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Parental Alienation in Light of Attachment Theory: Consideration of the Broader Implications for Child Development, Clinical Practice, and Forensic Process
Abstract
Few ideas have captured the attention and charged the emotions of the public, of mental health and legal professionals as thor- oughly as the concept of parental alienation and Gardner's (1987) Paren- tal Alienation Syndrome. For all of this controversy, the alienation concept stands outside developmental theory and without firm empirical support. The present paper explores alienation and its conceptual coun- terpart, alignment, as the necessary and natural tools of child-caregiver attachment (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969; Bowlby, 1969) and of family system cohesion. This conceptual foundation offers developmentalists, clinicians, and family law professionals alike a common language and
... Los conceptos de alegaciones de enajenación y actitudes de progenitores están profundamente ligados con la enajenación parental. En 1976, Wallerstein y Kelly introdujeron el término de alineación patológica para describir la dinámica en donde un progenitor (progenitor preferido) expone al hijo a palabras o acciones que pueden distorsionar la imagen del otro progenitor (pro genitor alineado) (Garber, 2004). Bernet, von Boch-Galhau, Baker, y Morrison (2010) explicaron que Wallerstein y Kelly realizaron un estudio longitudinal con una muestra de 60 progenitores divorciados en California. ...
... Bernet, von Boch-Galhau, Baker, y Morrison (2010) explicaron que Wallerstein y Kelly realizaron un estudio longitudinal con una muestra de 60 progenitores divorciados en California. El resultado de este estudio cualitativo reveló que los hijos crearon un lazo no saludable con el progenitor preferido y se negaron a tener relación con el progenitor alineado sin justificación alguna (Bernet, 2008;Bernet, et al., 2010;Clarkson y Clarkson, 2007;Garber, 2004;Meier, 2009). Una de las limitaciones del estudio fue que la muestra pudiera no ser representativa de la población estudiada. ...
... que un hijo o hija establezca preferencias hacia uno de sus progenitores (Bowlby,1969). Usualmente, los hijos o hijas prefieren a las madres en vez de a los padres (Garber, 2004). Esto sucede porque los hijos e hijas se apegan primeramente a las madres que a los padres (Bowlby, 1969). ...
El Gobierno de Puerto Rico interesa trabajar con los conflictos de familia utilizando métodos no adversativos. El Proyecto del Senado 63 (2009) propone el que se considere como primera opción la custodia compartida en los casos de petición de custodia de un(a) menor. Esta medida sugiere una modificación a las políticas existentes que explican cómo trabajar con estos casos. El proyecto apoya el utilizar la mediación para trabajar aquellos casos en donde uno de los progenitores no desee custodia compartida y el ordenamiento a tomar tratamiento emocional y educación (Santana, 2010). Esto hace un llamado a los trabajadores y las trabajadoras sociales forenses a investigar e ilustrar a la Rama Judicial de Puerto Rico las variables a considerarse. Examinar las actitudes de progenitores, como variable, antes de comenzar los procesos de petición de custodia es la clave para que los casos puedan desviarse por medio de la mediación. Las actitudes de progenitores hacen que los procesos judiciales de custodia sean prolongados y abren paso a la formulación de diferentes tipos de alegaciones. Por ejemplo, la negación de un hijo e hija a relacionarse con alguno de sus progenitores es solo una de las alegaciones escuchas por el tribunal de familias. Este artículo es una propuesta para trabajar ante los casos de custodia utilizando la educación a progenitores y mediación; buscando así, justificar de manera científica cambios a las políticas que gobiernan estos procesos.
... In fact, Kelly and Johnston (2001) have offered a reformulation of parental alienation, emphasizing that the impact of a caregiver's denigration of another on the child is mediated by the child's developmental status and the quality of the preexisting relationships among all parties. Garber (2004a) casts this dynamic on the stage of attachment theory, positing that the alienating caregiver's words and actions cause the child to accommodate his or her IWM of the targeted caregiver such that the quality of the attachment relationship is ruptured. The resulting insecurity can be manifested as avoidance, resistance, or refusal of contact with the targeted caregiver. ...
... What is most clear is what is least appropriate: The therapist who responds to suspicions of therapist alienation by denouncing the child-patient's loved one as wrong may be harming the patient no less than has the alienator him-or herself. To respond to the boy who confesses, "My daddy told me not to talk to you," with anything suggesting that the father is wrong may well be alienating the child from his parent, committing an instance of parental (as opposed to coparental; Garber, 2004a) alienation. The clinician who suspects that an impasse in a therapy may be due to a third party's alienation, who has reviewed the matter carefully in peer consultation, who has sought to understand the impact of the child's therapy on the larger family system, and who has sidestepped the opportunity to further triangulate the patient must carefully decide how to proceed. ...
... Among these considerations must be greater understanding of the intrapsychic and interpersonal dynamics that predispose some individuals to alienate a child from a valued caregiver (e.g., Siegel & Langford, 1998), what other domains of child life (e.g., studentteacher relationships, peer relationships) might be subject to the effect of a caregiver's alienating words or actions, what combination of education, active involvement, prohibition, and threat of sanction is most effective in preventing these acts, and the longterm sequelae of therapist alienation on the child's ability and willingness to benefit from future psychotherapies. Garber (2004a) reviewed data that begin to address the closely related question of the combination of factors within the child, the alienator, and the object of the alienation and in the quality of the relationships among the three that might facilitate or inhibit the impact of any such alienation. Specifically, preliminary data suggest that the quality of the child's attachment to the alienator may be one factor that mediates the impact of the alienator's message. ...
The phenomena of impasse and rupture in the psychotherapy relationship have been discussed mostly in terms of the dynamics of the therapist-patient dyad. Therapist alienation identifies the disruptive impact of third-party contamination of the patient's therapeutic alliance with the therapist. Therapist alienation and its intrafamilial cousin, parental alienation, are examined here from an attachment perspective, emphasizing the role of the cognitive schemas underlying each relationship. Case examples are drawn from the author's experience conducting psychotherapy with children of highly conflicted caregivers. Specific recommendations are offered to minimize the likelihood of therapeutic rupture due to therapist alienation. How to respond when and if therapist alienation is suspected and future directions for clinical work, empirical research, and legal process are discussed.
... През 80-те години на 20 век детският психиатър д-р Ричард Гарднър (1931 -2003) доразвива вече придобилата популярност сред професионалистите тема за проблематичните отношения детеродител в собствена теория: "синдром на родителското отчуждение". От по-късна перспектива може да каже, че за разлика от изследователите преди него Гарднър "съществено измести фокуса на този конструктот клинично полезно динамично описание към патологичен синдром, който може да бъде диагностициран сред децата на разведени родители" (Garber, 2004). Според дефиницията на своя автор, "синдромът на родителското отчуждаване (СРО) е детско разстройство, което възниква почти изключително в контекста на спорове за упражняване на родителски права. ...
... Такава хипотеза просто е недопустима в теорията на Гарднър -след като има отчуждение, то по подразбиране е резултат от манипулиране и програмиране. Garber (2004) също коментира, че СРО не отдава значимо внимание на поведението на отхвърления родител, който може със своята липса на съпричастност, подкрепа и родителски умения, да допринесе за поляризираната позиция на детето. Че личностните особености, както и други фактори, имат значение за развиване на СРО, признават дори някои от последователите на Гарднър (Хендс и Уоршак), според които "въпреки че са изложени на отчуждаващо родителско поведение, не всички деца се поддават на негативното влияние и отхвърлят родителя, който е обект на злословие" (Hands & Warshak, 2011). ...
Статията изследва критично теорията за „синдром на родителското отчуждение”, която набира популярност през последните години и за чието въвеждане в българското законодателство се застъпват различни организации, групи и кръгове. Авторът прави обзор на наличната литература по темата и заключава, че според мнозинството изследователи в настоящия си вид теорията не отговаря на научните стандарти и е непригодна да се материализира в нормативна регулация.
... A dinâmica envolvida na alienação parental pressupõe a existência de um vínculo emocional particular entre a criança e seus cuidadores. Para Garber (2004), trata-se de um fenômeno que pode ser compreendido no contexto da teoria do apego, proposta por Bowlby (1969Bowlby ( /1990. Conforme Bowlby, a segurança do apego de uma criança é mediada pelos seus modelos representacionais internos, que refletem suas experiências com os cuidadores primários. ...
