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Whores, Slaves and Stallions: Languages of Exploitation and Accommodation among Boxers
Abstract
This article draws on 35 months of ethnographic fieldwork and apprenticeship in a boxing gym located in Chicago's black ghetto to explicate how prizefighters apperceive and express the fact of being live commodities of flesh and blood, and how they practically reconcile themselves to ruthless exploitation in ways that enable them to maintain a sense of personal integrity and moral purpose. The boxer's experience of corporeal exploitation is expressed in three kindred idioms, those of prostitution, slavery and animal husbandry. The first likens the fighter-manager combo to the prostitute-pimp duo; the second depicts the ring as a plantation and promoters as latter-day slave masters; the third intimates that boxers are used in the manner of livestock. All three tropes simultaneously enounce and denounce the immoral marketing of disquiescent bodies. But this acute consciousness is neutralized by the doxic belief in the normalcy of exploitation, in the `agency' of corporeal entrepreneurship, and in the possibility of individual exceptionalism. This practical belief, inscribed in the bodily dispositions of the fighter, helps produce the collective misrecognition whereby boxers collude in their own commercialization.
... There seems to be an existing assumption that boxing participation correlates with criminal desistance, and boxing has long been viewed as a successful "hook for change" (Giordano, Cernkovich, andRudolph 2002, 1001). Various scholars have written about how the gym can act as a site for both change and accruement of positive elements to offending lifestyles, Jump 2015Jump , 2016Søgaard et al. 2016;Trimbur 2009;Wacquant 2004;Wright 2006), and it is often presumed that simple participation in the sport can actually reduce criminal activity (Cox 2012;McMahon and Belur 2013). As Anthony Joshua's and many other's stories (for example, "Tyson Fury: I'd be Dead or in Jail without Boxing" [Rai 2014]) seem to suggest, they merely punched their way to greatness. ...
... In boxing, the contextual discourse and norms are ones of bravery, masculine pride, and fighting through pain, and this is further evidenced by historical tropes such as "no pain, no gain," and other various media and local adages supporting this norm. As Wacquant (2001) identified, boxing mythology tells the story of how marginalized men "heroically struggle, change and succeed as self-made men in the most literal sense" [Sogaard 2016, 105], and this in itself, is part of the masculine appeal. Applying these concepts to our research, we enabled the young men to situate their masculine accomplishments in a hyper-masculine sport, and further construct an honest, discursive, and ...
... We appreciate that while a small study, it still provides a valid contribution to the field of sport and desistance. Building on previous international work into boxing and desistance (Wacquant 2001;Søgaard et al. 2016;Deuchar et al. 2016;Jump 2017), we have demonstrated how the sport is beneficial in "hooking" young men and developing masculinized versions of desistance stories. The use of boxing as an activity is well established among those that work with young people, and it is unique in the sense that it provides a space that allows for defeat without shame. ...
This article discusses the relationship between the sport of boxing and desistance from crime. Working with young men in the English youth justice system, we co-developed a boxing workshop to explore the ways in which boxing creates avenues for the accomplishment of masculinity, and how these masculine scripts map onto desistance narratives and vice versa. We suggest that the sport of boxing is beneficial as an engagement tool, and demonstrates the power of sport in working with young men at risk of, or currently entrenched in criminal justice systems. We propose that the development of desistance narratives allowed the young men in this study to situate their masculine accomplishments in a hyper-masculine sport, and construct a narrative identity that reflected an openness to change. We propose that while boxing can be a beneficial vehicle for change, youth justice systems and funders of boxing programs need to think more strategically about the use of the sport.
... While he concludes that only the last of these criticisms is logically sustainable, they each merit further scrutiny. Also deserving of consideration are concerns that boxing might be exploitative of vulnerable young people [27,28], and assertions that in civilised nations the sport is essentially in breach of legislation relating to assault and battery [25]. ...
... A group of Afro-American professional boxers studied by Wacquant [28] recognised their corporeal exploitation and described it as having parallels with prostitution, slavery and animal husbandry. The boxermanager relationship was likened to that between prostitute and pimp and the boxer-marketeerrelationship was Nevertheless, they regarded their exploitation as normal and this, combined with other practical beliefs, arguably made them complicit in it. ...
The purpose of this review is to establish current knowledge in regard to the legal, medical, ethical and moral concerns of participating in boxing.The review also presents a case for boxing by highlighting the social and physical benefits associated with participation. It summarises, interprets, and critically evaluates the existing literature and introduces a safer alternative Box’Tag.
... Secondly, she used compassion strategically as a survival strategy when she begged and keeps resorting to this emotion explicitly, which frames the exchange in any case, while selling the paper. She is able to do so without drifting towards miserabilism by the adoption of a 'professional idiom' (Wacquant, 2000) about the selling: In both cases she has clients -as other vendors also remark 33 -whose privacy one has to respect. The money offered transforms the passer-by into a fleeting benefactor in relation to the vendor's misfortunes and, at the same time, a client both of the paper and of the spectacle of social suffering that the vendor represents. ...
... 25 As it is well know, these concepts belong to Bourdieu's conceptual apparatus (see, for example, Bourdieu, 1990). Wacquant (2000) gives a very specific example of how these concepts apply to and help construct our object of research. As Wacquant explains in his case study of prize-fighters, a 'doxic belief' consists in a practical and embodied belief that help reconcile oneself with what collective misrecognition denies, i.e., in Wacquant's study, the reality of the prize-fighters' commercialization or, in my case study, the reality of the ethos of compassion. ...
... In some schools, violence is harnessed to spiritual ends – for instance, the Zen practice embedded in Japanese martial arts – meanwhile eradicating the effects of violence, annihilating violence itself, and even employing martial techniques to enhance peace, as in Aikido ¯ training (Stevens, 1997, 2001; see also Jones, 2002, and in particular Donohue, 2002). In other training settings this potentiality embedded in the body and in practice can be engaged to create a change in life course (Wacquant, 2001, 2004) 1 to reinforce ethnic identity, such as Vietnamese ethnicity in Australia (Carruthers, 1998) and Japanese ethnicity in the United States (Donohue, 1990). Elsewhere, such as in the Israeli Survival School of Ju Jutsu – which I will refer to also as 'Survival' – and the wrestling school in North India described by Joseph Alter (1992, 1993), martial practice is harnessed to form an alternative meaning for national duty as it is perceived in the particular school. ...
