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A comparison of match demands between elite and semi-elite rugby league competition
Journal of Sports Sciences
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine differences in physical performance and game-specific skills between elite and semi-elite rugby league players during match-play. Time-motion analysis was used to determine physical and game-specific skill match demands in 17 elite and 22 semi-elite rugby league players. Physical performance (time, intensity of exercise, frequency, repeated-sprint ability, and speed measures) and game-specific skill measures (ball carries, supports, ball touches, play-the-balls, and tackles) were recorded per minute of playing time. The main findings were that total intensity (elite: 108.9 +/- 10.6 m . min(-1); semi-elite: 102.3 +/- 9.7 m . min(-1)), high-intensity exercise (elite: 36.7 +/- 9.8 m . min(-1); semi-elite: 29.6 +/- 7.8 m . min(-1)), mean playing speed (elite: 6.6 +/- 0.6 km . h(-1); semi-elite: 6.2 +/- 0.6 km . h(-1)), and support play (elite: 0.29 +/- 0.16 . min(-1); semi-elite: 0.15 +/- 0.09 . min(-1)) were all higher during first-half match-play in the elite than semi-elite players (P < 0.01). The elite players experienced decrements in most physical performance measures during the second-half of match-play (P < 0.01), which was not evident in the semi-elite players (P > 0.01). There were no differences in most physical performance and game-specific skill measures for the match between the two playing standards. These results show that while the two standards of competition have similar game-specific skills and physical demands during a match, there is variation within a match according to standard. Specifically, the higher physical demands placed on elite players during the first half could result in the earlier onset of physical fatigue towards the end of a match.
... This is perhaps the most convincing evidence as to the importance of HSR and sprinting to soccer, as it relates to scoring opportunities. Much like AF and soccer, rugby league is an intermittent field sport with short bursts of high intensity activity followed by longer, low intensity periods (28,54,115,116). Rugby league has a lower average speed than both AF and soccer (54,55,84), due to the intermittent nature of game play. ...
... Rugby league positions are categorised as backs or forwards (116,117). ...
... Backs are often exposed to higher levels of HSR and sprinting (forwards 153m, backs 321m) (116). On the contrary players in forward positions often complete less HSR and sprinting due to positional requirements. ...
... Thirty-five studies reported measures of speed (5,12,(81)(82)(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)17,91,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(99)(100)(101)(102)18,(103)(104)(105)(106)(107)19,20,53,59,77,80). One study utilised manual video-based analysis (53), two studies utilised semi-automated, video-computerised analysis systems (106,107), and thirty-two studies utilised GPS (5,12,(82)(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)(91)17,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(99)(100)(101)(102)(103)18,104,105,19,20,59,77,80,81). ...
... Thirty-five studies reported measures of speed (5,12,(81)(82)(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)17,91,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(99)(100)(101)(102)18,(103)(104)(105)(106)(107)19,20,53,59,77,80). One study utilised manual video-based analysis (53), two studies utilised semi-automated, video-computerised analysis systems (106,107), and thirty-two studies utilised GPS (5,12,(82)(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)(91)17,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(99)(100)(101)(102)(103)18,104,105,19,20,59,77,80,81). Elite, semi-elite, and junior athletes cover between 80-100 m•min -1 (12,19,77,81,84,91,106), whereas, non-elite players cover ~80 m•min -1 (93). ...
... One study utilised manual video-based analysis (53), two studies utilised semi-automated, video-computerised analysis systems (106,107), and thirty-two studies utilised GPS (5,12,(82)(83)(84)(85)(86)(87)(88)(89)(90)(91)17,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(99)(100)(101)(102)(103)18,104,105,19,20,59,77,80,81). Elite, semi-elite, and junior athletes cover between 80-100 m•min -1 (12,19,77,81,84,91,106), whereas, non-elite players cover ~80 m•min -1 (93). Elite players have a greater (P = 0.004) speed (92 {90-94} m•min -1 ) than semi-elite players (90 {86-90} m•min -1 ), whilst both playing standards have a greater (P < 0.002) speed than junior players (80 {74-85} m•min -1 ) (11). ...
A variety of time-motion analysis methodologies have assisted practitioners objectively quantify the physical demands of both rugby league match-play and training. This narrative review focuses on both the evolution of time-motion analysis and its role in team field sports, as well as summarise and compare rugby league match-play and training data. Four
electronic databases (CINAHL, Medline, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were searched from the earliest record to December 2019. 124 studies met the eligibility criteria and reported on the use of time-motion analysis in team field sports, in particularly, throughout rugby league match-play and training at an elite, semi-elite, amateur, and junior playing standard. This review demonstrated that training drills utilised to prepare rugby league athletes for the physical demands of match-play may not meet or exceed required demands. For instance, skill-based and speed and agility/repeated high intensity effort drills often fail to elicit match-play thresholds for physical demands such as absolute distance, speed, high-, very-high-speed, and sprint activity, as well as collisions and impacts. The strength and conditioning coach as well as sport scientist can utilise the data and findings presented within this review to increase the specificity of subsequent training methodologies. That is, if the aim of the training session is to replicate and/or overload match-play intensities, conventional training methodologies such as traditional conditioning drills and small-sided games are a more appropriate stimulus.
... This information is crucial because it has implications for the movement of players between different tiers of competition (regional to international-level) (3). Evidence from other team sports suggests this information could assist with identifying development requirements for players to meet the demands of competition at the highest level of their sport (40). As international sporting federations continue to invest in resources for sport, the competition gap between nations seems to be decreasing (4). ...
... Specifically, these movement demands included: (a) PL (14,20), (b) PlayerLoad·min 21 (PL·min 21 ) (14,28,33), (c) EE (14,31), (d) Explosive Efforts·min 21 (EE·min 21 ), (e) skating load (SL) at low (,100 a.u.), medium (101-139 a.u.) and high (.140 a.u.) intensities (13), and (f) SL·min 21 (SL·min 21 ). Because of the variable duration of training and competition because of player deployment and session length, PL, EE, and SL were also expressed as a per-minute variable similar to previously published athlete monitoring data (13,23,24,40). ...
... These findings, along with the other external load demands investigated, highlight a clear difference between elite and subelite players. Similar differences between skill groups regarding high-intensity external load metrics have also been found in other team sports such as Australian football (23), soccer (32), and rugby (40). In addition, the results of this study provide a useful descriptive analysis of the on-ice movement demands of subelite female ice hockey players. ...
Douglas, AS, Rotondi, MA, Baker, J, Jamnik, VK, and Macpherson, AK. A comparison of on-ice external load measures between subelite and elite female ice hockey players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-This study quantified and examined differences in measures of on-ice external load for subelite and elite female ice hockey players. External load variables were collected from subelite (N = 21) and elite (N = 24) athletes using Catapult S5 monitors during the preseason. A total of 574 data files were analyzed from training and competition during the training camp. Significant differences between groups were found across all variables. Differences in training between the 2 groups ranged from trivial (forwards PlayerLoad, p = 0.03, effect-size [ES] = 0.18) to large (forwards Explosive Efforts [EEs], p < 0.001, ES = 1.64; defense EEs, p < 0.001, ES = 1.40). Match comparisons yielded similar results, with differences ranging from small (defense Low Skating Load [SL], p = 0.05, ES = 0.49; Medium SL, p = 0.04, ES = 0.52) to very large (forwards PlayerLoad, p < 0.001. ES = 2.25; PlayerLoad·min, p < 0.001, ES = 2.66; EEs, p < 0.001, ES = 2.03; Medium SL, p < 0.001, ES = 2.31; SL·min, p < 0.001, ES = 2.67), respectively. The differences in external load measures of intensity demonstrate the need to alter training programs of subelite ice athletes to ensure they can meet the demands of elite ice hockey. As athletes advance along the development pathway, considerable focus of their off-ice training should be to improve qualities that enhance their ability to perform high-intensity on-ice movements.
... For example, props need to possess a large bone and muscle mass, so as to avoid injuries due to the increased number of collision (Sirotic, Coutts, Knowles, & Catterick, 2009;Twist, Waldron, Highton, Burt, & Daniels, 2011). ...
... Specifically, Venter et al. (2011) indicated that the U19 BR players experienced the highest total amount yet least severe impacts compared to U19 IB, who experienced the most severe impacts. Research for example has repeatedly evidenced that there is an increased frequency of collisions in senior forwards (0.63-0.71 collision per minute) compared to senior backs (0.31-0.5 collisions per minute) (King et al., 2009;Sirotic et al., 2009;Twist et al., 2011;McLellan et al., 2011). It also appears there exists a relationship between the anthropometry of players and the associated running demands during a match. ...
... Despite the dynamic environment, optimised rugby union performance necessitates a particular set of position-specific anthropometrical attributes (Fuller et al., 2013). For example, props need to possess a large bone and muscle mass, so as to avoid injuries due to the increased number of collision (Sirotic et al., 2009;Twist et al., 2011). Furthermore, due to the physically demanding nature of the game (Smart et al., 2014;Waldron et al., 2014a), physical ability is one of the most common attributes that coaches assess to discriminate higher from lower ability players (Till et al., 2011;Cahill et al., 2013) rather than psychological abilities. ...
A retrospective analysis of talent selection and progression within England's Rugby Football Union Elite Player Performance Pathway. Thesis submitted by Elisavet Velentza in accordance with the requirements of the University of Chester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.
... One study also reported on international players in England during the Four Nations competition and Summer Tests [50]. Of the 30 studies, 5 studies [12,17,40,46,49] recorded movement variables from video analysis. The remaining studies utilized microtechnology (GPS and accelerometers, gyroscope and magnetometers) to measure movement variables. ...
... All studies used convenience sampling from 1 to 2 clubs or representative teams, or did not report this clearly, which makes it difficult to generalise the results of any one study to the wider rugby league population. Eight studies did not provide a complete description of subject characteristics [12,14,18,19,37,43,45,49]. Ten studies reported the actual probability values [9,12,17,18,20,34,[48][49][50][51], whereas 12 studies reported effect sizes [10,11,14,16,19,35,36,42,43,[45][46][47]. ...