... Essas vicissitudes podem ter comprometido a representação dos seus vínculos afetivos, seus modelos representacionais, impactando a constituição dos vínculos com seus próprios filhos. Desta forma, diante da separação conjugal e da dificuldade de enfrentar essa perda e transição familiar, as mães participantes, sem conseguir se discriminar dos seus filhos, e com uma capacidade de mentalização limitada, convocaram essas crianças a participar do seu conflito (Baker & Darnall, 2006;Garber, 2004;Riggio, 2004). ...
This study has focused some of the psychological processes presents in the Parental Alienation, more specifically the characteristics of bonds between fathers, mothers and their children, who are involved in this phenomenon, and their mentalization capacity. An exploratory qualitative study has been conducted, adopting the Multiple Cases Study procedure. Participants were four children and their parents. Participants were sent to psychological evaluation in an university school clinic localized at metropolitan region of Porto Alegre, by the Family Court of the city concerned. The participant's evaluation process included semi-structured, structured interviews, and psychological tests. The main findings indicated weak and inconsistent affective bonds, permeated by conflicts, and indicators of insecure attachment. Mothers and fathers, as soon as children, showed a restricted mentalization capacity.
... Autoři, kteří diskutují o Gardnerově [6] syndromu odcizeného rodiče /například Garber [4], Sponsel [14]/ se shodují v názoru, že tento koncept celkem dobře popisuje dávno známou skutečnost, že někteří lidé, angažující se v opatrovnických sporech, používají své děti jako zbraň proti druhému rodiči a že koncept je dynamickým, klinicky užitečným popisem dění, které se může vyskytovat mezi rodiči a dítětem, nejčastěji v situaci opatrovnických sporů. ...
... Nicméně velmi závažné námitky směřuji proti snaze vidět a prosadit PAS jako medicínskou diagnózu. Například Gjuričová Řada amerických a německých prací /například Bruch [3], Garber [4], Sponsel [14]/ přináší velmi kritické, většinou zcela odmítavé postoje vůči syndromu odcizeného ("zavrženého") rodiče. Své výhrady vyvozují především z nedostatečně vědecky fundovaného vytvoření této "syndromologické" jednotky, z chybění srovnávacích studií a z nepochopení obecně uznávané výstavby syndromu. ...
... I have presented a developmentally informed and practical means of understanding the phenomenon of alienation within the family system ( Garber, 2004b). This view, grounded in attachment theory (e.g., Ainsworth & Witting, 1969;Bowlby, 1969Bowlby, , 1973, defines alienation as the dynamic in force when any party (actor) presents information (message) which causes a child to accommodate his/her mental schema of a caregiver (target) such that the child becomes less secure with that caregiver. ...
... Among the many controversies surrounding the topic of alienation is the question of how such schisms are most appropriately repaired. In instances of mild to moderate alienation (Ward & Harvey, 1993), a combination of parent education and facilitated corrective experiences for the child with the actor/sending parent (Garber, 2004b(Garber, , 2005) and/or with the target/receiving parent ( Riggs, 2005) may prove necessary to the resolution of the VRR. In other cases of moderate alienation, even when the alienating/sending parent's position is unrelenting, more mature children may still benefit from facilitated corrective experiences with the targeted/receiving parent, as in a "Circle of Security" (Marvin et al., 2002) type of intervention. ...
A child's visitation resistance and refusal (VRR) in the context of parental separation, divorce, and post-divorce litigation must not prematurely be interpreted as evidence of alienation, a conclusion which can be as detrimental to the family system as it is ill founded. The present article proposes a child-centered, developmentally informed heuristic with which forensic evaluators might begin to more uniformly approach the potential causes of and remedies for VRR. An attachment-based, step-wise decision tree is described together with an overview of the remedies presently believed most appropriate to each. Recommendations for empirical study of the multiple convergent dynamics which determine VRR and establishment of corresponding interventions follow.
... This discussion presumes an understanding of alienation consistent with the " alienated child " construct (Johnston, 2005b; Kelly & Johnston, 2001) and built upon a foundation in family systems (Minuchin, 1974) and attachment theories (Bowlby, 1982Bowlby, , 1988 Garber, 2004a; Hooper, 2007). Specifically, I use the word " alienation " to describe the convergence of relationship dynamics which together cause an individual to express unjustifiable and disproportionately negative reactions to a targeted individual. ...
... Specifically, I use the word " alienation " to describe the convergence of relationship dynamics which together cause an individual to express unjustifiable and disproportionately negative reactions to a targeted individual. By contrast, when such negative reactions are objectively defensible and proportionate to the targeted individual's real threat, the same behaviors constitute estrangement (Drozd & Olesen, 2004; Fidler & Bala, 2010). 1 Together, alienation and estrangement are two among the several relationship dynamics which constitute the tools of affiliation (Garber, 2004a), those mechanisms with which groups at every level of organization, from international politics to playground cliques, distinguish who is " in " and who is " out " (Dovidio, Saguy, & Shnabel, 2009; Riek, Mania & Gaertner, 2006; Stephan et al., 2009). Parents routinely and appropriately instill insecurity in their children in relation to others in the interest of safety and preservation of the family group's integrity. ...
When caregivers conflict, systemic alliances shift and healthy parent-child roles can be corrupted. The present paper describes three forms of role corruption which can occur within the enmeshed dyad and as the common complement of alienation and estrangement. These include the child who is prematurely promoted to serve as a parent's ally and partner, the child who is inducted into service as the parent's caregiver, and the child whose development is inhibited by a parent who needs to be needed. These dynamics—adultification, parentification and infantilization, respectively—are each illustrated with brief case material. Family law professionals and clinicians alike are encouraged to conceptualize these dynamics as they occur within an imbalanced family system and thereby to craft interventions which intend to re-establish healthy roles. Some such interventions are reviewed and presented as one part of the constellation of services necessary for the triangulated child.
... Seen from a systemic perspective, children are to be considered active participants in the family's turmoil and its intrafamilial aspects (Garber, 2015;Grøndahl & Skjaelaaen, 2011). Children adapt to the caring circumstances of these situations by way of their internal working models (Camisasca et al., 2017;Garber, 2004) and social referencing, referring to a child's inherent tendency to take approach-avoidance from a caregiver's behaviour and emotions (Dunne & Askew, 2013). Children can think, feel, act and respond physiologically to their parents' conflict (Rhoades, 2008). ...
This thesis explores how professionals at family counsellor services and child welfare services in Norway understand and assess children at potential risk of care failure when involved in parental high conflict. Enduring parental high conflict presents a significant chalenge in terms of assessment and deciding how best to help individual children, parents and families. Studies show that professionals find it challenging and difficult to meet with children, parents and families involved in parental high conflict. Research on such cases at the intersection of family counsellor services and child welfare services is sparse.
... There has been extensive scholarship on processes that constitute parental alienating behaviors (e.g., gatekeeping, false memories), so even though it superficially appears that research on parental alienation is in its greening stage, it is actually blossoming because greater attention to theoretical extension and development has been occurring. For example, attachment theories have been applied to clinical observations in order to create a better understanding of parental rejection (Garber, 2004), and more recently, the first author has been applying interdependence theory to understand how imbalanced power dynamics characterize these family systems. ...
Parental alienation has been an unacknowledged and poorly understood form of family violence. Research on parental alienation and the behaviors that cause it has evolved out of decades of legal and clinical work documenting this phenomenon, leading to what could be considered a “greening,” or growth, of the field. Today, there is consensus among researchers as to what parental alienating behaviors are and how they affect children and the family system. We review the literature to detail what parental alienation is, how it is different from other parent–child problems such as estrangement and loyalty conflicts, and how it is perpetuated within and across different social systems. We conclude by highlighting research areas that need further investigation to develop and test effective solutions for ameliorating the devastating effects of parental alienation that, we posit, should be considered and understood not only as abusive to the child but also as a form of family violence directed toward both the child and the alienated parent.
... Psychology has long recognized the complex interactions among relationships within the family, but has only just begun to look at factors outside of each parent-child pair as they might color custody-related questions (Schermerhorn et al., 2008). 13 The controversy regarding parental alienation (Garber, 2004b), for example, essentially introduces the idea that the quality of a child's relationship with one caregiver must be understood as it exists in juxtaposition to the other. Thus, for all of its tremendous potential as a necessary part of a bestpsychological-interests investigation, attachment theory must never be mistaken as sufficient. ...
Post-separation and post-divorce child custody guidelines have evolved from one-size-fits-all, gender-biased and adult-centered norms toward today's resource-intensive, child-centered best-interests standard. For all of its broad appeal, the best-interest standard remains ill-defined. The present paper discusses attachment theory as an empirically rich, developmentally-informed and systemically-oriented model with great promise to some day inform child custody litigation but which remains, as yet, impractical and without adequate validation for this application. Four hurdles are identified which family law professionals must yet overcome before this wealth of data can begin to become part of best-psychological-interests custody evaluations.