... Notes 1 Wacquant (2001, 2004 ...
■ Nationalism is the untenable union of the impersonal, mechanistic, bureaucratic logic of the state and the intimate, emotional, organic logic of the nation. While practicing martial arts, the participants at the Israeli Survival School of Ju Jutsu create a utopian Israeliness, using bits of state-national understandings to form a family-like organicity. At the North Indian school of wrestling described by Joseph Alter, too, an organic utopian nationalism is practiced into existence through meticulous care for the body itself. A comparison between those modes of embodying the national, set in very different cultural and national realities, reveals not only different understandings of the national and of its organic nature, but also different uses of semiotic mechanisms. Whereas the Israeli world of the Survival School is based on representation, the Indian one is constructed from the body and the environment, set in dense connectedness forming this world in and of itself.
... Tussen de verschillende betrokkenen in de bokswereld bestaan ongelijke verhoudingen. Het idioom dat wordt gebruikt kent metaforen die ontleend zijn aan prostitutie, slavernij of veeteelt (Wacquant, 2001a). De uitbuiting die doorklinkt, is steeds ten nadele van de bokser. ...
... Alguns estudos identificaram particularidades nos usos do corpo para grupos sociais de baixa renda e/ou de trabalhadores no que diz respeito à realização de práticas corporais [8][9][10][11][12][13] . Entretanto, parte dessas pesquisas tangenciou as análises em torno das concepções simbólicas de dores e, sobretudo, as vinculando ao campo da Saúde. ...
Resumo Este artigo faz parte de uma pesquisa etnográfica desenvolvida durante um ano no setor de musculação de uma academia de ginástica em um bairro da cidade do Rio de Janeiro cujos alunos são de baixa renda e, em sua maioria, trabalham em ocupações ou ofícios profissionais com alta demanda de esforço físico. Através da perspectiva antropológica do interacionismo simbólico, o objetivo foi analisar em que medida os “limites” corporais relacionados às dores citadas pelos alunos na academia representavam simbolicamente as relações entre o trabalho corporal na musculação e os esforços físicos exigidos nas suas ocupações ou ofícios profissionais. As análises das observações indicaram que esses alunos concebiam o corpo de modo instrumental e utilitário ao relacionarem as dores do exercício físico ao trabalho cotidiano. Assim, fica implícita a relação entre as atividades laborais e físicas nas representações dos “limites” corporais desses sujeitos expressas através da dor. Esses dados são relevantes para se pensar as intervenções e as práticas sanitárias no campo da Saúde Coletiva.
... Broadening scope here, further research might be conducted on what this arrangement means in terms of commodification and professional boxing. Professional boxers' bodies are commodified (Wacquant, 2001;Woodward, 2014), and this arguably presents a new form of commodification of the professional boxer, via the sale of the experience of their career in a quickly consumable -though effectively, as I have argued, ersatz -form. ...
Whilst white-collar boxing at first appears to be named according to the social class of its practitioners, this paper will argue that this initial appearance is misleading. Based on the analysis of 32 interviews and six months of ethnographic data collection at a boxing club in the English Midlands, it argues that white-collar boxers do not recognise the classed connotations of the term white-collar, to which sociologists tend to be accustomed. Within this lifeworld, white-collar has become a temporal signifier, referring to a version of the sport in which participation is for beginners and limited to eight weeks, culminating in a public boxing match in front of a large crowd. This eight-week participation model is outlined and identified as being drastically different from other forms of boxing, which are emblematic of modernity. White-collar boxing therefore provides entry into a wider discussion on the social construction of time. Acceleration and condensation of time are routinely discussed in this field, and it is suggested that a conceptual split between condensed and accelerated time allows for this white-collar boxing to be understood. Ultimately, white-collar boxing is theorised as the condensed reproduction of the idealised career of the professional boxer.
... Taken together, the implication is that the boxing gym facilitates feelings of freedom through constraint. There are three idioms through which the prizefighters interviewed by Wacquant (2001) narrate their experience: prostitution, slavery, and animal husbandry-all of which are usually understood as conditions from which escape is sought, rather than themselves being the destinations of escape. Yet, prizefighters find these conditions preferable to other means of work, for the relative freedom being a boxer affords (Wacquant, 1995(Wacquant, , 2004. ...
Capoeira could be defined as a Brazilian martial art and game to be played. This research explored how capoeira play might be considered to facilitate connectedness amongst newly-recruited persons, plus any other ramifications of capoeira involvement. A beginners' course of capoeira was provided to participants, free of charge, in an English city in the West Midlands — new capoeiristas in a new venue for capoeira. Researchers attended classes to collect/construct overt non-participant observation data. In addition, semi-structured interviews were undertaken with the new capoeiristas post-course. This article explores researchers' observation fieldnotes and interviewees' narratives. These qualitative data-driven debates include the concepts: self, identity, escapism, multiparty endeavour, community, temporality, enjoyment, and transcending boundaries. Capoeira is theorised in a fresh manner that highlights social benefits of capoeira – for example as an enjoyable and supportive group endeavour which includes elements of social play and community-building – plus benefits for self that can transcend the boundaries of the class. Findings highlight how capoeira can be considered an inherently multiparty endeavour whereby social actors form, and experience, a community in order to embrace capoeira play. Data suggest capoeira can facilitate group playfulness, joviality, and laughter. Further, capoeiristas can enact and experience – some mode of – escapism via capoeira, whereby new place and pursuit can facilitate hedonistic diversion from the mundane. Capoeira appears to provide adventure and liberation into a relatively unburdened part of, or place in, social life. Corporeal and discursive boundary-empowerment can also be experienced by capoeiristas, fostering positive identity work in the wider world. Capoeira can be argued to facilitate mutuality (e.g., community experience and group work) and egoism (e.g., an individual’s identity work) concurrently. This research suggests that modified capoeira for beginners can be beneficial for both the new capoeiristas themselves and for positive community action during and beyond class
... It's all about the narrative, it's the story … In a way, we sell hot air here. (Patrick, New Start manager) Over the years the boxing mythology, telling the story of how marginalized men through boxing heroically struggle, change and succeed as self-made men in the most literal sense (Wacquant, 2001), has become popularized both through Hollywood productions such as Rocky and Cinderella Man and biographies about famous boxers such as Muhammad Ali. At New Start, this celebrated boxing mythology, reproducing western and especially US core values of individualism and the idealized self-made man (Kimmel, 2006), has been institutionalized as a grand reformatory narrative advocating the importance of individual agency and the possibility of individual change and (masculine) success against all odds. ...