... All studies used convenience sampling from 1 to 2 clubs or representative teams, or did not report this clearly, which makes it difficult to generalise the results of any one study to the wider rugby league population. Eight studies did not provide a complete description of subject characteristics [12,14,18,19,37,43,45,49]. Ten studies reported the actual probability values [9,12,17,18,20,34,[48][49][50][51], whereas 12 studies reported effect sizes [10,11,14,16,19,35,36,42,43,[45][46][47]. ...
Background:
Rugby league is a collision sport, where players are expected to be physically competent in a range of areas, including aerobic fitness, strength, speed and power. Several studies have attempted to characterise the physical demands of rugby league match-play, but these studies often have relatively small sample sizes based on one or two clubs, which makes generalisation of the findings difficult. Therefore, the aim of this review was to synthesise studies that investigated the physical demands of professional rugby league match-play.
Methods:
SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, MEDLINE (EBSCO) and Embase (EBSCO) databases were systematically searched from inception until October 2018. Articles were included if they (1) recruited professional rugby league athletes aged ≥ 18 years and (2) provided at least one match-play relevant variable (including playing time, total and relative distance, repeat high-intensity efforts (RHIE), efforts per RHIE, accelerations and decelerations, total and relative collisions). Meta-analyses were used to provide pooled estimates ± 95% confidence intervals.
Results:
A total of 30 studies were included. Pooled estimates indicated that, compared to adjustables and backs, forwards have less playing time (- 17.2 ± 5.6 and - 25.6 ± 5.8 min, respectively), cover less 'slow-speed' (- 2230 ± 735 and - 1348 ± 655 m, respectively) and 'high-speed' distance (- 139 ± 108 and - 229 ± 101 m, respectively), but complete more relative RHIEs (+ 0.05 ± 0.05 and + 0.08 ± 0.04 per minute, respectively), and total (+ 12.0 ± 8.1 and + 12.8 ± 7.2 collisions, respectively) and relative collisions (+ 0.32 ± 0.22 and + 0.41 ± 0.22 collisions per minute, respectively). Notably, when the distance was expressed relative to playing time, forwards were not different from adjustables and backs in slow-speed (P ≥ 0.295) and high-speed (P ≥ 0.889) relative distance. The adjustables and backs subgroups were similar in most variables, except playing time (shorter for adjustables, - 8.5 ± 6.2 min), slow-speed distance (greater for adjustables, + 882 ± 763 m) and total relative distance (greater for adjustables, + 11.3 ± 5.2 m·min-1). There were no significant differences between positional groups for efforts per RHIE, accelerations and decelerations (P ≥ 0.745).
Conclusions:
These results indicate the unique physical demands of each playing position and should be considered by strength and conditioning and tactical coaches when planning for professional rugby league performance. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: https://osf.io/83tq2/.
... Hasil dari analisis time-motion dapat meningkatkan program latihan untuk kekuatan dan pengkondisian secara spesifik karena memberikan wawasan tentang pemanfaatan sistem energi, dan dalam beberapa kasus pola gerakan secara spesifik yang digunakan selama pertandingan (Dobson et al., 2007). Analisis time-motion juga dapat memberikan informasi spesifik untuk persiapan fisik dan teknis pemain di setiap standar kompetitif (Sirotic et al., 2009). Dari hasil analisis time-motion pelatih bisa membuat strategi berikutnya untuk mengembangkan program latihan yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan atlet sehingga dapat tercapainya hasil yang diharapkan. ...
... Mendapatkan pemahaman tentang respon fisiologis terhadap latihan dan situasi pada saat pertandingan sangat penting untung merancang metode dan program latihan yang tepat (Franchini et al., 2014). Upaya fisik yang tinggi adalah salah satu aspek yang akan berkontribusi pada kinerja pertandingan yang sukses, kinerja keseluruhan juga ditentukan oleh keterampilan khusus permainan dan kemampuan pemain (Sirotic et al., 2009). Selain itu, pemahaman tentang skor, pelanggaran, dan total waktu durasi keseluruhan pada saat pertandingan dalam kategori berat badan dan jenis kelamin dapat membantu pelatih meningkatkan program latihan untuk atlet memenuhi kebutuhannya masing-masing (Calmet et al.,2017). ...
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between time- motion analysis on the results of the Judo match at the XX National Sports Week (PON) in 2021. The research method used was a descriptive correlational research method. The population used in this study was a video match of West Java Judo athletes who competed at the XX National Sports Week (PON) 2021 in Papua, totaling 15 athletes. The author uses a convenience sampling technique, the author only analyzes West Java athletes who compete in the fighting or sparring category. The research instrument used is videos of Judo matches at the XX National Sports Week (PON) in 2021 in Papua which will be analyzed in time-motion using a stopwatch. Data collection techniques were carried out by analyzing judo match videos. The data processing technique uses three methods, namely descriptive statistics, normality tests, and correlation tests. The results of the study indicate that time-motion analysis does not have a significant effect on the results of judo matches. So it can be concluded that the relationship between these variables has no relationship or is not correlated.
... All players were monitored during matches using Catapult PlayerTek™ GPS devices (PlayerTek™ Pod; Catapult Sports; Melbourne, Australia; is increasingly adopted as routine practice within semi-professional rugby league teams [3]. This uptake of monitoring technology has enabled comparisons in match demands between semi-professional and professional rugby league players [5][6][7] and between successful and less successful semi-professional teams [8,9]. Furthermore, player-worn microsensors permit a better understanding of the demands imposed on players during different training tasks and throughout match-play [10]. ...
... These data show trial matches may not replicate key volumes or intensities of in-season matches in professional, male rugby league players, suggesting coaches may have difficulties in assessing whether players will be able to cope with the demands and team strategies will be successful during official competition based on observations made in trial matches. However, these findings cannot be simply extrapolated to semi-professional rugby league given the varied match demands reported between professional and semiprofessional Australian rugby league competitions [5,6,13]. In this way, further research is needed to understand the demands of trial matches at the semi-professional level, which may have implications taken from each match included total distance (m), average speed (m · min -1 ), as well as absolute (m) and relative (m · min -1 ) distance (i.e., average speed) performing low-speed running (LSR; < 18 km · h -1 ) and high-speed running (HSR; > 18 km · h -1 ) as commonly reported in the rugby league literature [15]. ...
Trial matches are frequently used for team preparation in rugby league competitions, making it essential to understand the demands experienced to assess their specificity to actual competition. Consequently, this study aimed to compare the activity demands between pre-season trial matches and early in-season rugby league matches. Following a repeated-measures observational design, 39 semi-professional, male rugby league players from two clubs were monitored using microsensors during two trial matches and the first two in-season matches across two consecutive seasons. Total distance, average speed, peak speed, absolute and relative highspeed running (HSR; > 18 km·h-1) and low-speed running (LSR; < 18 km·h-1) distance, as well as absolute and relative impacts, accelerations (total and high-intensity > 3 m·s -2), and decelerations (total and highintensity < -3 m·s-2) were measured. Linear mixed models and Cohen’s d effect sizes were used to compare variables between match types. Playing duration was greater for in-season matches (p < 0.001, d = 0.64). Likewise, higher (p < 0.001, d = 0.45–0.70) activity volumes were evident during in-season matches indicated via total distance, HSR distance, LSR distance, total accelerations, high-intensity accelerations, total decelerations, and high-intensity decelerations. Regarding activity intensities, a higher average speed (p = 0.008, d = 0.31) and relative LSR distance (p = 0.005, d = 0.31) only were encountered during in-season matches. Despite players completing less volume, the average activity intensities and impact demands were mostly similar between trial and early in-season matches. These findings indicate trial matches might impose suitable activity stimuli to assist players in preparing for early in-season activity intensities.
... Testing batteries Reactive agility Green et al., 2011;Serpell et al., 2010) Technical and perceptual skills ( Gabbett et al., 2011) Catching & passing . Game-specific skills during match Gabbett et al., 2007;Kempton et al., 2013;Sirotic et al., 2009). ...
... Similarly, Oorschot et al. ( 2017) reviewed ten studies, five of which were also included in paper. This review evaluated measures of reactive agility Green et al., 2011;Serpell et al., 2010), technical and perceptual skills ( Gabbett et al., 2011), catching and passing and game-specific skills during matches Gabbett et al., 2007;Kempton et al., 2013;Sirotic et al., 2009). The findings of both review articles suggested that these studies lacked methodological quality and failed to represent the complex realities of the game. ...
Youth rugby players are often organised into (bi)annual-age groups to create equal competition and development opportunities for all players. However, the variability in kinanthropometry (i.e., the size, shape, proportion, composition and maturation) that exists between players of a similar chronological age can affect injury risk, physical performance, and talent identification. This chapter aims to review the research on the kinanthropometry of youth rugby players and presents a range of practical implications for coaches, sport scientists and practitioners working with young rugby players to consider in relation to kinanthropometry and grouping strategies within youth rugby development programmes. These practical implications include understanding and assessing growth and maturity, considerations for training and competition, talent identification and development strategies, and stakeholder communication.
... Rugby is a collision sport played at youth, amateur, and professional levels [1][2][3][4][5][6]. There are multiple codes of rugby, including union, league, and 7s, with their own laws and strategies, but which share many similar characteristics in gameplay, technical skill, and physiological demands of players [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. ...
... Rugby is a collision sport played at youth, amateur, and professional levels [1][2][3][4][5][6]. There are multiple codes of rugby, including union, league, and 7s, with their own laws and strategies, but which share many similar characteristics in gameplay, technical skill, and physiological demands of players [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Due to the high-contact nature of rugby, the ability to generate high amounts of force in a short period of time is of substantial interest to coaches and players. ...
The isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) is a multi-joint test of whole-body force production relevant to rugby players. “Rugby AND (mid-thigh pull OR midthigh pull OR mid thigh pull” were searched in PubMed, Sportdiscus, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, and Google Scholar; the final date of search was 24 January 2018. Data extraction from 24 articles included subject characteristics, force data, and IMTP testing procedures. Select ranges of peak forces reported were: Youth: 1162–2374 N; Academy: 1855–3104 N; Professional: 2254–3851 N. Rate of force development (RFD) at 100 and 200 ms ranged from 5521 to 11,892 N and 5403 to 8405 N, respectively, among professional rugby players. Studies’ research design were of moderate quality, but most studies lacked detailed reporting of IMTP procedures. Variability of force characteristics derived from the IMTP within similar populations (e.g., approximately 200% difference in peak force between samples of professional rugby league players) as well as large and unexpected overlaps between dissimilar populations, limit conclusions about force production capabilities relative to playing level, likely due to limitations and lack of standardization of IMTP procedures. Greater uniformity in IMTP testing procedures and reporting is needed. This manuscript provides a guide for reporting needs when presenting results from an IMTP in research.