... Though now largely debunked by the research community (see, for example, Faller, 1998Faller, , 2003Garber, 2004) and ruled inadmissible in a number of North American courts (Shields, 2007), 2 some of the thinking that informed Gardner's largely selfpublished views continue to strike a popular chord. In Australia, for example, a recent telephone survey of 2000 people in Victoria (VicHealth, 2006) found that 46 per cent of respondents agreed with the statement that "women going through custody battles often make up claims of domestic violence to improve their case" (p. ...
... The child might also have formed a negative impression of the absent parent during the trouble between the parents. This can be independent of, or combined with, the alienation process conducted by the custodial parent (Garber, 2004) against the noncustodial and now absent parent. ...
Following an acrimonious divorce or separation, arguments are frequently presented as to why a child should not be with a nonresident parent. The custodial parent, whether a father or a mother, uses the concept of a child being attached to himself or herself and therefore this should prevent the child from having actual or reasonable contact with the absent parent. This view is based on antagonism between the former partners rather than the importance of the attachment theory being relevant. The attachment theory is also used to discredit the intentions of the noncustodial parent. This is especially the case for the younger child. With older children this is not likely to be as relevant. The history of the development of the attachment theory commencing with Bowlby and Ainsworth is presented, and the counterarguments are also presented. Attachment to the mother is obviously important initially but attachment to the father is equally important to the child and such bonding is likely to lead to positive emotional and behavioral development. It is therefore argued that both fathers and mothers have an important role to play and are, or should be, responsible for the rearing of children. The acrimony between the couple should not be considered as relevant as it is, in fact, the real reason why attachment theory is used against a nonresident parent.
... While there are likely many similarities between the impact foster care placements have upon sibling relationships and that of divorce/separation and sibling relationships, they are not one and the same. Factors such as split caretaking arrangements (Kaplan, Hennon, & Ade-Ridder, 1993), alienation (Garber, 2004), and high conflict divorce (Caya & Liem, 1998) each potentially place strains upon sibling relationships that are different from what is experienced in termination of parental rights and/or temporary placement in foster care cases. For this reason, it is incumbent upon those charged with assessing and adjudicating custody cases involving siblings to be aware that these children are not only facing the end of their parents' union, but also a potentially significant adjustment in the nature of their sibling relations. ...
Attachment theory is increasingly being considered when contemplating post-divorce parenting plans. Historically, there has been a strong emphasis on assessing the strength of the parent-child bond as well as a child's attachment style. Surprisingly little research has focused on sibling bonds and the implications for post-divorce parenting plans. This article provides an overview of sibling attachment theory, sibling attachment considerations in foster care decisions, and the limited research examining sibling attachment in divorce and parenting schedules. Several key questions are offered for mental health and legal professionals to consider when factoring sibling relations into post-separation parenting plans.
... Further concerns include that a custody reversal may place the child at risk for running away or self-destructive behavior Johnston, Roseby, & Kuehnle, 2009). Opponents to custody reversal argue that an abrupt and lengthy, even if temporary, separation from a primary attachment figure (referred to by some as a "parentectomy", even when, and especially when, the attachment and relationship are enmeshed or pathological, places the child at greater risk than losing contact with a rejected parent and half the family (Garber, 2004;. ...
This article provides an overview of the key concepts, themes, issues, and possible mental health and legal interventions related to children's postseparation resistance to having contact with one parent. We maintain that the too often strongly gendered polemic on alienation and abuse is polarizing and needs to be replaced with a more nuanced and balanced discussion that recognizes the complexity of the issues so that the needs of children and families can be better met. This article reviews the historical development of the concept of alienation; discusses the causes, dynamics, and differentiation of various types of parent child contact problems; and summarizes the literature on the impact of alienation on children. These are complex cases. A significant portion of the cases in which alienation is alleged are not in fact alienation cases; for those where alienation is present, interventions will vary depending on the degree of the alienation. More severe alienation cases are unlikely to be responsive to therapeutic or psycho-educational interventions in the absence of either a temporary interruption of contact between the child and the alienating parent or a more permanent custody reversal. We conclude with a summary of recommendations for practice and policy, including the need for early identification and intervention to prevent the development of severe cases, interdisciplinary collaboration and further development and research of interventions.
Objectives: This study aimed to explore the relationship between attachment patterns and the management of relationship crisis between partners during the engagement period in Jordan. Methods: The study employed a descriptive correlational approach. Two scales were used: the Attachment Patterns Scale and the Relationship Crisis Management Scale. The study sample consisted of a convenient sample of 412 engaged individuals in Jordan. Results: The results revealed that the most prevalent attachment pattern among engaged individuals during the engagement period was the secure attachment pattern, with a percentage of 92.7%. The avoidant attachment pattern followed at a percentage of 3.9%, while the least common pattern was the anxious attachment pattern at 3.4%. Furthermore, the results also showed a high level of relationship crisis management among engaged individuals during the engagement period. A positive linear relationship was found between secure attachment style and relationship crisis management, while an inverse relationship was observed between anxious and avoidant attachment patterns and relationship crisis management between partners. Conclusions: The results underscore the importance of considering attachment patterns and relationship crisis management during the engagement period in Jordan and reflect the need for developing educational and therapeutic plans to comprehend attachment patterns and their role in influencing crisis management processes, to arrive at effective solutions for facing and managing crises.
The concept of parental alienation (PA) has expanded in popular usage at the same time that it remains mired in controversy about its scientific integrity and its use as a legal strategy in response to an increasing range of issues in family court. In this paper we describe how competing advocacy movements (for mothers, fathers and children) in the family justice field have, over time, helped shape the shifting definitions and widening focal concerns of PA‐ from children who make false allegations of abuse, to those who resist or refuse contact with a parent, to parent relocation, and to the emotional abuse wrecked upon children who are victims of a manipulative parent. In search of common ground for a sound approach to using PA concepts, we argue that the Single Factor model of PA (asserting that an alienating preferred parent is primarily the source of the problem) is inadequate, overly simplistic and misleading. A Single Factor model rests on the fallacy that abuse or poor parenting on the part of either parent have been, or are able to be, ruled out as sufficient reason for the child's rejecting stance. By contrast, multi‐factor models of PA make more useful, valid, differentiated clinical predictions of children's rejection of a parent, informed by basic and applied research on children and families. However, multi‐factor models are complex and difficult to argue in court and to use in assessment and interventions. Suggestions are made for developing intervention‐focused prediction models that reduce the number of factors involved and are applicable across different types of interventions.
Had Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional detective, the great Sherlock Holmes, actually engaged in deductive reasoning, he would have solved many fewer crimes. In fact, Holmes' logical progression from astute observation to hypotheses is a model of a type of inductive reasoning. This paper argues that mental health professionals tasked to evaluate why a child is resisting/refusing contact with one parent must approach each family the way that Holmes approached each case, without a presumed suspect, moving systematically from detail to hypothesis, well‐versed in the full range of dynamics that may be at play, and erring in favor of parsimony rather than pathology. By contrast, the custody evaluator who approaches these matters through a deductive process, seeking data that support an a priori theory, is vulnerable to confirmatory bias and doing harm to the child whose interests are paramount. The literature concerned with resist/refuse dynamics is reviewed, yielding 13 non‐mutually exclusive variables that evaluators must consider so as to more fully identify why a particular child is resisting or refusing contact with one parent. On this basis, the hybrid model is expanded to include the full spectrum of contributing dynamics. Specific recommendations are made for judicial officers in the interest of writing orders for custody evaluations that minimize the risk of confirmatory bias.
Key Points for the Family Court Community
• Deductive reasoning seeks to confirm or refute an a priori hypothesis
• Deductive reasoning is highly vulnerable to confirmational bias
• Confirmational bias can corrupt and invalidate forensic evaluation to the detriment of all involved
• Resist/refuse dynamics must be understood through an inductive process that is open to all possible hypotheses
• A survey of the literature identifies at least thirteen mutually compatible hypotheses, all of which must be evaluated
• Courts must take care to word orders for forensic family evaluations in a manner that minimizes confirmatory bias and invites inductive investigation
One hundred and nine college students completed an anonymous and confidential survey regarding their childhood exposure to parental alienation strategies by each parent as well as their own actions and attitudes toward each parent. Results revealed statistically significant associations between parental alienation behaviors and behaviors of an alienated child, even after controlling for the quality of parenting of the rejected parent. The findings are discussed in light of attachment theory, social learning theory, and family systems theory.