Juvenile justice systems and reformatory institutions hold the potential to help young offenders and drug abusers change their behaviours and life-courses. Driven by an ambition to pave new ways to examine the inner workings of reformatory institutions this study explores how young male offenders’ gendered identities are engaged in a Danish reformatory programme. In recent years existing research on the gendered aspects of reformatory interventions has highlighted how reformatory institutions at times work to promote desistance by problematizing offenders’ and drug-abusers’ performance of hyper-masculinity and by constructing therapeutic spaces where men can reformulate softer versions of masculinity. Contributing to this line of research, this study explores and discusses how reformatory programmes at times also utilize hyper-masculine symbolism and imaginaries to encourage young offenders and drug abusers to engage in narrative re-constructions of identities and to socialize these into new subject positions defined by agency, self-responsibility and behavioural changes.
... 4. An analogous illustration of this theoretical point can be found in Wacquant's (2001) description of the "languages of exploitation" among Chicago prizefighters. Their elevated stocks of pugilistic capital do not prevent them from experiencing economic exploitation and dispossession and existing on the lower end of asymmetrical power relations with managers and organizers, and they express the experience of exploitation by way of "three kindred idioms, those of prostitution, slavery, and animal husbandry" (Wacquant, 2001: 182, emphasis in original). ...
Bourdieu’s key conceptual tools, including the forms of capital and habitus, have recently come to be deployed with greater frequency in criminological research. Less attention has been paid to the concept of the field, which plays a crucial role in Bourdieu’s vision of how the social world operates. We develop the concept of the “street field” as a tool for scholars of crime and deviance. The concept serves as a guide for research and an instrument of vigilance, drawing attention to the agonistic nature of social relations and the role of domination, the importance of contextual factors in shaping the objects we study, the skillfulness of agents, and the transformative effects of remaining within semi-enclosed domains of social action over extended periods of time.
... For an analysis that similarly identifies the cultural idioms used by a group to construct a distinctive mode of perception, appreciation, and action, seeWacquant (2001). ...
Comments are welcome. Please do not cite, quote, or circulate without permission. Drawing on archival records, interviews, and an original database of the educational and career backgrounds of policy experts, this paper examines the growing sphere of American think tanks. I develop a relational conception of think tanks as structurally hybrid offspring of the more established institutions of academics, politics, business, and journalism – the “parental ” ties being at once material and symbolic: material because these anchoring institutions provide support, patronage, and personnel to think tanks, symbolic because the figures of the policy aide, the academic scholar, the entrepreneur, and the journalist supply the imaginary models from which policy experts fashion their mixed self-understandings. The relational mode of analysis moves the study of think tanks beyond the essentializing question of whether policy experts are at bottom “bona fide intellectuals ” or mere “lobbyists in disguise.” Key words: think tanks • intellectuals • knowledge production • American politics • relational analysis Word count: 9,135 (text only) 13,298 (including footnotes and references)
... Roderick is referring to a process whereby sportspeople often refer to their current career and financial situation as "bad luck" and only later come to realize that it is the result of the intended and unintended outcomes that arise out of the relationships they have with, and figurations formed by, all people in their workplace network. In a similar vein, Wacquant (1998Wacquant ( , 2001 argues that however much boxers believe the ring and gym are their place of work and where they make their living, they cannot ignore that the complex system of patronage and sponsorship that surrounds the ring contributes to what happens in it. Also in boxing, Weinberg and Arond (1952) argued more than 50 years ago that even then, trainers, managers, and promoters viewed boxing in different ways from the boxers themselves and frequently this affected their careers. ...
Drawing on figurational sociology, this article examines issues of money that are central to touring professional golfers’ workplace experiences. Based on interviews with 16 professionals, results indicate the monetary rewards available for top golfers continues to increase; however, such recompense is available to relatively small numbers and the majority fare poorly. Results suggest that playing on tour with other like-minded golfers fosters internalized constraints relating to behavior, referred to as “habitus,” whereby many players “gamble” on pursuing golf as their main source of income despite the odds against them. Golfers are constrained to develop networks with sponsors for financial reasons, which has left some players with conflicting choices between regular money, and adhering to restrictive contractual agreements, or the freedom to choose between different brands.
... Quizá la línea de desarrollo e in uencia bourdieuana que ha tenido más impacto, no solo dentro de la sociología del deporte, sino dentro de la sociología en general, ha sido la realizada por Wacquant con su estudio etnográ co sobre el boxeo en Chicago -llevado a cabo en la década de 1980-, que revolucionó la forma de realizar etnografía urbana y el modo de realizar trabajos de campo deportivos como ámbitos privilegiados para comprender, no solo esta actividad en sí, sino las vidas y los contextos sociales de sus practicantes. De forma especí ca, la obra de Wacquant, extensamente publicada en diversos artículos académicos (Wacquant, 1989(Wacquant, , 1992(Wacquant, , 1995a(Wacquant, , 1995b(Wacquant, , 2001 y sintetizada en su libro Entre las Cuerdas (Wacquant, 2004), desarrolla de forma empírica la progresiva formación del habitus pugilístico, contestando a las críticas de falta de dinámica en el denostado estructuralismo de la obra bourdieuana. Para Wacquant, su propia inmersión en la práctica le lleva a adquirir ese habitus especí co, convirtiéndolo en una potente herramienta de investigación social, en la piedra angular de su propuesta de "sociología carnal" (Wacquant, 2005(Wacquant, , 2011. ...
Sin haber sido reconocido públicamente en su biografía por su contribución al estudio social del deporte, Pierre Bourdieu es uno de los padres teóricos de la disciplina sociológica que se ocupa de este fenómeno. Como cuerpo disciplinar institucionalizado, no cabe duda que la corriente británica liderada por Elias ha sido la más relevante. Pero ignorar la contribución de Bourdieu a la construcción del cuerpo académico de la sociología del deporte es como negar el peso de la sociología francesa en este campo de estudio, con autores como Bouet, Brohm, Defrance, Dumazedier, Parlebas, Pociello, Vigarello o Wacquant.