... Historically, quantification of the volume and intensity of collisions experienced (i.e. 'dose') by rugby league athletes have occurred via tallies of tackles and ball carries, and through qualitative examination of the perceived dominance in collisions from analysis of video footage [32,33]. While this process can provide a rich source of contextual data, it is often labour and resource intensive and may be prone to the subjective biases of the video analyst [31]. ...
... Of the studies that compared cohorts between competition standards, one study compared cohorts from the NRL to Qcup [71], one study compared NRL cohorts to NSWCup [32], two studies compared NRL to SL [1,65], two studies compared NRL to NYC [23,68], and one study compared international to NRL [41]. Studies typically compared the collision dose either at the overall team level or within positional groupings. ...
Background:
Collisions (i.e. tackles, ball carries, and collisions) in the rugby league have the potential to increase injury risk, delay recovery, and influence individual and team performance. Understanding the collision demands of the rugby league may enable practitioners to optimise player health, recovery, and performance.
Objective:
The aim of this review was to (1) characterise the dose of collisions experienced within senior male rugby league match-play and training, (2) systematically and critically evaluate the methods used to describe the relative and absolute frequency and intensity of collisions, and (3) provide recommendations on collision monitoring.
Methods:
A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science) using keywords was undertaken. A meta-analysis provided a pooled mean of collision frequency or intensity metrics on comparable data sets from at least two studies.
Results:
Forty-three articles addressing the absolute (n) or relative collision frequency (n min-1) or intensity of senior male rugby league collisions were included. Meta-analysis of video-based studies identified that forwards completed approximately twice the number of tackles per game than backs (n = 24.6 vs 12.8), whilst ball carry frequency remained similar between backs and forwards (n = 11.4 vs 11.2). Variable findings were observed at the subgroup level with a limited number of studies suggesting wide-running forwards, outside backs, and hit-up forwards complete similar ball carries whilst tackling frequency differed. For microtechnology, at the team level, players complete an average of 32.7 collisions per match. Limited data suggested hit-up and wide-running forwards complete the most collisions per match, when compared to adjustables and outside backs. Relative to playing time, forwards (n min-1 = 0.44) complete a far greater frequency of collision than backs (n min-1 = 0.16), with data suggesting hit-up forwards undertake more than adjustables, and outside backs. Studies investigating g force intensity zones utilised five unique intensity schemes with zones ranging from 2-3 g to 13-16 g. Given the disparity between device setups and zone classification systems between studies, further analyses were inappropriate. It is recommended that practitioners independently validate microtechnology against video to establish criterion validity.
Conclusions:
Video- and microtechnology-based methods have been utilised to quantify collisions in the rugby league with differential collision profiles observed between forward and back positional groups, and their distinct subgroups. The ball carry demands of forwards and backs were similar, whilst tackle demands were greater for forwards than backs. Microtechnology has been used inconsistently to quantify collision frequency and intensity. Despite widespread popularity, a number of the microtechnology devices have yet to be appropriately validated. Limitations exist in using microtechnology to quantify collision intensity, including the lack of consistency and limited validation. Future directions include application of machine learning approaches to differentiate types of collisions in microtechnology datasets.
... In order to develop optimal programmes, knowledge of which phase of the velocity-time curve is most relevant to Rugby League is integral to understand which musculature and movements are prevalent within a game. In a motion analysis study of 39 games involving elite NRL players, it was found that players ran on average, 29 metres per minute at high-intensity, of which 5 metres was spent sprinting (Sirotic et al. 2009). ...
... As maximal sprinting velocity has previously been suggested to occur at around 60 metres and with Rugby League players found to be rarely required to sprint more than 40 metres, they are unlikely to have reached peak sprinting velocity (Baker & Nance, 1999). This was confirmed by Sirotic et al (2009) who found the mean sprint time for elite Rugby League players to be around 2.1 seconds. Furthermore, on average, players accelerated around 4 times per minute of which 0.5 accelerations were rapid, which highlights the prevalence of acceleration during the game of Rugby League. ...
Background: Acceleration ability is an integral facet of successful performance in Rugby League. Strength has been found to correlate highly with acceleration performance and as a result, resistance training is the predominant method to increase strength and subsequently improve acceleration performance. However, focus within the literature has been on resistance training of the hip extensors and not the hip flexors. Therefore the aim of the study was to investigate the effects of resistance and complex hip flexor training on acceleration performance. Methods: Fifteen Student Rugby League players undertook resistance or complex (plyometric & resistance) training of the hip flexors for six weeks following pre-testing. Testing involved a 30 metre sprint with timing gates positioned at 10, 20 and 30 metres and a hip flexion strength test on the isokinetic dynamometer at 60, 270 and 450 o .s-1. Results: Significant (p≤0.05) increases in 30 metre acceleration performance occurred in both the resistance and complex hip flexor training groups. Significant (p≤0.05) increases in 20 metre sprint performance were also observed following complex training of the hip flexors. Significant (p≤0.05) increases in isokinetic hip flexion strength occurred at 60 o .s-1 following resistance only training whilst there were significant increases at both 60 o .s-1 and 450 o .s-1 following complex training of the hip flexor musculature. Discussion: Increases in hip flexion strength could possibly help improve the angular acceleration qualities of the swing leg as it moves through the swing phase of sprint gait which could help to increase stride length and improve acceleration performance. A lack of increase in 10 m sprint performance suggests that hip flexor training may not be appropriate for forwards but appropriate for backs. The findings in the current study suggest that hip flexor training should be a staple of strength and conditioning programmes for Rugby League backs to improve acceleration performance.
... Los estudios más recientes han demostrado la importancia de mejorar la realización de sprints, así como la capacidad de repetir esfuerzos a alta intensidad, ya que estos aspectos están asociados a un mayor nivel competitivo (Delextrat, Gruet y Bieuzen, 2018;Leite, Coutinho y Sampaio, 2013;Sirotic, Coutts, Knowles y Catterick, 2009;Ziv y Lidor, 2009). Por dicho motivo, los jugadores de baloncesto durante la competición necesitan tener una condición física que les permita poder recorrer el campo atacando o defendiendo con continuos cambios de velocidad y dirección, saltos y aceleraciones. ...
... Un método útil para investigar las necesidades físicas del deporte es el análisis del tiempo y el movimiento (Time-motion), en el que los distintos modos de movimiento son elegidos subjetivamente u objetivamente y cronometrados a lo largo de la ejecución (Bloomfield, Polman y O'Donoghue, 2004). Hoy en día, el video análisis es uno de los métodos más comunes a la hora de analizar la actuación y evaluar las demandas de actividad de los jugadores masculinos durante la competición en la mayoría de los deportes (Lupo, Tessitore, Minganti y Capranica, 2010;Scanlan, Dascombe y Reaburn, 2011;Sirotic et al., 2009;Spencer et al., 2004) y cuantificar los diferentes factores a analizar, como: biomecánicos, fisiológicos, patrones de movimiento, intensidades en los movimientos y sus duraciones (Kiefer, 2012). ...
The present thesis consisted in the development of an intervention with the inclusion of a training program, of 6 weeks duration, with a basketball player´s group (N=22, 18.1±1.26 years, 187.05±8.42 cm of height, 79.82±9.99 kg of weight and 7.82±4.02 years of experience in basketaball), and to check their effects on the performance of their physical capacities. For this, several objectives were proposed, such as: to evaluate the effect of a combined regular program during the same session, of High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) with changes of direction (COD) and Small- Sided Games (SSG) performed at the beginning of the preseason in the physical perfomance of basketball players, comparing it with a traditional training carried out by a control group, and thus to know if this program supposes an effective stimulus in order to reach the physical demands of the competition.
The objectives of the present investigation are based on several aspects:
1. Due to the highly intermittent nature of basketball, players need a good aerobic capacity, which is vital for recoveries between high intensity efforts and in the final stages of the competition. In the same way, it has also been described that the ability to repeat high intensity efforts is a determining factor in sports performance and is linked to a good máximum consumption of relative oxygen (VO₂máx).
2. Many well-known studies have demonstrated and promote the inclusion of HIIT works in the planning of team sports; among other reasons for the strict control of their individually intensity of work, among others. Additionally, with the introduction of changes of direction increase the specificity of trainings, and increase the adaptations produced with this training methodology.
3. It is also known that a training through SSG improves and stimulates the specific patterns and movements of the game, while at the same time that the players manage to obtain improvements in the aerobic system.
4. Through both protocols are usually achieved increases in physical abilities, mainly in the VO₂máx (but not always after all interventions); although there is great controversy in the results of improvement with the repeated sprints ability (RSA).
5. Little research has been carried out in this in the field, in basketball, at present no publication has been found that has combines these two methodologies (HIIT and SSG) in the same session.
Consequently, this paper begins with the conceptual framework, in which the physical and physiological characteristics of competitive basketball are exposed and analysed, the competitive activity, including the values of heart rate registered in competition and the most relevant physical capacities in players (such as aerobic and anaerobic capacity, strength and explosive resistance, emphasizing in the repetition of jumps and sprints). Secondly, we will describe the works that have analysed the competition through video-analysis (Time-motion), to obtain relevant information, such as the distance travelled, the number of actions or the intensity of the game at each moment. Finally, in this section, we proceed to perform an analysis of the training methodologies, focusing on those that incorporate specific movements and technical-tactical skills, such as RSA, HIIT and SSG, especially in the last two methodologies, because both are the objects of study.
Next, the aforementioned objectives are explained and substantiated, in order to formulate the following two hypotheses to answer: a) a combined training program through HIIT with COD and SSG in basketball players during the same session will be a sufficient stimulus and could improve the levels of physical condition more than just by with the usual training carried out by the control group; and b) that the effects of a combined program of training through HIIT with COD and SSG in basketball players throughout the same session will be a sufficient stimulus and could improve more than the fitness levels than those described by researches that they use exclusively one of the two methodologies or combine them in alternate sessions, achieving significant improvements in the repeat sprints ability, vertical jump capacity and intermittent resistance.