The authors recommend to use the correct translation of English "Parental Alienation Syndrom" (PAS) as syndrom odcizeného rodiče. They summarize the extensive discussion concerning PAS and take up critical stance toward use of the notion of syndrome, towards attempts to take the problem of relationship of parents and child for medical diagnosis and before all to univocal recommendation to solve the problem by relocation of the child into the care of refused parent. The authors point to the fact that PAS is formulated as an instrument for solution of law suits and take critical stance to recommendation of law-suits as way of solution of situation of parents and children. They see PAS as ideological concept serving to organizing of fathers suffering by lack of rewarding contact vith children and take critical stance to easy solution of intricate and often unsolvable situation.
One of the most clear consequences of divorce is downward economic mobility. Divorced women and their children are often poor and engage in legal battle to get alimony. Role of a single parent is exhausting, full of problems. Taking in account the decrease of standard of living, loss of friends, shift in roles and overlode there is no surprise the divorced adults suffer from psychic problems. Further consequence of divorce is reduction or lost of contacts with former in-laws. The friends disappear especially in a case friendship was gained during matrimony and was shared with the partner. Compared with married the divorced have more problems with somatic health and experience shorter life. Behind those differences in health there is connection between divorce and level of immunity. Post divorce adaptation is more complicated and difficult for women. It is in the consequence of more complicated social and personal situation of women, who live with children from divorced matrimony. Psychic symptoms as experience of pain, suffering and depression disappear mostly in two to four years after divorce. Some divorced survive divorce quickly for another divorce is such a negative event that they cope with it an long time. There is a group of divorced which never adjust. It is about one tenth of divorced. Prolonged engagement in legal battles is due to psychical problems of parents. It is clear that the post divorce adjustment is for great deal of divorced slow and difficult. Divorce can be taken as well mastered in a case parents succeed to solve their housing, social educational and partner situation and succeed even in inner emotional and sexual breakaway and find the new live perspective, post divorce identity and satisfactory lifestyle.
Whether assessing general family functioning or specific areas of conflict, professionals ordering, conducting, or reviewing child custody evaluations require sound knowledge of three interrelated fields: up-todate legal issues, psychological findings, and forensic procedures. A Comprehensive Guide to Child Custody Evaluations covers these three essential areas to walk readers through the evaluation process clearly and concisely. This unique interdisciplinary book emphasizes professional ethics, children's psychological well-being, and clear communication among all parties as keys to resolving disputes with efficiency and thoroughness, and minimizing the chances of children and their families getting lost in red tape. Among the Guide's features: Legal standards for custody evaluations and recommendations. Procedures for conducting custody evaluations, with the latest data on psychological testing, interviewing children, and home observations. Guidelines for writing: evaluation reports, orders for evaluatio s, parenting plans. Legal and ethical standards for critiquing evaluation reports. Current legal and research-based information on special issues, including alternative family arrangements, medical problems, child sexual abuse, estrangement, and parental abduction. Reference and resource sections provide additional support. The Guide's interdisciplinary approach will be of invaluable aid to forensic mental health professionals in conducting evaluations and communicating results, family and probate judges in ordering and assessing custody evaluations, and family attorneys in deciding how to approach various aspects of the family situation, whether to request a custody evaluation, and how to proceed after the custody evaluation is done. © 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved.
Interest in the problem of children who resist contact with or become alienated from a parent after separation or divorce is growing, due in part to parents' increasing frustrations with the apparent ineffectiveness of the legal system in handling these unique cases. There is a need for legal and mental health professionals to improve their understanding of, and response to, this polarizing social dynamic. This book is a critical, empirically based review of parental alienation that integrates the best research evidence with clinical insight from interviews with leading scholars and practitioners. The text draws upon the growing body of mental health and legal literature to summarize the historical development and controversies surrounding the concept of "alienation" and explain the causes, dynamics, and differentiation of various types of parent-child relationship issues. The chapters review research on prevalence, risk factors, indicators, assessment, and measurement to form a conceptual integration of multiple factors relevant to the etiology and maintenance of the problem of strained parent-child relationships. A differential approach to assessment and intervention is provided. Children's rights, the role of their wishes and preferences in legal proceedings, and the short- and long-term impact of parental alienation are also discussed.
Contemporary theory asserts that children become triangulated into their parents' conflicts due to alienation, estrangement, and enmeshment. These dynamics account for some children's alliance with one parent and rejection of the other. The present article suggests that the child's innate need to adapt and the caregivers' corresponding needs for confirmation together create an additional dynamic that must be considered as part of any family system evaluation. The “chameleon child” engages in necessary and natural short-term adaptive behaviors at unknown developmental costs. An observational protocol is described with which evaluators can begin to distinguish among these dynamics. Case illustrations are provided.
Children who are triangulated into their parents' conflicts can become polarized, aligning with one parent and rejecting the other. In response, courts often order families to engage mental health professionals to provide reunification interventions. This article adapts empirically established systematic desensitization and flooding procedures most commonly used to treat phobic children as possible components of a larger family systems invention designed to help the polarized child develop a healthy relationship with both parents. Strengths and weaknesses of these procedures are discussed and illustrated with case material.
Key Points for the Family Court Community
Family law and psychology agree that children should have the opportunity to enjoy a healthy relationship with both parents
Adult conflict can polarize a child's relationships, including rejection of one parent
Existing clinical and forensic “reunification” strategies often prove inadequate
Reliable and valid cognitive behavioral methods can be adopted to facilitate this process
A cognitive‐behavioral “exposure‐based” reunification protocol is discussed
Family Court Review has provided the family law community with an invaluable compilation of articles in the form of interviews with some of the world's most highly respected experts on attachment theory. These articles provide insight into the young child's experience of early relatedness and sound direction for those providing services to most families. This article suggests, however, that attachment theory's great wealth of empirical data may have limited validity when applied to high‐conflict, recidivist‐litigant, custody‐contending families. In particular, the recommendation that young children benefit from the near‐exclusive care of their mother throughout their first 2 or 3 years and can thereafter build a relationship with their father on the strength of their mother's endorsement ignores the frank reality of these children's lives. Acknowledging the painful realities of children thus caught in the middle, we must instead perform the delicate balancing act of providing children with a developmentally appropriate opportunity to build a secure attachment with each of their parents from birth forward. This position is framed within an evolutionary and developmental perspective.
Key Points for the Family Court Community
The quality of a child's attachment relationship with Parent A is built both upon his/her direct experience of Parent A's sensitive and responsive care and upon his/her experience of Parent B's endorsement of parent A as a sensitive and responsive caregiver.
The attachment research suggests that most children will benefit from a primary relationship with their mother from birth through the 2nd or 3rd year and may thereafter build a relationship with their father on the basis of their mother's endorsement.
The mutual disregard and acrimony characteristic of the high‐conflict divorce population makes it exceedingly unlikely that a mother granted near‐exclusive care of her infant will thereafter be willing or able to genuinely endorse the father so as to lay the foundation for the child's secure attachment with him.
Very young children of high‐conflict parents may have the best opportunity to make and maintain a healthy relationship with both of their parents when they have frequent, developmentally informed, and carefully structured contact with both from their earliest days.
Child-centered mental health and forensic professionals have long recognized the dilemma implicit in the need to elicit valid reports from court-involved children. The fact that young children are highly suggestible and that even skilled, well-intended interviewers can corrupt the data in myriad subtle ways risks compromising the legal process and (re-) traumatizing the child interviewee. The present article introduces the Query Grid (QG), a child-centered, multi-modal and minimally leading interview tool suitable for use with clinical populations and court-involved children ages four through twelve years. The QG joins the sparse arsenal of existing forensic child interview tools and protocols (e.g., Poole & Lamb, 1999) useful in better meeting the needs of the court system and those children involved in abuse and neglect proceedings, criminal investigations, and custody matters.
Although parental alienation disorder (PAD) is a serious mental condition affecting many children and their families, it is not an official diagnosis or even mentioned in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This article presents arguments for considering PAD a diagnosis: PAD is a prototypical example of a relational disorder; the phenomenon of PAD is almost universally accepted by mental health professionals; PAD is a valid and reliable construct; adopting criteria for PAD will promote systematic research; adopting criteria will reduce the misuse of the concept of PAD; and adopting criteria will improve the treatment of children with this disorder.