... Deretter beskrives aldersfordelingen, utdanningsnivå, idrettsfaglig utdanningsnivå og trenerutdanning blant utvalget. En av årsakene til den lave andelen kvinner i utvalget har blant annet sammenheng med at boksing, som tidligere nevnt, har lange tradisjoner som en maskulin idrett (De Garis, 2000;Halbert, 1997;Hargreaves, 1997;Mennesson, 2000;Sugden, 1996;Wacquant, 1992Wacquant, , 1995Wacquant, , 2001Lafferty & McKay, 2004 Flere studier hevder at instruerende ledelsesadferd og positiv feedback er de to formene for ledelelsesadferd som er høyest ønsket av utøvere (Chelladurai, 1993). Autokratisk ledelsesadferd fremstår derimot som den minst populaere formen for ledelsesadferd blant utøvere. ...
Ledelse og kjønn i bokseringen En kvantitativ og kvalitativ studie av ledelsesadferd og betydninger av kjønn blant norske boksetrenere. Masteravhandling i idrettsvitenskap Trondheim, våren 2014
... Elizabeth Comack's studies of women in prison (1996) and past sexual abuse (1993), as well as Sylvie Frigon's recent work on femicide (2003) have likewise strengthened the credibility of qualitative methodologies within criminology. Beyond feminist work, too, lies an established and growing group of sociologists-often men studying men-who use qualitative methods, not necessarily or usually based on 'random samples', to study a variety of subjects from the punk subculture (Baron, 1989) and street gangs (Sanchèz-Jankowski, 1991) through drug users (Bourgois, 1995) and African-American boxers (Wacquant, 2001). ...
This article draws on the sociology of knowledge literature to bring to light several social mechanisms used to police the production and circulation of criminological knowledge. The discussion draws from actor-network theory and feminist analyses in science and technology studies to make visible mechanisms of construction, filtering, negotiation and appropriation. By way of illustration, the article draws on an actual case of scientific, political and media marginalization of disquieting research findings on prison conditions in Canada. Taking these reactions as a starting point, the analysis discusses, among other things, the hierarchy of paradigms and the gendered structures that affect researchers’ admission into a scientific community and their access to discursive resources.
... One estimate puts the average cost at $802 million (Mirowski and Van Horn, 2005 In the case of drug testing, unlike prostitutes, boxers, models, etc., it is not the body but the disease that is 'commodified'. The people on whom drugs are tested are exploited not because they possess unequal 'capital', as for example Loïc Wacquant (2001) shows for boxers. Moreover, unlike kidney (or other body parts, blood, semen, etc.) 'donors', they do not possess body parts or body products that have any 'use value' except in the context of drug testing. ...
Recent success of Indian engineers, businessmen, as well as other technically qualified professionals has created an obsession with knowledge and creativity. Documents like India as a Knowledge Superpower have proliferated and we continually hear the mantra of investing in and harnessing of human capital. There are, however, several strands of human capital in India and not all of them harness knowledge and creativity. People on whom drugs are being tested represent one such human capital, which, even though it is being energetically mobilized to provide India with a strategic advantage in the world market, also highlights the contradictions within India’s shifting imaginary, economy and politics. Drug trials in India, in the context of neoliberal globalization, not only challenge and complicate, but also operate within a constellation of divisions — labor/capital, west/non-west, colonial/sovereign, national/global and so on. In this article I analyze how the people on whom drug testing is being done in India are being ‘harnessed’ as human capital, which leads to politicization of ‘bare life’ through ‘inclusive-exclusion’.
... On the other hand, I deploy habitus as a methodological device, that is, I place myself in the local vortex of action in order to acquire through practice, in real time, the dispositions of the boxer with the aim of elucidating the magnetism proper to the pugilistic cosmos. This allows me to disclose the powerful allure of the combination of craft, sensuality and morality that binds the pugilist to his trade as well as impresses the embodied notions of risk and redemption that enable him to overcome the turbid sense of being superexploited (Wacquant 2001). The method thus tests the theory of action which informs the analysis according to a recursive and reflexive research design. ...
This article recounts how I took up the ethnographic craft; stumbled upon the Chicago boxing gym that is the central scene and character of my field study of prizefighting in the black American ghetto; and designed the book Body and Soul so as to both deploy methodologically and elaborate empirically Pierre Bourdieu's signal concept of habitus. Habitus is the topic of investigation: the book dissects the forging of the corporeal and mental dispositions that make up the competent pugilist in the crucible of the gym. It is also the tool of investigation: the practical acquisition of those dispositions by the analyst serves as technical vehicle for better penetrating their social production and assembly. The apprenticeship of the sociologist is a methodological mirror of the apprenticeship undergone by the empirical subjects of the study; the former is mined to dig deeper into the latter and unearth its inner logic and subterranean properties; and both in turn test the robustness and fruitfulness of habitus as guide for probing the springs of social conduct. Properly used, habitus not only illuminates the variegated logics of social action but also grounds the distinctive virtues of deep immersion in, and carnal entanglement with, the object of ethnographic inquiry.
... Social worlds shape social bodies and provide cultural explanations for injuries caused by participating in them (Wacquant, 2001). The vocational calling rooted in the Balletic world rests both on the molding of the body and 'a culture of pain' according to which injuries are part of an individual and institutional habitus (Roderick, 2006;Turner and Wainwright, 2003). ...
This article examines the meaning Israeli female dancers assign to extra-thin bodies. It claims that dancers interpret extra-thinness as an essential tool for the making of an ideal body-machine which allows entrance to a professional world of dancers. Working in a demanding professional world, anorexic bodies are seen by dancers as indicators of success and commitment. It is a means to win recognition from significant others and make the most out of a short-term and risk-embedded career. An haute-ecole of dance was chosen as a location for this study because it is a social setting that sets its own rules of transforming the body into an instrument of training. This study allows us to understand why certain professional and age groups tend to develop anorexia and helps understanding how anorexia, once embedded in a professional ideology, is hard to overcome.
Supporters of paternalistic policies argue that interference with risky or dangerous choices for citizens’ own good is permissible, as long as those choices are caused by cognitive irrationality or ignorance. Yet, some liberal thinkers argue that despite human irrationality, paternalistic policies are still wrong because they fail to respect citizens as moral equals. I argue that actually both views are mistaken about what respect for citizens requires, because they conceptualize the citizens’ interests from the wrong standpoint. In order for citizens to be respected as equals, I argue that citizens’ interests must be defined from a joint (second-person) standpoint which is constructed through a dialogical process between policymakers and citizens oriented towards mutual understanding. Furthermore, I argue that engaging citizens in such a dialogue is a distinctive paternalistic intervention in its own right, which unlike other kinds of paternalistic intervention, is compatible with respect for citizens as equals.