Once the objectives and the established hypotheses have been exposed, we proceed to explain the design of the research, as well as the methodology used. The present investigation consisted in a quantitative and quasi-experimental work with pre-post tests. For this development, two basketball teams competing nationally were used, one was the control group (GC) (N =11, 18.55±1.04 years, 191.09±9.80 cm and 81.68±10.52 kg), and the other as experimental group (GE) (N= 11, 17.91±1.58 years, 183±4.88 cm and 77.95±10.07 kg), all having complied with the inclusion criteria and having signed the informed consent.
A 6-week combined HIIT and SSG training protocol was designed, with 2 trainings per week separated by at least 48 hours. The week before the beginning of the protocol and the week after its completion, a battery of tests was applied to check the changes experienced after the intervention and to compare the differences between both groups. During the interventions, 3 parameters were recorded: heart rate (FC), perceived exertion range (RPE) and a fatigue questionnaire was filled in the morning after the training. The variables registered through the physical tests, to compare the pre-post changes, were collected from 3 tests carried out during two days. First a vertical jump test was performed, the countermovement jump (CMJ), obtaining the height and speed of the jump, followed by an RSA test (10 30-meter sprints with a COD of 180º at 15 meters, and with a 30-second rest between repetitions), collecting the best time (BT), the total time (TT) and the decrease percentage (PD) of the test. The second day 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Tests took place, an incremental test, and the final speed reached in the test (VIFT) was collected (which will then serve to control the intensity of HIIT training), as well as the estimated VO₂máx for each player.
During 6 weeks in the GE, 2 weekly workouts were added to their usual trainings, which consisted of a HIIT protocol (1 or 2 series of 7-9 minutes, in which the players ran during 15 seconds at 90-95% of their VIFT and 15 seconds rested, and with 5 minutes of passive rest between sets) with 1 or 2 changes of direction of 180º. And then, in the same session they carried out the SSG protocol (1-4 series of 4-6 minutes of 2vs2 or 3vs3 on half or full court). Throughout the session his HR was monitored and at the end of the training the RPE was recorded.
The data analysis consisted of the calculation of the descriptive statistics for all the variables, and after contrasting the hypothesis of non-normality of each of the data, and in order to verify the significant differences between the pre-test and the post-test, the non-parametric of Wilcoxon test was used for related samples, with a confidence interval of 95% (p≤0.05). The Cliff Delta test was then calculated to find the size of the effect.
The main results obtained were: a) the mean HR of the whole protocol was 177.70±12.93 ppm (90.58% FCmáx), achieving higher values in HIIT (185.10±8.18 ppm, 94.35% FCmáx), compared to the SSG ( 170.31±17.69 ppm, 86.81% FCmáx), and an average RPE over the 6 weeks from 7.41±0.87 u.a.; b) The CG only achieved a significant improvement in one of the variables, in the height of the CMJ (4.32%); while GE increased in all variables (VIFT: 8.31%, VO₂máx: 6.07%, CMJ height: 7%, CMJ speed: 3.05%, BT: -4.71%, TT: -4.49%), except in the percentage of decrement in the RSA.
Finally, in the chapter of the discussion, the results obtained are analyzed and compared with the different investigations and publications carried out in this field. The main conclusions obtained are that significant improvements have been obtained in 6 of the 7 parameters, and these (cardiorespiratory function, CMJ and RSA) are mostly bigger than the adaptations produced by other described in other research found in the field of basketball, using a single methodology (HIIT or SSG) in basketball players, but also in other sports disciplines. In addition, these changes have been superior in all cases to the adaptations achieved by the control group, having this team only achieved a significant improvement in the height reached in the CMJ. Likewise, it has been corroborated that the combination of both methodologies during the same session obtains better results in the parameters analysed than when combining them in alternate sessions. And, due to the combination of the methods within the same session, high average FC was achieved, similar or even superior to other studies undertaken individually, thus being a sufficient stimulus to produce the various improvements, inducing physiological demands superior those usual in an official competition.
For all these reasons, the hypotheses proposed for the present doctoral thesis were accepted, and the introduction of this type of combined training in the planning of the basketball players is advocated.
The present doctoral thesis finalizes proposing new and future lines of investigation in order to deepen the knowledge and effect of this type of training methodologies in collective sports. In the same way, there are also some practical applications described from the development of this research, and which can be applied by the physical trainers in their professional development.
... A greater understanding of these movement patterns can advance training programs, such as small-sided training games that simulate the high-intensity movements of team-sports while improving skill. 1 Furthermore, the knowledge of benchmark (i.e. successful international teams) external outputs such as speed and distances attained in a match can inform coaches and sports scientists of individual and/or team performance, 2 including the performance potential of developing athletes (i.e. talent identification). ...
... This is a common finding in team-sport movement patterns [16][17][18] and could be a result of accumulative match-fatigue, likely due to the high physical loads of elite level competition. 2 However, the variation in game duration between Australian women's state (60-70 min), national (60 min) and international (80 min) rugby league competitions may act as a contextual factor that could influence the movement patterns due to player unfamiliarity with match tactics, interchange timing and game pacing for 80-min matches. It would be reasonable to infer that an extension of match duration by 25% for international matches would contribute to an increased match-load for players. ...
Objectives:
To describe the movement patterns of the Australian Women's Rugby League team during international competition.
Design:
Retrospective observational study.
Methods:
Global Positioning Systems technology recorded the movements of players from the Australian Women's Rugby League team (n=31) during seven international rugby league matches. A subgroup of players (n=18) that played at least 80min in a match were categorized into three positional groups: forwards (n=7), backs (n=7) and halves (n=4), and analysed for external outputs that were classified into multiple speed zones. Mean speed (mmin-1) and mean speed when travelling >12kmh-1 (MS12; mmin-1) were calculated for each 10% interval of playing time of both groups to assess changes in match intensity.
Results:
Total distance travelled was greater in the first half (3332.9m compared to 3249.0m), along with distances travelled at speeds >15kmh-1 (p<0.05), whereas players travelled further at speeds <6kmh-1 in the second half (p=0.005). Backs travelled further at speeds <6kmh-1 (p=0.002) and >15kmh-1 (p=0.007) compared to forwards. Mean speed significantly reduced across the first and second halves (p<0.05), while MS12 reduced by ∼40% in the first half of the match (i.e. first ∼5min compared to the last ∼5min).
Conclusion:
These results provide coaches with sport-specific activity profiles of female rugby league players that can be used to individualise training prescription. Given that match-intensity deteriorated across the first and second halves, programs may be targeted at improving endurance and supramaximal exercise tolerance in order for female players to withstand high match-demands of international competition.
... ml·kg 21 ·min 21 ) than their subelite counterparts (30). Another study found that senior elite rugby league players performed at a greater intensity (108.9 m·min 21 ) than semielite players (102.2 m·min 21 ) during the first half of match play (56). Interestingly, the elite rugby league players experienced a significant decrease in match intensity from the first half (108.9 m·min 21 ) to the second half (103.6 m·min 21 ), implying that the increased demands placed on elite players during the first half may cause the reduction in intensity during the second half (56). ...
... Another study found that senior elite rugby league players performed at a greater intensity (108.9 m·min 21 ) than semielite players (102.2 m·min 21 ) during the first half of match play (56). Interestingly, the elite rugby league players experienced a significant decrease in match intensity from the first half (108.9 m·min 21 ) to the second half (103.6 m·min 21 ), implying that the increased demands placed on elite players during the first half may cause the reduction in intensity during the second half (56). ...
Ball, S, Halaki, M, and Orr, R. Movement demands of rugby sevens in men and women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Global positioning systems (GPS) provide comprehensive information of player movement demands in rugby 7's. Although studies have investigated the use of GPS within many field-based team sports, the application of GPS within rugby 7's remains unclear. The aim of this review was to evaluate the movement demands and conduct a meta-analysis on comparable GPS measures to assess player movement in rugby 7's. A systematic search of electronic databases Medline, SPORTDiscus, Cinahl, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase was performed. The search strategy combined terms covering: global positioning systems AND rugby union. Studies were included if they contained rugby sevens' players monitored by GPS. Meta-analyses were conducted to provide a pooled mean and confidence intervals (CIs) on outcomes for data extracted from at least 3 studies. A total of 24 publications were eligible for review and included 661 (447 male and 214 female) rugby 7's players. Meta-analysis indicated that male players cover greater relative distance (male: 108.5 m·min 21 , 95% CI [104.9-112.1] m·min 21 , female: 100.3 m·min 21 , 95% CI [96.0-104.7] m·min 21), distance at .12.6 km·h 21 (male: 449.3 m, 95% CI [427.0-471.5] m, female: 339.5 m, 95% CI [291.1-387.9] m) and .18.0 km·h 21 (male: 190.3 m, 95% CI [180.7-199.9] m, female: 129.9 m, 95% CI [99.9-159.8] m), and have a greater maximum velocity compared with female players (male: 29.8 km·h 21 , 95% CI [29.2-30.4] km·h 21 , female: 24.6 km·h 21 , 95% CI [23.3-25.9] km·h 21), whereas relative distance is higher for the first half (109.5 m·min 21 , 95% CI [99.1-120.0] m·min 21) compared with the second half (93.8 m·min 21 , 95% CI [87.4-100.1] m·min 21) of match play across sexes and playing levels. Independent velocity zone classifications should apply for male and female players, whereas velocity thresholds should remain consistent across studies. Rugby 7's training intensity should vary between male and female players.
... In the men's tournament the scores became closer in the second half, but the gap widened in women's handball (Pollany, 2010). Whilst the two standards of competition place similar physical and game-specific skill demands on players during matches, variations do exist within a match between the two playing standards (Sirotic et al., 2009). Contrary findings have been obtaineed of match activities in rugby (Sirotic et al., 2009) and football (Reilly, 2005). ...
... Whilst the two standards of competition place similar physical and game-specific skill demands on players during matches, variations do exist within a match between the two playing standards (Sirotic et al., 2009). Contrary findings have been obtaineed of match activities in rugby (Sirotic et al., 2009) and football (Reilly, 2005). Handball teams at the EMHC'2002-2006 (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001) scored more goals in the second half than in the first. ...