Parental alienation is an important phenomenon that mental health professionals should know about and thoroughly understand, especially those who work with children, adolescents, divorced adults, and adults whose parents divorced when they were children. We define parental alienation as a mental condition in which a child—usually one whose parents are engaged in a high-conflict divorce—allies himself or herself strongly with one parent (the preferred parent) and rejects a relationship with the other parent (the alienated parent) without legitimate justification. This process leads to a tragic outcome when the child and the alienated parent, who previously had a loving and mutually satisfying relationship, lose the nurture and joy of that relationship for many years and perhaps for their lifetimes. The authors of this article believe that parental alienation is not a minor aberration in the life of a family, but a serious mental condition. The child's maladaptive behavior—refusal to see one of the parents—is driven by the false belief that the alienated parent is a dangerous or unworthy person. We estimate that 1% of children and adolescents in the U.S. experience parental alienation. When the phenomenon is properly recognized, this condition is preventable and treatable in many instances. There have been scores of research studies and hundreds of scholarly articles, chapters, and books regarding parental alienation. Although we have located professional publications from 27 countries on six continents, we agree that research should continue regarding this important mental condition that affects hundreds of thousands of children and their families. The time has come for the concept of parental alienation to be included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V), and the International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Edition (ICD-11).
It's been more than a quarter century since the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) phenomenon was first observed yet it remains a highly debated concept in the legal and mental health professions. In the years since its inception, judges have relied on PAS to make both short and long-term decisions in custody and visitation cases. Those who support PAS claim that there is scientific evidence to prove its existence, while those who oppose it suggest that it is pseudoscience and should not be relied upon in court to make binding decisions in custody and visitation cases. The critics believe that other factors must be considered in these cases and that PAS is too simple an explanation for complex behaviors seen in parents and children during custody and visitation proceedings. This paper presents both sides of the argument and suggests that the PAS debate lingers on and remains unsettled. It presents the position that there is scientific evidence to support a clinical claim that PAS is observed in some cases, and it presents the argument that not enough rigorous experimentation has been done to prove once and for all that PAS is a diagnosable phenomenon.
This article reviews a recent book arguing how a concept known as parental alienation syndrome-now parental alienation disorder-should be included in official psychiatric/psychological and medical classification diagnostic manuals. Anecdotal cases and opinion are presented as research and scientific evidence, and stories are presented as research studies. In addition, the book often contradicts itself in different sections. The author is not familiar with scientific methodology, confuses various statistical and research procedures and terminology, and thus misleads the reader in trying to promote this theory. This book's claim that it is the most comprehensive compilation of the evidence supporting parental alienation disorder/parental alienation syndrome is false, and it is not recommended by the reviewers.
Graph propositionalization methods can be used to transform structured and relational data into fixed-length feature vectors, enabling standard machine learning algorithms to be used for generating predictive models. It is however not clear how well different propositionalization methods work in conjunction with different standard machine learning algorithms. Three different graph propositionalization methods are investigated in conjunction with three standard learning algorithms: random forests, support vector machines and nearest neighbor classifiers. An experiment on 21 datasets from the domain of medicinal chemistry shows that the choice of propositionalization method may have a significant impact on the resulting accuracy. The empirical investigation further shows that for datasets from this domain, the use of the maximal frequent item set approach for propositionalization results in the most accurate classifiers, significantly outperforming the two other graph propositionalization methods considered in this study, SUBDUE and MOSS, for all three learning methods.
This study examined associations among family type (single-earner vs. dual-earner families of sons and daughters), parent sensitivity, marital adjustment, infant emotionality, infant–mother attachment, and infant–father attachment. Participants included 77 families who were observed in the laboratory at 4, 12, and 13 months. Similar to several previous studies, results indicated that boys from dual-earner families were more likely to have insecure attachments with their fathers but not with their mothers. In addition, fathers of sons in dual-earner households were less sensitive at 4 months and reported less affection in their marriages than did fathers in several other groups; sons were more negatively emotional toward mothers whereas infants in dual-earner families were more negatively emotional toward fathers during still-face at 4 months. Finally, family type moderated the effect that maternal sensitivity had on infant–mother attachment and the effect that infant negative emotionality had on infant–father attachment.
The nature and quality of adolescents' attachments to peers and parents were assessed with the newly developed Inventory of Adolescent Attachments. The relative influence on measures of self-esteem and life satisfaction of relations with peers and with parents was then investigated in a hierarchical regression model. The sample consisted of 213 adolescents ranging from 12 to 19 years of age. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) The quality of perceived attachments both to parents and peers would be related to well-being, and (2) the quality of parental relationships would be a more powerful predictor of well-being than would the quality of peer relationships. Confirming the study's hypotheses, the perceived quality of the adolescents' relationships to both peers and parents, their frequency of utilization of peers, and their degree of negative life change were significantly related to both measures of well-being. The quality of attachment to parents was significantly more powerful than that to peers in predicting well-being. In addition, quality of attachment to parents showed a moderating effect under conditions of high life stress on the measures of self-esteem. The study suggests that it is useful to consider the quality of attachments to significant others as an important variable throughout the life span.
The results of two studies are reported. Study I involved the development of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), a self-report instrument for use with adolescents. Subject were 179 college students aged 16-20 years. Item content of the instrument was suggested by attachment theory's formulations concerning the nature of feelings toward attachment figures. In Study II, the convergent validity of the IPPA was examined. Also, a hierarchial regression model was employed to investigate the association between quality of attachment and self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and affective status. Respondents were 86 adolescents from the Study I sample. As hypothesized, perceived quality of both parent and peer attachments was significantly related to psychological well-being. Results of the development of a theoretically focused, exploratory classification scheme indicated that adolescents classified as highly securely attached reported greater satisfaction with themselves, a higher likelihood of seeking social support, and less symptomatic response to stressful life events.
Allegations of family violence, child abuse, and alienation often occur in the same contested child custody case. Custody eval-uators often are poorly trained in forensic assessment of allegations of domestic violence and allegations of alienation. The authors of this article suggest language that is designed to differentiate between cases in which the term alienation is appropriate, as in non-abuse cases, and when it is best to use other language such as estrangementsabotaging, and counter productive protective parenting in cases where there is abuse. This article describes a decision tree that is designed to assist evaluators in identifying the causes of multiple allegations of maltreatment and abuse.
Decisions regarding custody and access are most often made without reference to the research on child development, although this literature can be useful in conceptualizing children's needs after separation and divorce. Research on attachment processes, separation from attachment figures, and the roles of mothers and fathers in promoting psychosocial adjustment are reviewed in this article. It concludes with a discussion of the implications for young children's parenting schedules.
This chapter has several major aims. The first is to provide an overview of attachment theory as presented by John Bowlby in the three volumes of Attachmenat nd Loss( 1969/1982b, 1973, 1980), giving special emphasis to two major ideas: (1) attachment as grounded in a motivational-behavioral control system that is preferentially responsive to a small number of familiar caregiving figures and (2) the construction of complementary internal working models of attachment figures and of the self through which the history
of specific attachment relationships is integrated into the personality structure.
These two concepts, but especially the notion of internal working models, will be used in the second section of the chapter to interpret refinements and elaborations of the theory that have been primarily the result of the work and influence of Mary Ainsworth. Topics discussed are maternal and infant contributions to the quality of attachment relationships, stability and change in the quality of attachment relationships, carryover
effects from earlier to later relationships, and intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns as an intracultural and cross-cultural phenomenon. An attempt is made to clarify a variety of theoretical points and to discuss others that remain to be clarified. Finally, I consider how recent insights into the development of socioemotional understanding and the development of event representation can be integrated into attachment theory to shed new light on the origins of individual differences in personality development. In doing so, I have also attempted to provide a framework for the studies presented in this volume.
Interpersonal relationships are pivotal for studying psychopathology in general and devel- opmental psychopathology in particular. This is so at multiple levels of analysis, from defining psychopathology, to describing preconditions and contexts, and to understanding its origins and nature. For example, relationship problems often are markers of disturbance, and the diagnosis of disorder often centers on relationship considerations. From social phobias to conduct problems to psychotic disorders, across the whole range of problems in childhood and adulthood, distur- bances in interpersonal relationships are prominent criteria for classification in psychopa- thology. Thus, when there is psychological disturbance, interpersonal relationships also are likely to be disturbed. Given the critical importance of relationships in human adaptation, this is not surprising. This role of relationship problems as markers of pathology would, in and of itself, be sufficient grounds for emphasizing the developmental study of relationships for the field of psychopathology. But this is only the beginning. Social relationships also are viewed by many theorists as important contexts within which psychopathology emerges and persists or desists. Psychogenic positions on pathology all focus on relationships, whether this be social learning experiences, the isolation and anomie empha- sized by sociological models, or the emphasis on vital close relationships in psychodynamic and evolutionary positions (Lazare,1973). Research on risk and protective factors in Psychopa- thology, as well as process-oriented research involving moderator and mediator variables, commonly grants a prominent role for relationship variables. For some problems, such as con- duct disorders (Dodge, Chapter 24, this volume), relationship experiences clearly play a domi- nant role. But all disorders develop in context (e.g., Lewis, 1984; Sameroff,1997; Sroufe, 1997), and relationships with caregivers, peers, and others are a critical part of the child's de- velopmental context.