An increasing number of management articles have focused on embodied ethnography in terms of either understanding other bodies at work or how our own bodies as researchers inform knowledge. In advancing this latter approach, we argue for an embodiment that sensually intoxicates our bodies, enabling new forms of learning to emerge. To grow this understanding, we draw on Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s concept ‘le schéma corporel’, a shared physiognomy of the senses. This concept informs a corporeal methodology which details three organisational depictions that emerge from a season long immersion in a professional rugby team. We illustrate how the Will was corporeally apprenticed in this setting through an understanding of the body as situated, emotional and physical. The article concludes by suggesting it is the researcher’s own body that is the site of learning, providing a sense to the reader of the pain, touch and sound of professional rugby.
This article investigates the emerging popularity of same-sex pornographic content in India featuring fitness trainers and bodybuilders. The article argues that its production and consumption is governed by socio-economic difference that is revealing for the resilience of (middle-)class boundaries. Drawing on long-term ethnographic research, the analysis is complemented by engaging with informants’ social media updates and the un/intentionality of their homoerotic layering. By focusing on the trajectory of one trainer who now provides escort services and features in pornographic movies, the article shows that such productions need to be understood as amalgamated with and indivisible from non-pornographic content depicting near-naked muscular men. It treats homoerotically suggestive social media updates, YouTube productions that warn men against the pitfalls of male modelling and the risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, and actual same-sex ‘porn’ as existing within a shared continuum through which we can understand different productions of desire and desirability.
In this article, I explore manifest and latent discourses about masculinity in a predominantly white, middle class boxing gym. In this gym, the owner and coaches promote a discourse that emphasizes love, bridgework, and sparring with care. This discourse is part of the gym’s white-collar boxing culture. A key part of this discourse is distancing themselves from other gyms, claiming they promote a violent masculinity. While on the surface the gym criticizes certain ideals and practices associated with American hegemonic masculinity, it still reproduces discourses, norms, and practices associated with it. Employees use a latent discourse that constructs a hybrid masculinity. I argue that employees and members construct a hybrid masculinity by perpetuating ideals and practices associated with American hegemonic masculinity.
When marketization of a geographic area or a domain of human behavior occurs, it is almost necessarily accompanied by commodification. In making things saleable or exchangeable, we are saying that they have monetary or non-monetary substitutes. In some cases these things are treated as fungible, that is equivalent to and interchangeable with an identical appearing equivalent. Thus, one person’s labor becomes equivalent with another’s, one bunch of bananas becomes interchangeable with another, and one mass-produced object can be replaced with another identical object. Commodification can make what were once intimate personal or shared family goods into assets exchangeable in the market. It can likewise make what were once freely available public goods like land and natural resources into private goods with prices and ‘Keep Out’ signs. This chapter examines the impacts of commodification.
In developing countries, the arts are one path out of poverty. Cambodia's traditional arts were nearly destroyed during the Khmer Rouge regime, which created extreme economic, cultural, and political instability. In subsequent years, the effort to reconstruct classical dance was seen as a vivid symbol of the country's vitality. Simultaneously, economic needs have increasingly commoditized the practice. This article explores how, in the context of performance, dance practitioners' bodies are transformed into both cultural symbols and commercial products. What are the material consequences that result from this intertwining of labor and product? Expanding on Loïc Wacquant's corporeal economy—the bodily labor that goes into preparation and performance—an analysis of the dancing body provides an opportunity to examine its valuation as it is increasingly commodified. Based on eighteen months of field research and more than 150 interviews, the article explores performer experiences in two settings. The Cambodian Cultural Village (Siem Reap) and the Children of Bassac Dance Troupe (Phnom Penh) offer contrasting cases of bodily economics. These sites demonstrate that a theory of corporeal economics can explain the decisions dance practitioners make regarding their investment of labor. They also reveal the degrees of control that dancers have over their bodily production.
The marginalization and exclusion of women in boxing has emerged as a severe global problem, threatening women's democratic right to equal participation in sport. The following article is based on a qualitative study of women's lived experiences as participants in boxing, either as coaches or as athletes. My theoretical point of departure is derived from an understanding of gender as a cultural code. The data material consists of interviews with Norwegian female boxing coaches and female boxers. The analysis in this study suggests that women, both inside and outside of the ring, are facing several obstacles to overcome and barriers to break. For instance, both female coaches and boxers struggle to be taken seriously in their sporting practices. For women coaches, a central challenge is being accepted and respected as "real" and capable coaches with valuable knowledge and experience in amale dominated sport. Women boxers on the other hand, are often subjected to unequal power relations with older male coaches. As expressed by the interviewed boxers, some men take advantage of these gendered power relations in terms of practices of exclusion, discrimination, and in some cases, sexual abuse.
Boxing is infused with ideas about masculinity, power, race and social class, and as such is an ideal lens through which social scientists can examine key modern themes. In addition, its inherent contradictions of extreme violence and beauty and of discipline and excess have long been a source of inspiration for writers and film makers. Essential reading for anyone interested in the sociology of sport and cultural representations of gender, Boxing, Masculinity and Identity brings together ethnographic research with material from film, literature and journalism. Through this combination of theoretical insight and cultural awareness, Woodward explores the social constructs around boxing and our experience and understanding of central issues including: • masculinity • mind, body and the construction of identity • spectacle and performance: tensions between the public and private person • boxing on film: the role of cultural representations in building identities • methodologies: issues of authenticity and ‘truth’ in social science.
Auf die gewalttätigen Proteste von Jugendlichen in Pariser Vorstädten (banlieus) im Jahr 2005, die riots in Londoner Wohnvierteln im Jahr 2011 und die massiven Proteste gegen rassistisch motivierte Polizeibrutalität in Baltimore im Jahr 2015 folgten repressive, teils militärische Eingriffe in die Versammlungs- und die persönliche Freiheit nicht nur der Protestierenden, sondern der Bevölkerungen ganzer Stadtteile. Gemeinsam ist diesen Konfrontationen, dass sie in von ethnischer Diversität geprägten Teilen post-industrieller Städte des Globalen Nordens stattfanden. In Paris und London waren Nachkommen der zweiten oder dritten Generation von MigrantInnen, in den USA die internationale »Black Lives Matter« Bewegungen in den Straßenkampf mit staatlichen Gewaltakteuren verwickelt (Khan, 2015).