Research background and hypothesis. Europeans have won Olympic and world gold medals since modern indoor
men’s handball became an international sport (1938) and an Olympic sport (1972) (www. ihf.com). Nevertheless, no
research has been carried out in order to find out the tendencies in European modern men’s handball.
Research aim of this study was to illustrate discriminant indicators of sport performance between winners and
losers in European men’s modern handball match activities.
Research methods. Data sets were gathered from the European Handball Federation (EHF) website (http://
www.eurohandball.com) covering the five European Men’s Handball Championships (EMHC): 2002, 2004, 2006,
2008 and 2010 (n = 239 matches). Each match was classified as successful and non-successful for each team, and
then the number of analysed matches doubled to 478. We examined 28 variables of sport performance, but only 15
key indicators where significant discriminant between winners and losers at least in one EMHC was shown.
Research results. Winners scored more goals (p < 0.01, p < 0.001), were better in total attack (p < 0.001) and
positional attack (p < 0.01, p < 0.001), performed more efficiently in shooting total (p < 0.001) and shooting from
long distance (p < 0.01, p < 0.05), and goalkeepers saved more throws (p < 0.05, p < 0.001).
Discussion and conclusions. Winning and losing teams played in the same pattern (p > 0.05). In many cases the separate match-play was determined by using temporal model of playing style. The phenomenon is that teams scored more goals in the second half than in the first one despite the fact that players’ activities decreased in the second half. Sport performance profile in European modern handball can generate a useful database.
Keywords: sports games, performance analysis, elite athletes.
... Even though there are methodological differences in the definitions of repeated-sprint bouts between sports, the results from the current study show that repeated-sprint bouts rarely occur in hurling like previously found in soccer [20,34] and Rugby League [22,31]. The present results show that hurlers performed a similar number of repeated-sprint bouts compared with soccer (3 ± 3 in 45-min) [20,34] but slightly higher than in Rugby League (ranged from 0-4) [22,35]. However, a different definition for a repeated-speed bout (� 3 sprints in � 21 s) was used in Rugby League [22,31]. ...
... In addition, it has previously been shown that senior hurlers [10] perform more high-speed running than U21 players, so this additional high-intensity demand could have contributed to the lower sprint performance in seniors in the second half. Research in Australian football [17], Rugby League [35] and soccer [37] showed that high-intensity exercise during the first half or quarter affects subsequent running performance in the next half or quarter of match-play. Likewise, the high-intensity efforts in the first half in the present study may explain the trivialto-small temporal decrements in sprint performance in the second half. ...
The typical sprint profile in elite hurling has yet to be established. The purpose of this study was to investigate the sprinting demands of elite hurling competition and characterize the sprinting patterns of different playing positions. GPS (10-Hz, STATSports Viper) were used to collect data from 51 hurlers during 18 games. The total sprint (≥22 km·h⁻¹) distance (TSD), the number of sprints (NOS) classified as length (<20 m, ≥20 m) and relative speed thresholds (<80%, 80–90%, >90%), the between-sprint duration and the number of repeated-sprint bouts (≥2 sprints in ≤60 s) were analyzed. The NOS was 22.2 ± 6.8 accumulating 415 ± 140 m TSD. The NOS <20 m, ≥20 m was 14.0 ± 4.7 and 8.1 ± 3.6 respectively. The NOS <80%, 80–90% and >90% was 10.6 ± 4.3, 8.2 ± 3.6, 3.4 ± 2.4 respectively. The between-sprint duration and the repeated-sprint bouts were 208 ± 86 s and 4.5 ± 2.6 respectively. TSD (ES = -0.20), NOS (ES = -0.34), NOS <20 m (ES = -0.33), ≥20 m (ES = -0.24), 80–90% (ES = -0.35) >90% (ES = -0.13) and repeated-sprint bouts (ES = -0.28) decreased between-halves. Full-backs performed a lower NOS <80% than half-backs (ES = -0.66) and a shorter mean duration of sprints than half-backs (ES = -0.75), midfielders (ES = -1.00) and full-forwards (ES = -0.59). These findings provide a sprint profile of elite hurling match-play that coaches should consider to replicate the sprint demands of competition in training.
... The current study identified that the PL was higher in the representative (U19, O19) when compared with domestic players. This is similar to previous research in netball (7), field hockey (12), Australian rules football (4), and rugby league (17), where higher level players exhibited greater levels of PL when compared with players from lower levels of match participation. Similar to these studies (4,7,17), the specific movements responsible for the increased PL remains unclear; however, more frequent bouts of high-speed running have been implicated. ...
... This is similar to previous research in netball (7), field hockey (12), Australian rules football (4), and rugby league (17), where higher level players exhibited greater levels of PL when compared with players from lower levels of match participation. Similar to these studies (4,7,17), the specific movements responsible for the increased PL remains unclear; however, more frequent bouts of high-speed running have been implicated. As previously reported (7), there is a strong relationship between total distance and PL; however, the size of the netball court in addition to the games rules may result in different movement patterns when compared with sports such as Australian football and rugby league, which provide an increased opportunity to accrue distance because of the larger sporting fields. ...
King, DA, Cummins, C, Hume, PA, and Clark, TN. Physical demands of amateur domestic and representative netball in one season in New Zealand assessed using heart rate and movement analysis. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-The purpose of this descriptive cohort study was to describe physical demands of netball for positions and between playing levels using microtechnology. Data were collected from 34 female netball players across 3 teams at different levels (over 19 years representative [O19], under 19 years representative [U19], and open-age amateur club domestic) for 20 games using heart rate and microtechnology data. Total distance, maximal velocity, PlayerLoad ([PL] accumulated accelerometer-derived load), and individual PL vectors (PL forward [PLF], PL sideward [PLS] and PL vertical [PLV]) were examined. Analysis by playing level and netball position were conducted. The O19 players recorded a higher mean distance (3,365.7 ± 1,875.1 m) per match than U19 (p = 0.0095) players. The O19 players recorded a higher PL (p = 0.0003), PLF (p = 0.004), PLS (p = 0.0039), and PLV (p = 0.0352) than the domestic players. Domestic players recorded a higher maximal velocity than O19 players (p = 0.0003; d = 0.32) throughout the study. Domestic players recorded a higher average maximal heart rate (202.2 ± 28.2 b·min) than O19 (p < 0.0001) and U19 (p = 0.0002) players. Given the high physical demands of netball, individual player- and position-specific training programs are required to develop players for the specific demands of competition while also reducing the impact of excessive physical exertion to facilitate safer engagement within netball. The identification of the differing physical and physiological profiles of individual positional groups throughout match-play highlights the importance of integrating microtechnology into the routine monitoring of intermittent court-based sports, such as netball.
... passing, shooting), grappling, push-ups and tackling into contact bags. These types of explosive efforts typically precede or follow high-intensity runs/sprints during match play [159][160][161] and may help to better simulate the physiological demands associated with competition. Furthermore, flying sprints that incorporate a submaximal acceleration zone may provide exposure to repeated bouts of maximal velocity sprinting, without the neuromuscular demands of rapid acceleration [162]. ...
Background
Repeated-sprint training (RST) involves maximal-effort, short-duration sprints (≤ 10 s) interspersed with brief recovery periods (≤ 60 s). Knowledge about the acute demands of RST and the influence of programming variables has implications for training prescription.
Objectives
To investigate the physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST, while also examining the moderating effects of programming variables (sprint modality, number of repetitions per set, sprint repetition distance, inter-repetition rest modality and inter-repetition rest duration) on these outcomes.
Methods
The databases Pubmed, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE and Scopus were searched for original research articles investigating overground running RST in team sport athletes ≥ 16 years. Eligible data were analysed using multi-level mixed effects meta-analysis, with meta-regression performed on outcomes with ~ 50 samples (10 per moderator) to examine the influence of programming factors. Effects were evaluated based on coverage of their confidence (compatibility) limits (CL) against elected thresholds of practical importance.
Results
From 908 data samples nested within 176 studies eligible for meta-analysis, the pooled effects (± 90% CL) of RST were as follows: average heart rate (HRavg) of 163 ± 9 bpm, peak heart rate (HRpeak) of 182 ± 3 bpm, average oxygen consumption of 42.4 ± 10.1 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, end-set blood lactate concentration (B[La]) of 10.7 ± 0.6 mmol·L⁻¹, deciMax session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE) of 6.5 ± 0.5 au, average sprint time (Savg) of 5.57 ± 0.26 s, best sprint time (Sbest) of 5.52 ± 0.27 s and percentage sprint decrement (Sdec) of 5.0 ± 0.3%. When compared with a reference protocol of 6 × 30 m straight-line sprints with 20 s passive inter-repetition rest, shuttle-based sprints were associated with a substantial increase in repetition time (Savg: 1.42 ± 0.11 s, Sbest: 1.55 ± 0.13 s), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.6 ± 0.9 au). Performing two more repetitions per set had a trivial effect on HRpeak (0.8 ± 1.0 bpm), B[La] (0.3 ± 0.2 mmol·L⁻¹), sRPE (0.2 ± 0.2 au), Savg (0.01 ± 0.03) and Sdec (0.4; ± 0.2%). Sprinting 10 m further per repetition was associated with a substantial increase in B[La] (2.7; ± 0.7 mmol·L⁻¹) and Sdec (1.7 ± 0.4%), whereas the effect on sRPE was trivial (0.7 ± 0.6). Resting for 10 s longer between repetitions was associated with a substantial reduction in B[La] (−1.1 ± 0.5 mmol·L⁻¹), Savg (−0.09 ± 0.06 s) and Sdec (−1.4 ± 0.4%), while the effects on HRpeak (−0.7 ± 1.8 bpm) and sRPE (−0.5 ± 0.5 au) were trivial. All other moderating effects were compatible with both trivial and substantial effects [i.e. equal coverage of the confidence interval (CI) across a trivial and a substantial region in only one direction], or inconclusive (i.e. the CI spanned across substantial and trivial regions in both positive and negative directions).