This study of custody disputing families tests competing hypothesis about the correlates of children's alignment with one parent and rejection of the other. Hypotheses include: (a) parental alienation by the aligned parent, (b) abuse by the rejected parent, and (c) boundary diffusion or role reversal in the family. The data were coded from clinical research records of 125 children referred from family courts for custody evaluation or custody counseling. The findings support a multi-factor explanation of children's rejection of a parent with both the aligned and rejected parents contributing to the problem, together with role reversal in parent-child relationships.
The phenomena of impasse and rupture in the psychotherapy relationship have been discussed mostly in terms of the dynamics of the therapist-patient dyad. Therapist alienation identifies the disruptive impact of third-party contamination of the patient's therapeutic alliance with the therapist. Therapist alienation and its intrafamilial cousin, parental alienation, are examined here from an attachment perspective, emphasizing the role of the cognitive schemas underlying each relationship. Case examples are drawn from the author's experience conducting psychotherapy with children of highly conflicted caregivers. Specific recommendations are offered to minimize the likelihood of therapeutic rupture due to therapist alienation. How to respond when and if therapist alienation is suspected and future directions for clinical work, empirical research, and legal process are discussed.
This study assessed whether three forms of maternal views (recall of her own parental acceptance, the sense of self, and perceptions of the child) are related to each other and to mother–child interaction. The Mother–Father–Peer Scale was sent to mothers of infants between the ages of 11 and 19 months; 37 mothers were selected as extremes on the basis of the Acceptance subscale. Ss were observed in their homes using Ainsworth-type observations. Ainsworth's Maternal Sensitivity Scale, Dyadic Physical Avoidance Scale, and Dyadic Harmony Classification were used. Mothers were sent questionnaires assessing the sense of self and perceptions of the child. There was 84% concordant classification between recall of parental acceptance and the observationally assessed dyadic harmony classification. Furthermore, mothers' recall of parental acceptance, perception of infant responsiveness, covert anxiety, and the observational measures showed intriguing relationships with each other.
Guidelines for custody evaluations recommend multiple ways for assessing the parent-child relationship and outline appropriate means of assessing special issues such as domestic violence, child abuse, and substance use. However, little is known about the implementation of these guidelines in practice. This study examines 60% of custody evaluations in one circuit court over a 2-year period. Custody evaluations were examined for adherence to guidelines and for differences based on evaluator training. This analysis suggests much variety in techniques used and a lack of consistency between guidelines and clinical practice. The findings suggest a need for more standardized approaches to conducting custody evaluations as well as the assessment of domestic violence, child abuse, and substance abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The goal of this study was to specify relations between internal working models of attachment (IWM) and conflict management behaviors in a sample of young adults involved in romantic relationships. One hundred forty-five romantic couples were recruited to address this goal. All participants were administered the Adult Attachment Interview (C. George, N. Kaplan, & M. Main, 1996) and observed across 2 experimental conditions designed to simulate waiting room and conflict management contexts. As expected, individual differences in IWM predicted positive and negative conflict management behavior. The IWM of the young women predicted more positive behavior across interactions, whereas the IWM of the young men predicted more negative behavior in the conflict management condition. Individuals who were unresolved regarding loss or trauma and who displayed considerable attachment insecurity were particularly vulnerable to more negative behavior, particularly in terms of exhibiting controlling behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 3 studies the authors explored the impact of chronic and temporary accessibility of attachment working models on cognitive openness in the realm of close relationships. In Study 1, participants rated their attachment style and perceptions of their romantic partner. In Study 2, they recalled a relationship defined by a particular attachment orientation and rated perceptions of the targeted partner. Study 3 was similar to Study 1, but secure attachment was primed for half of the participants. In all the studies, cognitive openness was assessed by changes in the perception of the partner after being exposed to information that disconfirmed expectations. Secure attachment was related to higher cognitive openness and better recall of expectation-incongruent information, mainly when this information was positively valued. The discussion emphasizes the implications of the chronic and contextual aspects of attachment working models for information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined associations among family type (single-earner vs. dual-earner families of sons and daughters), parent sensitivity, marital adjustment, infant emotionality, infant–mother attachment, and infant–father attachment. Participants included 77 families who were observed in the laboratory at 4, 12, and 13 months. Similar to several previous studies, results indicated that boys from dual-earner families were more likely to have insecure attachments with their fathers but not with their mothers. In addition, fathers of sons in dual-earner households were less sensitive at 4 months and reported less affection in their marriages than did fathers in several other groups; sons were more negatively emotional toward mothers whereas infants in dual-earner families were more negatively emotional toward fathers during still-face at 4 months. Finally, family type moderated the effect that maternal sensitivity had on infant–mother attachment and the effect that infant negative emotionality had on infant–father attachment.
What is the current state of professional practice among child custody evaluators, and how congruent is current practice with the 1994 American Psychological Association (APA) “Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluations in Divorce Proceedings” (APA Guidelines; APA, 1994)? A national survey of 198 psychologists revealed a high degree of training and experience among respondents and an increased understanding of procedural issues. Evaluators reported using multiple sources of data collection, critical decision-making skills, and knowledge of ethical, legal, and risk management issues. Overall, child custody evaluations appear to have become more sophisticated and comprehensive during the past 15 years, with current practices and procedures adhering to APA Guidelines.
Data from 2 separate projects were examined to address the stability of infant–parent attachment security. Both included infant–mother attachment classifications at 12 and 18 mo of age (
n = 125,
n = 90), and 1 included infant–father classifications at 13 and 20 mo (
n = 120). Significant stability was not discerned in attachment security, either at the level of ABC or secure–insecure classifications. Rates of stability ranged from 46–55%. Results are discussed in terms of the select nature of the samples studied (all sons in 1, some depressed mothers in the other), the fact that past estimates of stability are based on small samples, the potential influence that coding for disorganized behavior may have on how Strange Situations are classified, and the changing ecology of infancy over the past 10–15 years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
When processing gender-related information, children have difficulty remembering materials that are counterstereotypic or that are associated more strongly with the other sex. The question of whether encoding difficulties account for these memory problems was investigated. Children (kindergarten through Grade 3) were shown pictures of men and women in traditional, nontraditional, or neutral roles. Some children were given stimulus labels at acquisition to simplify the encoding task. Free-recall data revealed biases in the direction of gender stereotypes, irrespective of label vs no-label conditions (Studies 1 and 2) and of slower vs faster presentation rates (Study 2). Results suggest that an inability to encode at acquisition is probably not the major cause of gender-related biases observed in later recall and have implications for the development of intervention programs designed to reduce gender-schematic processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This consultation case, which took place in the State of New Jersey, consisted of a number of assessments of a “parafoster” (i.e., de facto foster care) child between the ages of 25 and 34 months in connection with permanency decisions. The child had been in parafoster care from age 1 month and had formed a profound attachment to her caretaker. She began to display distress and severe behavioral reactions immediately prior to and immediately following visits with her birth parents. In this case study, the question of permanency for this child is approached from the perspective of developmental theory regarding attachment, empirical studies of the effects of disturbed attachment, and the observed clinical data, as well as considerations involving the fitness of the birth parents. Overall, the case exemplifies how, when child protective systems place the child's needs first, there are often situations in which the child's best interests are served by a case goal of adoption by long-term caretakers, even though the birth parents may have been rehabilitated and may be caring successfully for 1 or more of the child's older or younger siblings.