The topic of depression during the career of elite male athletes has been the subject of much public interest and attention in recent years. Despite numerous debates and personal disclosures within the media, there is a dearth of published research directly exploring the phenomenon. This study sought to explore how elite male athletes experience depression during their sporting careers. Eight former/current elite male athletes who had previously publically self-identified as having experienced depression while participating in sport were recruited for this study. A qualitative methodology was employed and each participant was interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Data analysis which was conducted using descriptive and interpretive thematic analysis uncovered three domains: 1) The emergence of depression 2) The manifestation of symptoms of depression and 3) Adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies in the process of recovery. Findings from the current study reveal the nature of how male athletes experience, express and respond to depression during their careers. Additionally, this is influenced by a myriad of factors embedded in the masculine elite sport environment. Implications are discussed particularly in relation to atypical expressions of depression not necessarily reflected on or in standard diagnostic criteria. Future research is encouraged to examine in depth moderating factors (e.g. athletic sense of identity and masculine elite sport environments) for the relationship between depression and participation in elite sport.
Private cord blood banking is the practice of paying to save cord blood for potential future use. Informed by the literature on corporeal commodification and feminist theories, this article analyses women’s work in banking cord blood. This article is based on in-depth interviews with 13 women who banked in a private bank in Canada. From learning about cord blood banking to collecting cord blood and transporting it to the private bank’s laboratory, women labour to ensure that cord blood is successfully banked. Private cord blood banking involves the overlap or insertion of commercial practices, and relations with clinical practices and relations that may cause tensions and confusion for women and clinical practitioners. Moreover, private banking reinforces and is reinforced by an ‘intensive mothering’ ideology. This article shows that corporeal commodification is not confined to a laboratory and the work of experts but extends into women’s everyday lives.
This article recounts how I took up the ethnographic craft; stumbled upon the Chicago boxing gym that is the central scene and character of my field study of prizefighting in the black American ghetto; and designed the book Body and Soul so as to both deploy methodologically and elaborate empirically Pierre Bourdieu signal concept of habitus. Habitus is the topic of investigation: the book dissects the forging of the corporeal and mental dispositions that make up the competent pugilistic in the crucible of the gym. But it is also the tool of investigation: the practical acquisition of those dispositions by the analyst serves as technical vehicle for better penetrating their social production and assembly. The apprenticeship of the sociologist is a methodological mirror of the apprenticeship undergone by the empirical subjects of the study; the former is mined to dig deeper into the latter and unearth its inner logic and subterranean properties; and both in turn test the robustness and fruitfulness of habitus as guide for probing the springs of social conduct. Properly used, habitus not only illuminates the variegated logics of social action; it also grounds the distinctive virtues of deep immersion in and carnal entanglement with the object of ethnographic inquiry.
This work brings elements for thediscussion on the diversity of meanings of "sportive" practices by ordinary people in the everyday of the cities. It does that from an ethnographic study of the boxing practice in the context of a fitness center in the city of Porto Alegre, observing the way it articulates the meanings of "boxer's boxing" and students' fitness, and if it implicates on a logic of unesportiveness. After the analysis and interpretation of the empiric material produced, we can conclude that the practice studied has a hybrid aspect, in the sense that it is characterized by insertion (very dynamic, tense and disputed) of elements and meanings of "boxing gym" and "gym's boxing". In this sense, it would not be strange to refer to the simultaneity of the "unesportivization of boxing" and the "sportivization of fitness".
Clint Eastwood's Million Dollar Baby won five Academy Awards but also came under attack from female boxers and disability activists. Ostensibly a drama about a tenacious woman's quest to become a professional fighter and the male coach who assists her, Million Dollar Baby appears to insert a radical portrayal of femininity, female athleticism, and power into the male-dominated genre of boxing films and, more generally, a media that has been largely hostile to female boxing. We explore the extent to which the female lead can be viewed as a transgressive figure along with the discourses of containment that reduce her threat to longstanding cultural myths about boxing as a male preserve. Our analyses of the film's racial, gender, class, and disability politics contend that its focus is not women's boxing, disability, or the right to die; rather, like boxing, this film is about the male struggle to protect masculinity in a sporting world deeply shaken by the increasing presence of women.
The similarities between the way performance knowledge is transmitted for martial and theatrical artists have been examined by Phillip Zarrilli. Zarrilli argues that strips of codified behaviour present artists with restricted fields of choice, a precise vocabulary of techniques and strictly prescribed parameters within which to operate. We extend this argument to include combat athletes, particularly boxers, proposing a closer examination of choice, agency and creative freedom within the boxer–trainer and actor–director relationship. Drawing upon autoethnographic data, and participant interviews, we explore how trainers, boxers, directors and actors talk about creative freedom as it relates to their relationships. This co-authored article uses two discrete voices to explore this creative freedom: P. Solomon Lennox writes from a boxer’s perspective and George Rodosthenous from a director’s point of view.
Practitioners of martial arts and combat sports are motivated to train their bodies to dispense and manage violence, in part, to prepare for competitions or for “on-the-street” altercations. Fighting practices that prohibit competitions and whose practitioners are unlikely to encounter violence in their everyday lives challenge existing research on the motivations for training one’s body to be “fit to fight.” This article investigates one such fighting practice: aikido. Drawing from in-depth participant observation of the practice and interviews with its mostly white, middle-class practitioners, I show that aikido’s unique bodily deployment, while rarely used in “real” situations, is an effective metaphor for practitioners to make sense of and overcome non-martial challenges in their everyday lives. I call this process “somatic metaphorism” and argue that it helps explain the value of a well-trained body beyond the context of the training center.
Taken from a broader study of the careers of professional footballers, this article uses two player stories of job loss to offer contrasting experiences of cynical dis-identification. I examine how in research on the careers of sports workers, athletes so often express discontent yet maintain an apparent dedication and commitment to their craft. In contrast to the overwhelming focus on the construction and shaping of workplace identity, this article introduces the notion of dis-identification to explain how athletes resist coach/managerial domination in an occupation in which high commitment is assumed by expressing cynical and instrumental attitudes to their jobs: cynical athletes dis-identify with dominant cultural prescriptions so as to distance themselves from ideological rhetoric, a process in which subjectivities are 'externalised'. Although cynical athletes may feel like autonomous agents, nevertheless, they still perform managerial norms and rituals.