Conclusions
The physiological, neuromuscular, perceptual and performance demands of RST are substantial, with some of these outcomes moderated by the manipulation of programming variables. To amplify physiological demands and performance decrement, longer sprint distances (> 30 m) and shorter, inter-repetition rest (≤ 20 s) are recommended. Alternatively, to mitigate fatigue and enhance acute sprint performance, shorter sprint distances (e.g. 15–25 m) with longer, passive inter-repetition rest (≥ 30 s) are recommended.
... Rugby League (RL) is a locomotor-based, invasion, team game, requiring intermittent collisions with opposing players (Hausler, et al., 2016;Woods, et al., 2018;Johnston, et al., 2019). Sirotic, et al. (2009) reported the performance demands of sub-elite RL to be 103.0 ± 8.1 running metres per minute and 0.28 ± 0.16 tackles per minute (defensive collisions only). ...
Objectives:
The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between unilateral leg strength, associated asymmetries and the injuries suffered by sub-elite Rugby League (RL) players in one competitive season.
Design:
A prospective cohort design was used.
Method:
Unilateral leg strength was measured using the rear foot elevated split squat five repetition maximum test. Injuries were recorded using the Orchard classification system and were used to quantify relative risk (RR), mean severity, burden, player availability and survival time.
Results:
No measures of leg strength were related to RR, relative leg strength was found to have a significant, but not meaningful correlation with total time lost to lower body injury, lower body injury burden and lower body injury survival time.
Conclusions:
The data from the current study indicates a possible positive effect of increasing relative leg strength for injury outcomes in sub-elite RL players. This supports a heuristic that multi-joint lower body strength training for RL players has a potential dual effect of enhancing physical performance and reducing injury time loss, with minimal risk of harm.
... The RSA test consisted of 12 × 20-m sprints with timing gates positioned at the start and finish lines, departing every 20 seconds, which was selected due to its representativeness of the distances and work-to-rest ratio experienced during team sport. 21 Participants were instructed that they would perform between 10 and 14 sprints to minimize the influence of pacing. 22 Average sprint time (in seconds), performance decline (in percentages), and accumulated scores of ratings of perceived exertion using the 6 to 20 scale 23 were collected. ...
Purpose:
This crossover trial compared the effects of varying feedback approaches on sprint performance, motivation, and affective mood states in female athletes.
Methods:
Eligibility criteria were being competitive female athletes, where participants completed sprint tests in 4 randomized feedback conditions on grass, including augmented feedback (sprint time; AUG-FB), technical feedback (cues; TECH-FB), a competition-driven drill (CDD) sprinting against an opponent, and a control condition (no feedback; CON). Participants completed a 20-m sprint (maximum sprint), 30-m curved agility sprint, and a repeated sprint ability test, with sprint times, motivation level, and mood states recorded. The participants were blinded from the number of trials during the repeated sprint ability test.
Results:
About 12 rugby league players completed all feedback conditions. The maximum sprint times were faster for AUG-FB (3.54 [0.16] s) and CDD (3.54 [0.16] s) compared with TECH-FB (3.64 [0.16] s), while there were no differences compared with CON (3.58 [0.17] s). The curved agility sprint times were faster for AUG-FB (5.42 [0.20] s) compared with TECH-FB (5.61 [0.21] s) and CON (5.57 [0.24] s), although CDD (5.38 [0.26] s) produced faster sprint times than TECH-FB. Effort and value were higher with AUG-FB (6.31 [0.68]; 6.53 [0.05]) compared with CON (5.99 [0.60]; 4.75 [2.07]), while CON exhibited lower enjoyment ratings (4.68 [0.95]) compared with other feedback conditions (AUG-FB: 5.54 [0.72]; CDD: 5.56 [0.67]; TECH-FB: 5.60 [0.56]).
Conclusions:
Providing AUG-FB prior to sprint tasks enhances more immediate performance outcomes than TECH-FB. AUG-FB also benefited athlete enjoyment, task effort, and coaching value. Female athletes should receive AUG-FB in testing and training environments, to improve immediate physical performance and motivation.
... Further potential explanations may be the increased number of support runs made by elite players when compared to sub-elite players. Previous literature has reported across various field sports that elite level players make significantly more support runs versus sub-elite in the 1 st half of match-play with a decrement in the 2 nd half [28]. However, support runs were not considered within the current analysis and may present a future line of investigation within elite and sub-elite hurling match-play. ...
Purpose
The current study compared specific positional and temporal running performance profiles of elite and sub-elite hurling players during competitive match-play.
Methods
Running performance data were obtained during match-play using GPS technology (GPEXE lt 18 Hz, Exelio, srl, Udine, Italy) from 53 elite and 81 sub-elite hurlers resulting in 524 total data sets (elite n = 200; sub-elite n = 324). Running performance data consisted of total distance [TD], high-speed running [HSR], sprint distance, accelerations [n], maximal speed [km·h− 1], relative total distance (RTD), relative high-speed running (RHSR), relative sprint distance (RSD), and relative accelerations. All data were analysed across level and positions. Additionally, HSR and RHSR were analysed across halves of play. Multiple two-way ANOVAs determined the effect of two fixed factors (level and position) on each of the running performance variables. Furthermore, two three-way ANOVAs determined the effect of level, position and halves on HSR and RHSR.
Results
Elite level players covered a greater relative TD (η² = 0.037; small) and relative HSR (η² = 0.023; small) across positional lines of half-back (η² = 0.008, small), midfield (η² = 0.025, small) and half-forward (η² = 0.009, small) when compared to their sub-elite counterparts. Temporal decrements in relative HSR of 11.3% at elite level and 5.7% at sub-elite level were observed across halves of match-play. Specifically, across the positional lines of half-back (13.1 v 2.7%), midfield (9.7 v 9.1%) and half-forward (11.9 v 6.1%) elite level players were observed to have a higher decrement in relative HSR when compared to sub-elite players.
Conclusion
The current data are the first to show differences in positional running performance between standards of play within hurling. These normative data provide additional considerations for hurling coaches with respect to transitioning players from sub-elite to elite level of play.
... According to Caprino et al. (2012), time-motion data reveal cumulative fatigue of players during a basketball match. Fatigue manifestation characterized by decreasing activity demands was also published in soccer by Carling et al. (2008) and Barros et al. (2007), or Sirotic et al. (2009) in rugby. ...
Background: Fatigue demonstrated by decreasing performance seems to occur towards the ends of periods of matches and can lead to a win or loss of the match. Objective: This study aimed to assess the influence of fatigue on internal and external load using game-based drills in junior and adult male basketball players. Methods: A total of 50 elite basketball players participated in this study. Every participant was monitored by the Team Pro Polar system to find out heart rate and activity demands during a game-based drill. Mixed analysis of variance 2 × 4 was used. Results: Significant interactions between age category and playing quarter were found for 2 distance covered (p =.001, ηp =.25). Significant interactions between age category and playing quarter were found for relative time 2 2 in zone 3 (running, p =.013, ηp =.25) and zone 4 (high-intensity running, p =.004, ηp =.34). When comparing the last three minutes of quarters, a significant main effect was found for playing quarter, when the distance covered (p =.001, ηp 2 =.47) significantly 2 decreased. A significant main effect was found for playing quarter, whereby relative time spent in zone 3 (p =.012, ηp =.09; quarter 2 1 vs. 4: p =.044) significantly increased, and in zone 4 decreased (p =.001, ηp =.29, moderate effect; quarter 1 vs. 4: p =.010). When comparing heart rate and activity demands during the last three minutes of playing quarters, the significant main effect for 2 the age category was found in distance covered (p =.004, ηp =.27). It was greater in adult male players compared to junior players. Conclusions: The fatigue affects the distance covered, and intensity of activity demands during the last three minutes of quarters, but not the heart rate response of players.
... The development of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) units, which are light, small, and portable, allows for simultaneous movement patterns analyses of multiple players [3,4]. Since then, the use of GNSS/GPS for athlete tracking has become widespread in various sports, such as soccer, rugby, and field hockey [3,[5][6][7] due to the ease of data collection and quality of analysis provided by these systems [8][9][10][11]. Additionally, GNSS/GPS units are the conventional technology used for the assessment of external training load variables in team sports due to their ability to give real-time feedback. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the inter-unit consistency and validity of multiple 10-Hz Catapult Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) units in measuring straight-line sprint distances and speeds. A total of 13 participants performed one 45.72-m linear sprint at maximum effort while wearing all eight GNSS units at once. Total run distance and peak speed recorded using GNSS units during the sprint duration were extracted for analysis. Sprint time and peak speed were also obtained from video recordings as reference values. Inter-unit consistency was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and standard errors of measurements (SEM). For a validity test, one-sample t-tests were performed to compare each GNSS unit’s distance with the known distance. Additionally, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were performed to compare each unit’s peak speed with the reference peak speed measured using video analysis. Results showed poor inter-unit consistency for both distance (ICC = 0.131; SEM = 8.8 m) and speed (ICC = 0.323; SEM 1.3 m/s) measurements. For validity, most units recorded a total distance (44.50 m to 52.69 m) greater than the known distance of 45.72 m and a lower peak speed (7.25 (0.51) m/s) than the video-based reference values (7.78 (0.90) m/s). The present findings demonstrate that there exist variations in distance and speed measurements among different units of the same GNSS system during straight-line sprint running. Practitioners should be aware of the window of errors associated with GNSS measurements and interpret the results with caution. When making comparisons over a season, players should wear the same unit every time if logistically possible.
... Research in Australian football , Rugby League (Sirotic et al., 2009) and soccer (Bradley et al., 2009) showed that high-intensity exercise during the first half or quarter affects subsequent running characteristics in the next half or quarter of match-play. ...
