2001). Nevertheless, cases exist of activities
which promote mine reclamation processes in different
parts of the world (Jim 2001, Gardner 2001, Griffith
and Toy 2001, Sarrailh and Ayrault 2001, Clemente et
al., 2004). Efforts range from applying
decontamination treatments to the site to “creating”
new soil layers (Holmes and Richardson 1999).
One of the most important mining activities in
Yucatan, Mexico is limestone quarry exploitation.
Limestone is obtained from quarries to be used in
construction materials (gravel, lime, cement). The
visual impact produced by the resulting landscape
alteration is great, due to drastic modification of relief
and vegetation (Clemente et al., 2004). It is common
to find large abandoned holes which accumulate
garbage near tourist or urban developments and
highways, and few measures are employed to restore
exploited quarries.
The use of limestone in the construction industry in
Yucatán dates from prehistoric times. In his writings,
De Landa (1556) informs: “Yucatan is a land of the
least soil which I have seen... There are few parts in
which a new City could be dug without reaching a
large rock slab.” The ancient Mayas took advantage
of this rare quality. Morley (1987) reports that the
Mayan pyramids are made of a cementing material
which is very easy to work with. This material is
limestone which, upon being burnt, produces lime. It
is mixed with gravel to provide support to buildings.
Populations still exist who produce lime in the same
manner as did the ancient Mayas. During colonial
times (1522-1821), the Mayas were forced to raise
new population centers and construct roads. For these
purposes they used materials obtained from limestone
(Meyer et al., 1999).
Currently, various Federal and State government plans
are considering the development of new roads and
infrastructure throughout the state. This is promoting
new quarry exploitation. The government itself
exploits rock material near its construction sites.
An Environmental Protection Law exists for the state
of Yucatan which regulates quarry exploitation and
regeneration activities. Nevertheless, little has been
achieved in this respect. The Yucatan State
Government Secretary of Ecology (SECOL) is
charged with providing follow-up on quarry
regeneration actions. In 2003, this institution
estimated there were 19 companies of varying size
dedicated to quarry exploitation in the state (G.
Valladares 2004, SECOL, Yucatán, personal
communication). Principal companies include:
CEMEX, Apasco, Predeco, Procom, Mitza, Cementos
Maya, MAPSA, and the state government itself.
It is necessary to identify regeneration options for
active and inactive areas in order to reverse impact.
One alternative, which does not require great effort, is
allowing natural succession processes to take effect.
However this takes decades. Another option is to
productively regenerate these areas, establishing
“designer ecosystems” which give rise to future
forests, as MacMahon (1998) proposes. A site may be
restored for a particular function or to conserve certain
species. This may, for instance, include restoring the
forest architecture without restoring all its species. For
example, in Quintana Roo, Mexico, the architecture of
the acahual (secondary vegetation growth after
shifting cultivation) promotes a rapid fire cycle, and at
the same time diminishes the diversity of species. A
return to mature forest structure using a designer
approach may both break the fire cycle and promote
biodiversity. This implies manipulating altered
systems, not only leaving them to natural succession
processes (Allen et al., 2003). Another option is
constructing diverse agroecosystems that are both
productive and mimic to a certain extent the forest
architecture.
The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on
quarries reclamation and to discuss the limitations and
possibilities for limestone mine reclamation in the
outskirts of the city of Merida, Yucatan. We present a
successful reclamation experience based on
agroforestry systems, and analyze some current
limitations and needs for extending it throughout the
region. As part of this review we provide our own tree
growth and survival data from the agroforestry plots
most recently established by MAPSA.
METHODS
Anillo Periferico Materials S.A. (MAPSA) is a
Yucatan company which has been dedicated to quarry
exploitation for 27 years. Quarry exploitation implies
extracting all rock material, until arriving to a meter or
less of the ground water level (Figure 1). At the end of
the process, only a carbonate rock lacking organic
material and biological activity remains (Sims 1990).