Given the relatively little attention devoted to the study of combat sports in the sport psychology literature, the aim of this investigation was to obtain additional insight into the life and world of professional boxers, particularly with respect to their experiences of training for fights. Existential phenomenological interviews were conducted with nine professional British boxers ranging in age from 22 to 42 years. Qualitative analysis of the transcripts revealed a total of 341 meaning units, which were further grouped into higher order themes. A final thematic structure revealed six major dimensions that characterized participants’ training experience: Achieving Potential, Preparing, Sacrificing, Finding Support, Fearing, and Loving/Hating. The results offer a number of insights for sport psychology researchers and practical implications for boxers, trainers, and sport psychology consultants.
In professional boxing, rags-to-riches-to-rags stories are as commonplace as elaborate ring entrances. In the wake of the Professional Boxing Safety Act of 1996, the U.S. Congress mandated that the Secretary of Labor undertake a study on the feasibility of establishing a pension plan for professional boxers. The results of the study have yet to be utilized for the development of such a plan. Employing data on those boxing in Nevada, 2008-2010, a model pension plan is developed herein, which may be used as a prototype for other states or a national boxers’ pension plan.
African-American athletes have been widely represented in the sporting world throughout the twenty-first century. Sport participation has been positive for the group and for American society as a whole by both aiding integration and providing opportunities, such as college scholarships, social mobility, etc. that may not have been available in other avenues. Comprising 78 % of the National Basketball Association and 67 % of the National Football League, African-Americans males’ overrepresentation as professional athletes seems to illustrate opportunities for the group unfettered by any major barriers (Lapchick 2011). However, contemporary scholars have debated whether or not sports are actually a way out of less than desirable economic and social situations for African-American males. Although most Americans, and athletes themselves, think of professional sports in terms of the fame and fortune experienced by the most successful athletes, this article examines the experiences that is perhaps most common among professional athletes through the lens of contested racial terrain.
Given the relatively little attention devoted to the study of combat sports in the sport psychology literature,
the aim of this investigation was to obtain additional insight into the life and world of professional boxers,
particularly with respect to their experiences of training for fights. Existential phenomenological interviews
were conducted with nine professional British boxers ranging in age from 22 to 42 years. Qualitative analysis
of the transcripts revealed a total of 341 meaning units, which were further grouped into higher order themes.
A final thematic structure revealed six major dimensions that characterized participants’ training experience:
Achieving Potential, Preparing, Sacrificing, Finding Support, Fearing, and Loving/Hating. The results offer a
number of insights for sport psychology researchers and practical implications for boxers, trainers, and sport
psychology consultants.
In this essay I will discuss corporeal entrepreneurialism in the context of commercial sex and neoliberal agency at the United States–Mexico border. I want to situate the sex trade in a larger neoliberal context of economic need, mobility, and commercialization. The essay addresses how bodily entrepreneurialism can function as a gateway to upward social mobility and how erotic capital can level existing social and economic inequalities and thus act as a catalyst to exit marginalized communities. I am drawing on Wacquant's (1995) work on corporeal entrepreneurs and also on the notion of bodily capital that he has developed therein. Using bodily capital in the context of sex work, it makes sense to talk more specifically about erotic capital, which is the primary currency in the sex trade. Thus, I will integrate Isaiah Green's (2008) definition of erotic capital and elaborate how women make use of their bodies to enhance their erotic capital and explain what their strategies and perceptions are. Inspired by Alexander Edmonds' (2007) work on beauty and race in Brazil, I will elaborate how corporeal entrepreneurs strategically use their bodily and erotic capital to counteract their socioeconomic marginalization and challenge traditional hierarchies. As will become clear, corporeal entrepreneurialism ties together women's agency, market demand, and monetary value, and, to succeed, this endeavor requires enormous levels of discipline, emotional resilience, management skills, stamina, and purposefulness.
Theoretically, this essay is framed within the literature that has addressed entrepreneurial selves in late capitalism (Tyler 2004; Rose 1999; Salecl 2004; Bührmann 2005; Freeman 2007). Demystifying sex work requires an understanding of sex workers as aspiring corporeal entrepreneurs who make use of their bodily and erotic capital, responding to neoliberal structural demands while creating opportunities for themselves. Looking at sex work at the US-Mexican border, we find the complicated entanglement of submission to the entrepreneurial imperative of the neoliberal present combined with the individual's positive advancement and the improvement of her socioeconomic position.
Andrea Bührmann ascribes the appearance of an "enterprising self" to the last third of the twentieth century. She affirms that the enterprising self is "defined by the steering of action, feeling, thinking and willing on the basis of an orientation on the criteria of economic efficiency and entrepreneurial calculation" (2005, 2). Analogically, Ulrich Bröckling (2007) points out that the principle "Act entrepreneurial!" has become the categorical imperative of the present, and Melissa Tyler speaks of the "managerial colonization of everyday life" (2004, 82). Managerial ways of thinking about our selves and our bodies have become dominant in late capitalism. Individuals are incited to become engaged in an ongoing process of self-optimization, constantly aspiring to change themselves, and finding more effective ways of managing their own resources. Individuals are incited to be entrepreneurial, yet in a self-responsible way, conscious of possible risks, and autonomously engaged in techniques of self-care. The enterprising self is expected to be aspiring, purposeful, and willing to be competitive. An entrepreneurial imperative, exceeding beyond the economic sphere, interlaces all levels of life whereby marketability becomes a primary focus of the individual's organization of everyday life. Simultaneously, every individual is considered an autonomous agent who is capable of creating a successful project of the self. Nikolas Rose (1999) has highlighted that individuals in late capitalism are encouraged to become entrepreneurs who shape their lives through the choices they make from among the options available to them. Historically, the enterprising self has been a male subject who was incited to take risks and exploit his bodily resources in order to become a self-made man. Renata Salecl points out that in late capitalism the totality of a person has become a commodity (2004, 1152). The entrepreneur of late capitalism is encouraged to sell everything available to her or him, including affect, intimacy, sex, body parts, and bodily services of various kinds. This invitation to alienate one's own resources functions in a highly gendered way. While men of disadvantaged social backgrounds become soldiers, security guards, bouncers, or casually contracted factory workers, women are incited to become care workers for children or the elderly, sex workers, or casual employees in the service sector such as in...