A reanalysis of M. J. Ackerman and M. C. Ackerman's (1997) figures on the frequency of use of psychological tests with adults and children in custody evaluations was undertaken. The analysis revealed that, contrary to widely held opinion, nothing approaching a
standard of practice for test use in custody evaluations exists other than an estimated 84% frequency of use of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in the assessment of adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Couples were studied before and after the birth of their 1st child to understand processes by which marital conflict influences child development. Hypotheses were tested concerning direct and indirect processes relating marital conflict to the security of infant–mother and infant–father attachment and disorganized attachment behavior. Findings supported the prediction that chronic marital conflict interferes with sensitive, involved parenting and thereby predicts insecurity in attachment relationships, particularly for fathers. It was also argued that chronic marital conflict presents the infant with experiences of frightened or frightening parents and diminished behavioral options to alleviate accompanying distress. As predicted, disorganized attachment behavior with mother and father was explained by chronic marital conflict and not mediated by parental ego development or sensitive parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Children exposed to co-parents' conflict commonly experience distress and dysfunction. When various therapies and psychoeducational programs fail to adequately resolve this conflict, co-parents are left to bring their disputes into an overburdened and adversarial court system. Directed co-parenting intervention (DCI) offers a new approach to assisting conflicted caregivers to better meet their children's needs. DCI intends to (re)establish consistent, child-centered structures within and between the caregiving environments through parallel interventions in order to relieve the children's emotional burden and keep the family system out of court. DCI is most appropriate for intractably conflicted co-parents with a history of failed conjoint interventions. Counterindications for this intervention and directions for future empirical study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study utilized a theory-specific measure to examine client relational change over the course of time-limited dynamic psychotherapy in 84 Ss (aged 26–64 yrs). Specifically, this study examined change and stability in clients' attachment style. Categorical and dimensional ratings attachment styles were obtained. Pretreatment and posttreatment measures of attachment styles were then examined in association with Global Assessment Scale (GAS) scores and symptoms. Results show that at posttreatment, a significant number of clients were evaluated as having changed from an insecure to a secure attachment style. Additionally, the sample as a whole demonstrated significant changes toward increased secure attachment. Significant relationships were also found among changes in attachment style, GAS scores, and symptom levels. Implications for psychodynamic/interpersonal psychotherapy research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors address commentaries by J. Cassidy (2003), E. M. Cummings (2003). L. A. Sroufe (2003). and E. Waters and T. P. Beauchaine (2003) on their taxometric analysis of Strange Situation behavior (R. C. Fraley & S. J. Spieker, 2003) by discussing four questions: Has the categorical model of attachment facilitated theoretical and empirical innovations in the field? How does a continuum of security fit into the two-dimensional model? What is the role of types and dimensions in understanding the function and organization of behavior? and Is dimensionality a null hypothesis in taxometric research? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Relations between attachment security and temperament were studied in 6 samples. Ages at temperament assessments ranged from 5 to 42 mo and attachment security was assessed between 12 and 45 mo. Attachment security was assessed using the Waters and Deane Attachment Behavior Q-set. Principal component analyses were used with the temperament data, and scores for the 1st component (Emotional Reactivity) served as correlates of attachment security. Analyses revealed significant associations between temperament and attachment at all ages when mothers completed both instruments, and when Q-sorts were independent from maternal temperament perceptions, temperament and attachment security correlations reached significance for older children. These results may help clarify relations between the domains of attachment and temperament, rather than affirm distinctions between them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies were conducted to examine the correlates of adult attachment. In Study 1, an 18-item scale to measure adult attachment style dimensions was developed based on Hazan and Shaver's (1987) categorical measure. Factor analyses revealed three dimensions underlying this measure: the extent to which an individual is comfortable with closeness, feels he or she can depend on others, and is anxious or fearful about such things as being abandoned or unloved. Study 2 explored the relation between these attachment dimensions and working models of self and others. Attachment dimensions were found to be related to self-esteem, expressiveness, instrumentality, trust in others, beliefs about human nature, and styles of loving. Study 3 explored the role of attachment style dimensions in three aspects of ongoing dating relationships: partner matching on attachment dimensions; similarity between the attachment of one's partner and caregiving style of one's parents; and relationship quality, including communication, trust, and satisfaction. Evidence was obtained for partner matching and for similarity between one's partner and one's parents, particularly for one's opposite-sex parent. Dimensions of attachment style were strongly related to how each partner perceived the relationship, although the dimension of attachment that best predicted quality differed for men and women. For women, the extent to which their partner was comfortable with closeness was the best predictor of relationship quality, whereas the best predictor for men was the extent to which their partner was anxious about being abandoned or unloved.
Examined the stability of a firstborn child's quality of attachment to the mother during the period from the last trimester of the mother's 2nd pregnancy through the early postpartum period. 20 White, middle- to upper-middle-class infants (mean age 16.3 mo at 1st observation) whose mothers were pregnant with a 2nd child were compared to 20 sex-, age-, and SES-matched only-children of nonpregnant mothers. Attachment was assessed with an experimental procedure identical to the Strange Situation (M. Ainsworth et al; 1978). A 2nd pregnancy and the birth of a sibling were significantly associated with instability in the mother–firstborn attachment.
In-depth child custody evaluations can be critical in forming an accurate understanding of families in which alienation of children is a concern. By integrating interview and psychological test data of parents and children along with collateral information the evaluator can differentiate an alienated child from children with other forms of parental rejection and can form a thorough understanding of the multiple contributants to the alienation. This comprehensive and integrated understanding is then used to develop a clear and specific intervention plan.
In this article, controversies and problems with parental alienation syndrome are discussed. A reformulation focusing on the alienated child is proposed, and these children are clearly distinguished from other children who resist or refuse contact with a parent following separation or divorce for a variety of normal, expectable reasons, including estrangement. A systemic array of contributing factors are described that can create and/or consolidate alienation in children, including intense marital conflict, a humiliating separation, parental personalities and behaviors, protracted litigation, and professional mismanagement. These factors are understood in the context of the child's capacities and vulnerabilities.
Most infants form attachments to both of their parents at roughly the same age. These relationships are consolidated by continued interactions, ideally in a broad array of contexts, whether or not the parents live together. The mechanisms underlying the formation and consolidation of relationships with both parents appear to be similar, although most infants establish preferential relationship with the persons who take major responsibility for their care. When parents separate, children often experience distress, and their adjustment is adversely affected when the relationship with one of their parents is severed. This can be avoided by developing parenting plans that continue to ensure that children have regular interaction with both parents in a broad array of contexts. Overnight periods provide opportunities for many important interactions.
This investigation was designed to answer the research question: Does a relationship exist between (a) family role behavior as measured by the Children's Role Inventory and (b) family functioning as measured by the Family Functioning Scale (FFS), interpersonal attachment characteristics as measured by the Bell Object Relations Inventory (BORI), and gender? One hundred fourteen undergraduate students at a Southern university completed the above instruments. One canonical root was found to be significant; its canonical correlation was .81, p < .0001. All four family-role factors of the CRI, all four interpersonal attachment variables of the BORI, and three interpersonal attachment variables of the FFS were highly correlated with the canonical variable. A MANOVA for CRI subscales scores revealed no gender differences.
The present essay specifies some problems in the Piagetian characterizations of assimilation and accommodation and offers an alternative formulation intended to resolve some conceptual anomalies. The dynamics underlying the orthogenetic principle of Werner are derived from this revised and restricted conceptualization of assimilation and accommodation as separable adaptive strategies. Piaget's views on the development of thought are then related to the domain of personality. Equilibration, according to Piaget the "motive" for cognitive growth, is argued to be a manifestation of the individual's orientation to limit anxiety by maintaining or constructing an understanding of the world that is not disconfirmed. This view of equilibrium permits the encompassment of a variety of observations that otherwise seem disparate (e. g., regarding the dynamics of anxiety, the concepts of resiliency or competence, and sex differences).
The extent and function of the parent-child bond, conceptualized according to Ainsworth's (M.D.S. Ainsworth, M. C. Blehar, E. Walters, and S. Wally [1978],Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation, Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ) model of attachment, was explored for a group of first-year college students (N=173) at a selective, prestigious, northeastern university. Overall, students' descriptions of their parental relationships were positive and resembled Ainsworth's secure attachment type. Most students viewed their parents as a secure base, encouraging independence and remaining available as a source of support when needed. Furthermore, students indicated that they sought parental help more than a moderate amount in situations of stress. For female students, close parental relationships were found to be positively associated with self-reports of assertion.
The aims of this study were (1) to test for independence in the quality of the infant's attachment to each parent, (2) to test the concept of security by viewing infants judged secure versus insecure with mother in a situation designed to arouse mild apprehension, (3) to examine the effects of existing infant-parent relationships upon positive social responsiveness to new persons, and (4) to identify characteristics of infants judged unclassifiable within the Ainsworth system. In the first part of the study 61 infants were seen with different parents in the Ainsworth strange situation at 12 and 18 months. Classifications with mother and with father were independent; father as well as mother categories were stable over an 8-month period. 44 infants were additionally seen with mother at 12 months in a play session in which an adult actor attempted to establish a friendly relationship. Conflict behavior occurred in infants judged nonsecure with mother. The relationship to father as well as to mother appeared to affect friendly responsiveness to the adult actor. Infants unclassifiable within the Ainsworth system (12.5%) showed conflict and little positive responsiveness to the adult actor.