Hurling is one of the national sports played in Ireland. With 15 players on each team, the objective of this stick and ball game is to outscore your opponents. The demands of this sport are not well known. Time-motion analysis of the activity cycles of elite hurling was carried out using SportsCode analysis software, where the ball-in-play (BIP) and ball-out-of-play (BOP) cycles, the number and type of stoppage were analysed. The running variables (total distance, relative distance, distance covered at each intensity, number and length of sprints, number of entries and maximal relative intensities) were collected using GPS. Heart rate (HR) (peak [HRpeak] and mean [HRmean]) were recorded. The ball is only in play for 40%, 43% and 44% of the playing time in senior, U21 and U17 matches’ respectively. Senior matches were 11 min longer in actual match duration but no difference in the total BIP time was observed across all levels. A Shot at Goal and Free Attempted are the most frequent and longest stoppage type respectively at all levels. Elite players covered greater relative distance and relative walking distance and experienced a higher HRmean than sub-elite players. There was no difference between levels in relative jogging, high-speed running (HSR) and sprint distance (SD) and the number of entries HSR and sprinting. Elite senior hurlers covered greater total distance (TD), HSR and SD compared to U21s, U17s and sub-elite seniors. However, the number of sprints, the mean length of sprint, the maximal speed, HRmean and HRpeak were similar at all levels. In elite senior, the majority of sprints are < 20 m and occur between 22 km·h-1 and 80% of the players’ peak speed. Players at elite senior level are exposed to higher relative maximal intensities in TD, HSR and SD compared to data expressed per half and full game. Positional differences occur in TD, relative distance, HSR, SD between metrics. In addition, there were no positional differences in HRmean and HRpeak at each level, except at elite senior, where half-backs had a lower HRpeak than full-backs. Second half temporal decrements in TD, relative distance, HSR, HRmean and HRpeak are observed at all levels. The findings from the seven studies showed that hurling matches consist of a large number of short (< 30 s) BIP and BOP cycles. The similarity in the total BIP, the number and duration of stoppages, highlight the commonality among hurling matches at all levels. However, when transitioning to elite senior level, players are required to cover greater TD, relative distance, HSR and SD. The number and mean length of sprint are similar in elite senior, U21 and U17 matches, which emphasises the importance of sprinting no matter what the level. Even though the relative maximal intensities (TD, HSR and SD) only occur once in a game, players need to undertake these in training to prepare for the worst-case scenario in matches. Half-backs, midfielders and half-forwards may need additional conditioning as they cover greater TD and relative distance compared to full-backs and full-forwards at senior, U21 and U17. All positions can perform similar sprint training, as there were only minimal differences between positions at each level. No matter what the level (elite senior, U21 and U17 and sub-elite), the majority of metrics decreased in the second half compared to the first. Nutritional, tactical positional changes and substitutions strategies could be implemented to help minimise this decrement. The results of this thesis provide essential information about the match-play demands of sub-elite senior, elite senior, U21 and U17 competitions. The knowledge can be used to highlight the gaps between sub-elite and elite senior matches and between elite U17, U21 and senior matches. The findings can be used by coaches to benchmark their own team’s performances against these norms and help in the design of appropriate training programmes to help maximise the players’ match-play performances.
... Prolonged highintensity intermittent running ability is a significant predictor for the risk of contact injury [63]. Higher physical demands placed on elite players during the first half could result in the earlier onset of physical fatigue towards the end of a match [64]. Body mass and body height of athletes influence sprint running performance [65]. ...
Rugby is a team sport like soccer, American football, and ice hockey that have been discussed in earlier chapters. This sport is full contact in nature, and consequently its players are susceptible to a significant number of injuries. This chapter provides a brief overview of the popular formats of this sport and discusses the injuries amongst the players with respect to the epidemiology, common sites, and the unique mechanics involved in the causation of injuries. Subsequently, the salient aspects of injury prevention are presented. The final section of this chapter includes wheelchair rugby which is a team sport of paralympic athletes.
... The assumption being that by reproducing the external load of periods throughout a game, such training provides a sufficient stimulus to induce physiological outcomes that underpin the physical performance. Initially, analysis of matchbased external loads involved capturing the total activities of match play i.e. total distance or total high-speed running, and often drew comparisons between match periods, positional groups, competition levels, or relative time spent at various intensities (Deutsch et al., 1998;Duthie et al., 2005;McLellan et al., 2011;Sirotic et al., 2009). However, it was later suggested that the average match activities have limited relevance in athlete preparation, and that applying such values towards training may not expose players to the most intense periods which occur intermittently throughout matches (Delaney et al., 2015). ...
This study investigated the variability in the worst-case scenario (WCS) and suggested a framework to improve the definition and guide further investigation. Optical tracking data from 26 male players across 38 matches were analysed to determine the WCS for total distance, high-speed running (>5.5 m.s-1) and sprinting (>7.0 m.s-1) using a 3-minute rolling window. Position, total output, previous epoch, match half, time of occurrence, classification of starter vs substitute, and minutes played were modelled as selected contextual factors hypothesised to have associations with the WCS. Linear mixed effects models were used to account for cross-sectional observations and repeated measures. Unexplained variance remained high (total distance R2=0.53, high-speed running R2=0.53 and sprinting R2=0.40). Intra-individual variability was also high (total distance CV = 4.6–8.2%; high-speed CV = 15.6–37.8% and Sprinting CV = 21.1–76.4%). The WCS as defined as the maximal physical load in a given time-window, produces unstable metrics lacking context and with high variability. Furthermore, training drills targeting this metric concurrently across players may not have representative designs and may underprepare athletes for complete match demands and multifaceted WCS scenarios. Use of WCS as benchmarks (i.e. reproducing similar physical activity for training purposes) is conceptually questionable.
... Historically, quantification of the volume and intensity of collisions experienced (i.e. 'dose') by rugby league athletes have occurred via tallies of tackles and ballcarries, and through qualitative examination of the perceived dominance in collisions from analysis of video footage [32,33]. While this process can provide a rich source of contextual data, it is often labor and resource intensive, and may be prone to the subjective biases of the video analyst [31]. ...
An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.
... This could be aligned to the results of the present work, where it has been found that during the last quarter of the game, the LA periods were of shorter duration, coinciding nevertheless with the high intensity actions (Scanlan et al., 2015). There are numerous physiological factors that can explain this fall in performance over the course of the game, mainly the depletion of muscle glycogen, the increase in body temperature, dehydration or muscle damage (Duffield, Coutts, & Quinn, 2009;Sirotic, Coutts, Knowles, & Catterick, 2009). During a game of basketball, Q1 and Q3 are preceded by warm-up and half-time break, respectively, which suggests that the player is more rested and, therefore, can be used to the maximum without causing or incurring stoppages. ...
El propósito de este estudio fue investigar la duración de las acciones jugadas y el tiempo de pausa (ST) y comparar la distribución de las duraciones entre los diferentes niveles y cuartos. La duración se ha registrado durante 21 partidos oficiales en cuatro niveles competitivos: Cadetes (U16), 3a división española (LEB), 1a división (ACB) y Euroliga (EUR). Se implementó un análisis de varianza, la d de Cohen (d) para interpretar la magnitud de las diferencias y un análisis secuencial. El 72.8% de las ST duraron menos de 44 s y solo el 1% fueron más largos que 120 s. En EUR las ST fueron más largas que en LEB (d=0.25) y U16 (d=0.36). El último cuarto exhibe las duraciones más largas de ST (d=-0.32) debido a un mayor número de tiempos muertos y eventos de tiros libres. El análisis secuencial mostró cómo las duraciones cortas de acciones jugadas (<16 s) fueron seguidas por duraciones cortas de pausa (<14 s), y las largas (>46 s) activaron largos períodos pausa (>38 s). La aplicación práctica está orientada al diseño de programas de entrenamiento basados en el juego, especialmente para comprender los escenarios más demandantes, con aplicabilidad en diferentes niveles de baloncesto.
... La RSA peut être considérée comme un facteur clé de la performance physique en sports collectifs, car elle pourrait influencer le résultat final d'un match Johnston and Gabbett, 2011;King et al., 2009;Rampinini et al., 2007;Sirotic et al., 2009;Spencer et al., 2004). En effet, être rapide et maintenir une vitesse importante un grand nombre de fois représentent des actions souvent décisives en fin d'un match permettant par exemple de devancer ou de rattraper un adversaire. ...
Rugby union is a team sport characterized by high-intensity collisions and running efforts during games which are position-dependent. Accounting for the five different positional groups, the first part of this thesis demonstrated greater high-intensity activity in European cup when compared to the TOP14 rugby union competition with position-dependent variations in the frequency of repeated high-intensity efforts and the relative
distance of high-speed movements in forwards. A decrease in high-intensity movement parameters was observed during the first and second halves of a competitive rugby union match. Indeed, the decrease in high-intensity movements was earlier in forwards and outside backs who peaked in high-intensity accelerations between the last two periods of the game, while backs were able to maintain their high-intensity activity throughout the match. Collectively, the capacity for a player to repeat high-intensity efforts during a rugby union game varied by the level of competition and was influenced by the onset of fatigue. In this context, the second part of this thesis was to conduct a repeated-sprint training in hypoxia. Hypoxia was induced by voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume. This training protocol has largely improved the repeated-sprint ability performance in highly-trained rugby union players after seven training sessions of hypoventilation, whereas it was unaltered in the control normoxic group. Such training demands in rugby union (characterised by repeated high-intensity efforts in dynamic (running) and static (weightlifting, fighting)) have a specific impact on left ventricular remodelling. The
last part of this thesis, using 2D-speckle-tracking resting echocardiography, demonstrated that LV hypertrophy was greater in forwards when compared to backs and to control group. Systolic function remained unchanged, but diastolic function was altered, mainly in forwards, with an increase in filling pressures and a decrease in left ventricular relaxation. Finally, left ventricular twisting was similar while rugby union players exhibited lower
apical and higher basal rotations velocities compared to controls. Collectively, this CIFRE research program provided new data in activity analysis and training methods that are widely applicable to a range of rugby union programs and data on left ventricular morphology, function and mechanics for the clinician.
... There was little difference in the peak demands of matchplay across professional and semi-professional competition, other than the small greater peak speed of professional match-play for forwards, yet a greater slope, indicating faster declines in running speed in professional forwards over the peak periods. Previous research has highlighted greater match demands in professional compared with the semi-professional state competitions (Sirotic et al., 2009;McLellan and Lovell, 2013). However, these studies were several years ago, and changes to competition structure in this time, and increased professionalization of sub-elite competition may have led to a narrowing of match intensity between playing standards. ...