Using Richard Schechner's approach to performance studies, this paper examines the performance practices at a professional boxing gym in England. The paper will consider the narratives accounts provided by the head coach, and a selection of professional boxers, to demonstrate how these individuals make sense of the practices at the gym. Further, this paper will illustrate how, through the adoption of performative practices, the boxers at this gym are able to fulfil the role of athlete and popular entertainer; a role which, at times, means they are chastised by sportswriters for being overtly theatrical.
Pierre Bourdieu argues that, in order to bring to light the “historical transcendental” that unconsciously dominates the thinking of the social scientists, social scientists must reflexively apply scientific methods to themselves and engage in what he calls a “participant objectivation,” a reflexive act of “objectifying the subject of objectivation.” In this article, the author argues that Bourdieu’s participant objectivation fails on two counts: First, the author shows that Bourdieu’s attempt to distinguish his epistemic reflexivity from the narcissistic or postmodern reflexivity turns out to be a complete failure. Second, using a particular example, the author shows why Bourdieu will not be able to help lay agents give up their own “supposedly” collusive objectivation.
This article presents an ethnography and analysis of the formations in which the latest Argentine literary ideas and intellectuals are shaped. In trying to understand the end, during the 1990s, of the polemic as the main mechanism of self-regulation in the field of literature, I focus on two questions: (1) How did a ‘new’ intellectual generation both reproduce and transform itself during those years? (2) What processes did the writers involved use to transcend the previous schism, while reproducing artistic value in the field? I suggest the answer to both is through sociability organized in public events. Presenting data from several years of ethnography of the Buenos Aires literary scene, my interest is to show the production of circles of sociability that resulted in more solidarist than conflictive strategies in the production of literary value.
Sociological work on sport and the body has escalated in recent years as the theme of the body has become more established on the social scientific research agenda. This article reviews some of that work and also notes that historical work on the sporting body remains relatively undeveloped. The core of the article is dedicated to the examination of sporting bodies in 19th-century England in popular events and pastimes such as pedestrianism and long-distance swimming. This is based on the John Johnson collection of ephemera at the University Of Oxford's Bodleain Library. The range of bodies on display at the 2000 Sydney Olympics is discussed in a concluding commentary. This is based on personal observational work at Sydney. The article proposes that any adequate understanding of the place of the body must be informed by adequate documentary and observational sources.
Based upon fieldwork data that the author collected while pursuing an internship at a Hollywood talent management company, this paper examines how Hollywood talent managers must sell themselves in order to sell the actors that they represent. In this marketplace where actors become commodities traded by their managers in exchange for ten percent of their film and television salaries, what is “made to matter” (Butler 1993) is not only the image of the actor, but also the appearances of the individuals who represent them. At the talent management firm in question—which represents about sixty male and female actors, a handful of whom are immediately recognizable names and faces among the American public—the talent managers and assistants invest a significant amount of capital in maintaining immaculately groomed, well-heeled appearances, while at the same time performing a convivial, and at times even unctuous, persona in their relations with the professionals who cast film and television roles. The physical and social self becomes, in other words, a necessary and high-stake investment in the talent management industry, which ends up demanding emotional labor, “bodily labor” (Shilling 2005) focused on one's appearance, and the labor of “networking” that entails a merger of business affairs and one's leisurely, domestic or even romantic social relations. In this scenario, the commodification of others therefore requires one's own objectification, so that “an agent"—or a talent manager—"who does not participate in the dialectic of control, in a minimal fashion, ceases to be an agent” (Giddens 1979: 149).
It is an immense understatement to say that professional boxing is a shady and ill-reputed business, for it elicits odium even among those who make their living o¡ it. The ¢stic industry, clamors Howard Cosell, America's leading sportscaster of the seventies, who gained his profes- sional fame hyping Muhammad Ali to television audiences, is nothing more than ''a cesspool that calls itself a sport.'' With virtual unanimity, ¢ghters, trainers, managers, and promoters readily admit that theirs is a commerce run on manipulation, chicanery, and deceit, an open ''meat market'' where the strong survive by devouring and discarding the weak.1 Yet, as powerful and pervasive as these images are, to this day there exists no empirical study demonstrating how such an econo- my, predicated on distrust, improbity, and the collective expectation of exaction, can hold together. The following is a sociological report of a segment of the economy of professional boxing in the United States, the ¢rst of its kind in the social-science literature. Its purpose is to explicate the sociosymbolic structure and functioning of this ''Show Business With Blood'' ^ to invoke Budd Schulberg's apt expression in his novel The Harder They Fall. In addition to being the only sociological study of the pugilistic commerce from the ground up, this article di¡ers from other accounts of the sporting economy in that it is concerned not with aggregate industrial structure, strategy, or performance, but with the processes whereby that economy is assembled and its concrete operation as an ongoing system of collective action and representation.2
Thesis (master's)--Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 1974. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 285-289).
Investigación antropológica sobre la vida de indígenas aymaráes y quechuas que laboran en las minas de estaño de la ciudad de Oruro, Bolivia, realizada a inicios de la década de 1970. La autora enfoca su análisis en una contradicción de sus sujetos de estudio, quienes poseen -por un lado- una historia caracterizada por acciones militantes desde el inicio de la industria minera boliviana y por el otro, muestran un sentido de dependencia hacia las minas y quienes controlan este sector, que les conduce a conformarse con las condiciones laborales que les son impuestas.
Artisans and Labour Aristocrats in Workers: Worlds of Labour
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Going for Gold: Men, Mines and Migration
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Mean Business: The Rise and Fall of Shawn O'Sullivan
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The Black Lights: Inside the World of Professional Boxing
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Early Writings, trans. and ed. Tom Bottomore
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Dave Tiberi, the Uncrowned Champion
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Artisans and Labour Aristocrats?
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Ain't No Makin' It, 2nd edn
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Abdelmalek (1991) L'Immigration ou les paradoxes de l'altérité. Brussels: Editions Universitaires
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Hearings on Corruption in Professional Boxing before the Permanent Committee on Governmental Affairs, 102nd Congress
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