For almost three decades, the company has exploited
65 hectares. Of these, 30 hectares are being recovered
by establishing and managing agroforestry systems.

Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 5 (2005): 101 - 108
103
In 1990, MAPSA started rehabilitating its quarries. It
planted 12 Has with a tree-grass mixture of Leucaena
leucocephala (huaxín) and Cynodon nlemfuensis (Star
grass). Success with this trial motivated the owners to
plant two more Has. With a mixture of legume trees
as forage for cattle (L. leucocephala, Gliricidia
sepium, Guazuma ulmifolia and Albizia lebbeck ) at a
global density of 1,250 plants ha-1. Survival, growth
adn adaptation of these trees was evaluated by Castillo
and Cervera, 1998. Since 1995 the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the
Universidad Autonoma of Yucatan has been
collaborating with MAPSA on this project. The goals
are (1) reestablishment of plant cover, (2) efficient
productive use of light, soil and space, and (3) short,
medium, and long term income generation
(Armendáriz 1998, Castillo and Cervera 1998).
In January 2000, three more Has. were prepared for
planting agroforestry systems. The first step of this
recovery strategy was to separate the first 20 cm of
soil at the moment of opening a new rock extraction
area. Regeneration was initiated by applying a 1-m
thick gravel fill at the bottom of the exploited quarry,
above which the stored top soil was placed. The depth
of the aquifer (1.5 m below the new ground level)
should be sufficient to avoid flooding during the rainy
season. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and ramon
(Brosimum alicastrum) plantations were established in
order to evaluate their survival in quarry conditions.
Mahogany was planted in a 4 x 4 m arrangement, as a
monoculture and associated with tamarindo
(Tamarindus indica), or with tamarindo and achiote
(Bixa orellana). Ramon was planted in a 4 x 4 m
arrangement, also as a monoculture and associated
with huaxín (L. leucocephala) or with huaxín and
pixoy (G. ulmifolia).
Planting was done manually in August 2000. Nine
months after planting, Leucaena and Guazuma foliage
was completely pruned up to one meter in height.
Pruning continued every 90 days between September
2001 and June 2002 in order to avoid light
competition. From November 2000 to April 2001 (the
dry season), the mahogany and ramon plants were
watered three times weekly. All plots were weeded
every 30 days.
Data on the trees was collected every three months
from September 2000 to June 2002. Survival
percentages of each species were recorded. Total
height was measured with a metric pole. For
mahogany, diameter at breast height (DBH) was
measured.
RESULTS
By the second year after transplanting, the survival of
all tree species established in 2000 was higher than
90%. Tree growth was also successful. Mahogany
trees had an outstanding growth: in two years, they
reached 5 m heights and a DBH of 5 cm (Table 1,
Figure 2). Soil fertility and soil depth as well as the
proximity of the water table to plant roots can explain
these results. Other plots established previously by
MAPSA in a contiguous quarry show qualitatively
similar results.
The hurricane Isidore in 2002 demonstrated that this
system can be resistant when local climate conditions
are extreme. With the high precipitation conditions
Figure 1. Exploited MAPSA quarry. Soil mounds which were separated before exploitation may be
observed. In the lower part, rising of the ground water table may be observed (Photo by: Montañez
2000).

Montañez-Escalante et al., 2005
104
caused by Isidore, the site remained flooded for five
months. Water rose to two meters above ground, and
60% of trees planted in 1994 and in 2000 were lost
(Figure 3). Mahogany, tamarind and pixoy plants
survived these conditions. Polycultures which combine
tree species with different physiology can reduce the
risk of total loss when natural disaster strikes.
Table 1. Growth of the species after two years.
Specie Common
name
Height in
year 2002 (m)
Swietenia macrophylla mahogany 5
Brosimum alicastrum ramón 3
Bixa orellana achiote 2
Tamarindus indica tamarindo 2.5
Leucaena leucocephala huaxín prunning
Guazuma ulmifolia pixoy prunning
Review of other studies carried out in quarries
managed by MAPSA
The survival rates of species planted in 1994 was
greater than 90%. Forage production and quality was
evaluated for some species (Armendáriz, 1998). One
conclusion of these studies was that given the quarry’s
soil conditions and micro-environment, it is possible to
develop agroforestry systems. This allows for the
regeneration of these areas, while generating income at
the same time.