The parents of Amy (age 10) and Kevin (age 7) are divorcing after 13 years of marriage. Their father, by temporary stipulation, has moved from the marital home. He is entitled to visit with the children on alternating weekends and one evening during the week. Soon the children begin to refuse to go with him. At first, they do not want to leave Mom; they say that they are afraid to go. When Dad comes to the house, Mom tells him that she will "not force the children to go." "Visitation is up to them." and she will "not interfere in their decision". The children refuse to talk with him on the phone. Mom calls him names when he telephones and complains constantly about her financial situation, blaming him, all within hearing of the children. Dad attempts to talk with the children about the situation, then to bribe them with movies, shopping trips and toys. They become more and more sullen with him and resistant to coming. Anything, routine doctor visits, invitations from a friend, a visit to Aunt Beth, serves as an excuse to avoid visits. A court appointed guardian ad litem learns from the children that "Dad is abusive and mean to us." They do not want to go on visits. However, when asked to give specific examples of how he is abusive, their stories ale not convincing. "He yells too loud when we make noise." "He made me climb all the way to the top of a mountain." "He gets mad at me about my homework." "He makes me wear my bike helmet." "He pounds the wall to get us up in the morning and it makes me afraid that he'll hit me." They say that he has never hit them, although they state that they ale very afraid that he will. These children are in the process of becoming alienated from their father.
This study compared three ways of analyzing individual mother-infant attachment behaviors in order to test the hypothesis that success in the search for stable individual differences in attachment behavior is in part a function of the level at which behavior individuality is assessed. Fifty infants were videotaped in the Ainsworth and Wittig Strange Situation at 12 and 18 months of age. Three different assessments of individual differences were employed: (1) time samples of discrete behaviors directed toward adults (look, glance, vocalize, etc.); (2) rating of categories of behavior directed toward adults (proximity seeking, contact maintaining, crying, etc.); and (3) a classification scheme based on profiles which combine several of the rated behavior categories. Results indicated that evidence for the stability of individual differences was a function of the level of analysis. The reliability of discrete behavior variables was typically very low, and there was little evidence of temporal stability. There was clear evidence for stable individual differences in the analysis of behavior category data. Classification data based largely on reunion behavior and crying were even more stable across the six month interval. These classifications have a variety of theoretically significant correlates in non-Strange Situation behavior from early infancy into the third year of life. (Author/SB)
In this response to Walker et al. (2004), we explain our perspective, recent research, and recommendations in order to correct some misunderstandings of our work on alienated children. Then we address some important issues that Walker et al. have raised that deserve the attention of the field. These include whether a child necessarily needs a relationship with both parents; when we should give children their own voice and respect their self-determination, whether children who reject a parent are significantly emotionally troubled or at-risk for emotional or mental disorders in the future; and whether they need court-ordered intervention (despite the child's and aligned parent's resistance or objections). Finally, we address what are the nature, purpose, and prognosis for mandated treatment.
This study analyzed sixteen cases which appeared to meet Dr. Richard Gardner's criteria for parental alienation syndrome as set forth in his 1987 book. These cases showed a wide diversity of characteristics but Gardner's criteria were useful in differentiating these cases from other post-divorce difficulties. Traditional interventions were ineffective in altering the alienation.
Using case studies ranging from the Salem Witch Hunt to the Little Rascals Day Care case to illustrate their argument, "Jeopardy in the Courtroom" draws from the vast corpus of scientific research to clarify what is most relevant for evaluating and understanding children's statements made in the legal arena. Bringing good sense to a topic that is as timely as it is controversial, Ceci and Bruck provide prevalence and incidence statistics on child abuse, provide theoretical overviews of memory and suggestibility, trace the history of research on suggestibility from the turn of the century to the present, explore the dynamics of structured and therapeutic interviews with children, examine the topic of recovery of repressed memories of early childhood abuse, evaluate the research regarding age differences in the reliability of children's reports, and propose general guidelines for interviewing children in a sensitive and professional manner.
Written in lively, accessible language by acknowledged experts in the field, this book will be an invaluable guide for expert witnesses and all those who work with child witnesses, including therapists, social workers, law enforcement personnel, and lawyers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation are evolving clinical concepts. They are controversial. Their limits, the limits of the legal system, and recent developments in the use and admissibility of expert evidence call into question the appropriateness of their use within the trial process.
Expert testimony on unsubstantiated social science syndromes such as the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) has been increasingly admitted in courtrooms across the United States. This is a problem because a trier of fact is making a determination based on theories that are inaccurate or incorrect. To remedy this, the standards of admissibility for expert testimony must be heightened. The broad discretion given to trial judges in determining admissibility should be reevaluated and a new rule of evidence for social science testimony should be adopted.
Two new scales of parental care and overprotection, and their combination as a Parental Bonding Instrument, are described. On measurements of reliability and validity the scales appear to be acceptable, and are independent of the parent's sex. It would appear that mothers are perceived as significantly more caring and slightly more overprotective than fathers, but that those judgements are not influenced by the sex of the child. Overprotection appears to be associated with lack of care. The scales and scoring method are appended. Norms for a general Sydney population are presented, and the possible influence of age, sex and social class examined.
In one of two samples discussed in this article, 41% of 24 consecutively referred latency-age children were aligned with one parent in a divorce. In a separate sample of 20 families, both parents of aligned children were more rigid, naively defended, and less emotive than were parents of nonaligned children. Aligned children preferred the more emotive, problem solving, and outgoing of the two parents. Aligned children were less adept at conceptualizing complex problems than were nonaligned children, but they were more self-confident.
Sixty White middle-class infants were seen in the Ainsworth Strange Situation at 12 months of age; 50 of these participants (21 males, 29 females) were recontacted 20 years later and interviewed by using the Berkeley Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). The interviewers were blind to the participants' Strange Situation classifications. Overall, 72% of the infants received the same secure versus insecure attachment classification in early adulthood, κ= .44, p < .001. As predicted by attachment theory, negative life events—defined as (1) loss of a parent, (2) parental divorce, (3) life-threatening illness of parent or child (e.g., diabetes, cancer, heart attack), (4) parental psychiatric disorder, and (5) physical or sexual abuse by a family member—were an important factor in change. Forty-four percent (8 of 18) of the infants whose mothers reported negative life events changed attachment classifications from infancy to early adulthood. Only 22% (7 of 32) of the infants whose mothers reported no such events changed classification, p < .05. These results support Bowlby's hypothesis that individual differences in attachment security can be stable across significant portions of the lifespan and yet remain open to revision in light of experience. The task now is to use a variety of research designs, measurement strategies, and study intervals to clarify the mechanisms underlying stability and change.
Kelly and Lamb (2000) recently provided a summary of the attachment literature and a set of guidelines for visitation and custody for young children in divorced and separated families. Here, Solomon and Biringen review the same literature with an eye to critically evaluating these guidelines, especially the suggestion that more, rather than fewer, transitions between parents are appropriate for very young children. Three types of empirical findings raise questions regarding the appropriateness of Kelly and Lamb's guidelines. These include differences in the development of infant-mother and infant-father attachments, young children's sensitivity to overnight separations from the primary caregiver, and the possibility of infant preferences for primary versus secondary caregivers in times of stress. The authors argue that considerably more rigorous research is required before submitting Kelly and Lamb's suggestion to social policy.
The impact of early close relationships on psychological development is one of the enduring questions of developmental psychology that is addressed by attachment theory and research. This essay evaluates what has been learned, and offers ideas for future research, by examining the origins of continuity and change in the security of attachment early in life, and its prediction of later behavior. The discussion evaluates research on the impact of changing family circumstances and quality of care on changes in attachment security, and offers new hypotheses for future study. Considering the representations (or internal working models) associated with attachment security as developing representations, the discussion proposes that (1) attachment security may be developmentally most influential when the working models with which it is associated have sufficiently matured to influence other emerging features of psychosocial functioning; (2) changes in attachment security are more likely during periods of representational advance; and (3) parent–child discourse and other relational influences shape these developing representations after infancy. Finally, other features of early parent–child relationships that develop concurrently with attachment security, including negotiating conflict and establishing cooperation, also must be considered in understanding the legacy of early attachments.