Another study conducted in MAPSA was an analysis
of basic costs of the rock extraction process, and of the
regeneration process through a silvopastoral system
(SPS). The goal was to identify possibilities of
internalizing the costs of the regeneration process
(Coba, 1998). This study estimated that extracting
material from one hectare of quarry costs 123,682.71
dollars and the gross profit generated (before taxes)
was 94,000.11 dollars.
If we consider that reclamation must be carried out by
law, that costs represent only 16% of gross profits,
then companies should not object to carrying out
regeneration. High profits can be obtained from
quarry exploitation, so investing in agroforestry
systems for regeneration and productive purposes
should not be resisted by companies.
In 2001, Llamas (2004) evaluated forage yield and
quality of L. leucocephala, G. ulmifolia, A. lebbeck
and G. sepium, 6 years after planting. The most
productive species were G. sepium and G. ulmifolia
with 2,193 and 1,467 kg DM ha-1 year-1, respectively.
A. lebbeck did not perform well under quarry
conditions and is not recommended.
Figure 2. Multispecie agroforestry system where the main crop is Swietenia macrophylla. Sanitary
pruning are realized to control the shoot borer (Hypsiphylla sp.) (Photo by: Montañez 2002).

Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 5 (2005): 101 - 108
105
MAPSA is a successful example of limestone mine
regeneration. This is demonstrated by the fact that
after 14 years, the owners continue to be interested in
creating and innovating reclamation practices with
agroforestry systems. In 2002, the SECOL
administration officially recognized MAPSA for their
successful recovery actions.
By linking businesses and universities, management
strategies and activities are being identified for
accelerating the recovery process. This link has
benefited both parties. Universities have the
opportunity to expand research in relevant fields, and
the business continues to obtain new concessions,
while obtaining further income from agroforestry
products.
Limitations and possibilities of quarries
reclamation
In the state of Yucatan, several uses for abandoned
quarries have been proposed. Recreational parks have
been created, and some companies have tried to carry
out aquaculture and deer raising. These options have
not been very successful. In contrast, only one
company (MAPSA) has regenerated a large area,
through the establishment of agroforestry systems.
Upon regenerating quarries, one should consider
additional evaluation criteria, besides ecological
factors. Among these are economic, historical,
cultural, social, moral, and aesthetic criteria (Higgs
1997, Swart et al., 2001, Winterhalder et al., 2004).
Other essential factors are political will and
government capacity to coordinate the interests of
those parties involved in regeneration.
Several causes explain the small numbers of results
obtained in quarry reclamation in Yucatan (Table 2).
We identify legal, economic, and ecological
limitations. Quarry exploitation regulation in the
Yucatan is relatively recent, unclear, and inefficient.
This allows for negligence on the side of companies.
Fifteen years ago, no law existed compelling
companies to carry out regeneration projects.
Currently, the Environmental Protection Law of
Yucatan (1999) states that “in order to exploit and
extract minerals not reserved to the Federation, an
Environmental Impact Statement is required”. This
statement should contain a description of possible
environmental consequences due to the activity. Also,
it should express measures to prevent and mitigate
exploitation, considering protection and restoration of
soil, flora, and fauna.
Although the law requires a reclamation program in
these areas, upon ceasing exploitation, it is common
for quarries to be totally abandoned. Often, required
exploitation permits are not sought, and clandestine
mining is realized. Because of this, the current SECOL
administration demands that research groups provide a
current list of those quarry areas already exploited and
under exploitation, as well as management
recommendations (G. Valladares 2004, SECOL,
Yucatán, personal communication).
Figure 3. Multispecies agroforestry system established in the MAPSA quarry, which was flooded for
five months after Hurricane Isidore in 2002. The aquifer rose more than 1 m (Photo by Montañez 2002).

Montañez-Escalante et al., 2005
106
Table 2. Factors to consider upon realizing quarry regeneration projects in Merida, Yucatan, Mexico.
Limitations Possibilities
Legal • Unclear laws
• Lack of follow-up on mitigation activities
• Lack of current information on regeneration
activities
• Actualize laws and enforce them
• Training of personnel in charge of follow-up
• Renovating information on active and passive
quarries
Economic • High investment costs
• Few profits
• Negligence
• Determine who should pay
• Establish productive conservation systems
• Motivate investment
Ecological • Scarce, infertile soil
• Long term recuperation
• Lack of studies recommending management
practices
• Site conditioning
• Studies identifying native species which
activate and facilitate ecological succession
• Support for research projects
• Publicizing information generated
SECOL identifies several difficulties with applying
state environmental regulations in controlling quarry
exploitation (G. Valladares 2004, SECOL, Yucatán,
personal communication). First, few economic
resources are available for vigilance. Secondly, legal
administrative procedures favor the offender. Thirdly,
when a business owner is negligent, environmental
costs of investment are rarely internalized. Finally, the
change in governmental administrations every six
years does not facilitate program continuity, as it takes
time to train new personnel.
An important economic limitation is the high
investment cost of regeneration. Business owners try
to satisfy their own interests and refuse to invest in
activities which do not generate income. This currently
leads to financial responsibility falling on taxpayers
(Hobbs and Norton 1996; Holl and Howarth 2000).
For this reason, it is important to establish productive
systems such as AFS, through which economic and
ecological benefits may be obtained.
One of the main ecological limitations is that little soil
remains after exploitation. Other limitations include
the closeness of the aquifer, the risk of flooding, and
the difficulty in finding local species adapted to these
conditions which may also generate income. Scientific
research is necessary in order to identify useful and
adequate species and intercropping schemes, optimal
planting densities, and sound productive management
practices.
Possibilities
Quarry regeneration in the Yucatan has possibilities of
success if some of the aforementioned problems can
be solved. It is necessary to identify who should pay
for regeneration of exploited quarries. Is it the
government, which is financed by citizens´ tax
money? Is it the business, which benefits from the
resource exploitation? Or is it the consumer, who
demands the product to satisfy certain needs?
In the legal aspect, it is important to consider, as part
of authorizing documents, those obligations and
specific regeneration tasks for which the business
would be responsible. This would help the authority
to verify compliance on the site.
Quarry restoration only for conservation purposes
implies high investment costs, and few are willing to
assume them. Rather, successful restoration requires
carrying out regeneration practices using viable
productive systems, like agroforestry systems which
mimic to a certain extent those natural communities
which have been displaced. This approach results to be
more attractive for business owners.
It is necessary to identify species mixtures which
could be established under extreme site degradation
conditions. These should generate clear benefits, and
short term investment recovery. The challenge is, and
has been, to improve project management and to select
appropriate and compatible plant species in order to
increases the benefit/cost ratio.
Finally, it is important to establish robust alliances
among universities, research centers, companies and
social organizations, through which long term research
projects can be developed. It is also necessary to
publicize these studies and their recommendations.
Only then will it be possible to make progress in
regenerating exploited quarry areas and recover a
small part of the harmony in which the ancient Mayas
lived with their environment.

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107
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by CONACYT-SISIERRA
grant FMVZ-990605 and the Interamerican Institute
for Global Changes Research. A fellowship was
provided to the first author by CONACYT. We thank
Alfredo, José, Héctor and Augusto Cervera from
MAPSA for providing information about their
Company. We are also grateful with Holm Tiessen,
Bruce Ferguson, Rocío Ruenes, and José Castillo for
their helpful comments on the manuscript.
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Submitted March 01, 2005 -- Accepted July 07, 2005
Revised received August 13, 2005