Previous research has quantified the peak movement demands of elite rugby league match-play, but the peak accelerometer load or the semi-professional peak demands remain unknown. The aim of this research was to determine the peak movement demands of professional and semi-professional rugby league competition. Wearable microtechnology devices tracked the physical activity profiles of players during 26 professional (n = 351 files) and 22 semi-professional (n = 267 files) matches. Following each match, data were exported in raw form to extract the peak 1- to 10-min periods for speed, average acceleration, and accelerometer load of each player, using a rolling average method. To determine the difference between playing levels (professional vs. semi-professional) and position (forwards vs. backs), linear mixed models were used. The intercept and the slope were calculated based on the power law relationship to provide the peak, and rate of decay, of each dependent variable. Cohen’s effect size (ES) statistic was used to determine the magnitude of differences between positions and playing level. There was little difference between playing standards, with only small differences in running speed, with a greater intercept and slope for the professional forwards compared with semi-professional forwards (intercept ES: 0.37; 90%CL: 0.19 to 0.55; slope ES: 0.35; 0.15 to 0.55). For positional comparisons (forwards vs. backs), there was no difference in running speeds at the professional level, but there was substantially greater running speed for backs compared to forwards in semi-professional competition, with small to moderate differences (ES range: 0.60–0.39). Both professional and semi-professional forwards showed small to moderately higher accelerometer load compared to backs, which increased with period duration (ES range: 0.22–0.79). Similarly, acceleration demands were greater for forwards compared to backs across both playing standards, with moderate to large differences (ES range: 0.52–0.96). Overall, the results of this study show that there is a small difference in the peak running speed for forwards in professional competition, but otherwise there are no meaningful differences in movement demands of professional and semi-professional rugby league match-play. Forwards display greater acceleration and accelerometer load across a number of rolling average durations compared to backs.
... The differences may be due to the low precision of GPS sensors in quantifying high-speed movements and accelerations over short distances [31]. This error can invalidate the use of this type of system to quantify the maximum speed in team sports, since it is considered as a key performance indicator for sports such as football, rugby, or hockey [32][33][34]. ...
The aim of the present study was to assess the accuracy of a multi-camera tracking system (Mediacoach®) to track elite football players’ movements in real time. A total of 207 observations of 38 official matches from Liga 1, 2, 3™ (2nd Spanish Division, season 2017/18) were included in the study (88 defenders, 84 midfielders, and 35 attackers of the same team). Total distance (TD, m) distance in zone 4 (DZ4) at a speed of 14–21 km/h, distance in zone 5 (DZ5) at a speed of 21–24 km/h (DZ5), distance in zone 6 (DZ6) at a speed of ≥24 km/h, maximum speed (km/h), and number of sprints (actions above 24 km/h) were registered with the Apex® GPS system (STATSports™, Newry, N. Ireland) and Mediacoach® semi-automatic tracking system (LaLiga™, Madrid, Spain). The level of agreement between variables estimated by the two systems was analyzed. Bias was also calculated by deducting the GPS estimated value from the video estimated value, and then dividing the difference score by the GPS estimated value. All variables showed high ICC values (>0.75) and very large correlations (r > 0.70). However the video-based performance analysis system overestimated the results obtained in the different speed zones (DZ5: +16.59 ± 62.29 m; LOA95%: −105.49 to 138.68; DZ6: +93.26 ± 67.76 m; LOA95%: −39.55 to 226.07), the number of sprints (+2.27 ± 2.94; LOA95%: −3.49 to 8.02), and the maximum speed (+0.32 ± 1.25 km/h; LOA95%: −2.13 to 2.77). The maximum bias was found in DZ6 (47%). This demonstrates that Mediacoach® is as accurate as a GPS system to obtain objective data in real time, adapted to physical and movement demands of elite football, especially for total distance and distances traveled at medium speeds.
... This process has currently been facilitated by timemotion analysis, such as semi-automated camera and statistical systems or by the use of micro-electronics devices). Given their good reliability [25,26], portability, micro-technology devices are now the preferred method of motion-tracking despite their limitation in contact sports caused by collisions, tackling conditions [27][28][29][30][31]. GPS devices provide covered distances, significant sprints or particular movements in discrete zones in the sports field [32]. ...
... La RSA est un facteur clé de la performance physique en sports collectifs, car elle influence le résultat final d'un match Johnston and Gabbett, 2011;King et al., 2009;Rampinini et al., 2007;Sirotic et al., 2009;Spencer et al., 2004). En effet, être rapide et maintenir une vitesse importante un grand nombre de fois représentent des actions souvent décisives en fin d'un match permettant par exemple de devancer ou de rattraper un adversaire. ...
Le rugby à XV est un sport collectif qui se caractérise en match par des courses et des collisions de hauteintensité très variables selon les positions. La première partie des travaux, qui s’est centrée sur l’analyse del’activité par centrale d’analyse cinématique, a mis en évidence une activité de haute intensité plus importante enCoupe d’Europe qu’en TOP14 qui varie selon les cinq postes de jeu en termes de répétitions d’efforts et dedistances parcourues à haute intensité notamment chez les avants. De plus, ces activités de haute intensitédiminuent en première et deuxième mi-temps et sont différentes selon les positions. En effet, une diminution plusprécoce est observée chez les avants et les trois-quarts ailes, qui est majorée au niveau des accélérations entre lesdeux dernières périodes d’un match pour les avants démontrant un impact de la fatigue. A l’inverse, les arrièresarrivent globalement à maintenir une intensité élevée. Ainsi, au regard des résultats de la première partie, ladeuxième partie des travaux a consisté en la mise en place d’un entraînement par répétition de sprints en hypoxieinduite par hypoventilation à bas volume pulmonaire. Celui-ci a permis une amélioration significative de lacapacité à répéter des sprints après sept séances d’entraînement par hypoventilation chez les joueurs très entraînés,alors qu’aucun changement n’a été observé dans le groupe normoxie. L’entraînement en rugby à XV se caractérisepar la répétition d’efforts de haute intensité à dominante dynamique (courses) et statique (musculation, phases decombat) qui vont impacter le remodelage du ventricule gauche de manière spécifique. La troisième partie a montré,à partir d’échocardiographies de repos en mode 2D-strain, une hypertrophie physiologique majorée chez les avantscomparativement aux arrières. Cette hypertrophie s’accompagne d’une augmentation des pressions de remplissageet une diminution de la relaxation lors de la diastole, notamment chez les avants. Enfin, malgré une torsionventriculaire inchangée, les rotations et les vitesses de rotation sont plus grandes au niveau basal et plus faibles auniveau apical chez les joueurs de rugby à XV. Ainsi, cette thèse CIFRE apporte de nouvelles données au niveaude l’analyse de l’activité, des méthodes d’entraînement facilement applicables pour l’entraîneur, ainsi que desdonnées plus spécifiques à l’évaluation cardiaque de repos pour le clinicien.
... Given the differences found between athletes competing at an international and national level (14,45,61), understanding the match demands and the physical requirements for each competition level is fundamental for developing effective training programs (52,57). This understanding is also useful for informing coaches and supporting staff of the requirements needed to dominate at the highest level (55) and transition between competition levels. Furthermore, as rugby sevens athletes can be categorized as backs and forwards, knowledge of the position-specific demands may have important implications to further enhance athletes' preparation (10). ...
Since the inclusion of rugby sevens in the 2016 Olympic Games, the popularity of women’s rugby sevens has grown rapidly worldwide. This systematic review aimed to summarize the scientific literature addressing the match demands, anthropometric characteristics, and physical qualities of female rugby sevens athletes, and to highlight differences between competition levels and playing positions. Four electronic databases were searched, as were the reference lists and key journals. Hedges’ g effect sizes with 95% Confidence Intervals were calculated to evaluate differences between Elite and Non-Elite athletes, and backs and forwards. 27 studies met inclusion criteria, and scored 68 ± 13% upon quality assessment. Comparisons between groups were restricted to variables where data was available. Greater running demands and intensities, number of sprints and accelerations, but lower physiological responses characterized International matches compared to Nationals. At International level, backs demonstrated greater running demands and intensities, number of sprints, and physiological responses than forwards. Elite athletes were leaner, taller, and displayed superior physical qualities (e.g., maximal speed, power, upper-body strength, and aerobic capacity) compared to Non-Elite athletes. At Elite level, forwards were heavier and displayed greater upper-body strength, whereas backs showed greater acceleration and maximal speed abilities. The specific match demands and physical requirements of female rugby sevens athletes competing at different playing levels and playing positions must be considered for developing effective training programs.
... The success of a sprint is determined by the ability to accelerate, the extent to which maximal velocity is achieved, and the ability to maintain that velocity against the onset of fatigue (14). Team sports however such as rugby, Gaelic football, and Australian football have been shown to exhibit multiple short-distance accelerations upward of over 100 per game, typically between 10 and 20 m (9,16,27,50). In professional soccer players, the mean duration of sprints completed during a soccer game is reported to be between 2 and 4 seconds (52). ...
Resisted sprinting in the form of both sled pushing and pulling is a popular training method to improve speed capability, although research has been biased towards investigating the effects of sled pulling. Practitioners need to understand whether the sled push and pull offer differential training effects, and hence their utility in influencing sprint kinematics and kinetics for targeted adaptation. Furthermore, there are a number of recent developments in loading and assessment that warrant discussion, given the impact of these techniques on understanding the load-velocity relationship and optimizing horizontal power output. Finally, some thoughts regarding load prescription are shared with the reader.
... To assess intra-coder reliability of the game activities, the same ODI match was coded twice during piloting, separated by a period of six weeks in order to decrease the retention of information. 12 The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated using an Excel spreadsheet. 13 The ICC for all variables bar lateral footwork was greater than 0.85. ...
The wicketkeeper is a specialist position within the fielding unit of cricket; however, this position has not been afforded a great deal of attention in empirical research. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the movement and skill demands of wicket-keeping in one day international cricket through video analysis. Television footage of eight games (16 innings) from the 2011 one day international World Cup was analysed using the video analysis package SportsCode. The variables of interest included 7 movement-related activities and 15 skills-related activities from a mean innings of 41 AE 11 overs. Following the crouch action, which is required every ball, the highest average (times per innings) movement activities were the lateral step (78), lateral shuffle (53) and running to the stumps (27). The highest average skill activities were to receive the ball from the field (42), throw underarm (32) and take the ball following the bowler's delivery (24). The most important skill for a wicketkeeper is the ability to catch the ball, be it with one or both hands, either from an almost stationary position standing close to the batsman, or following an explosive movement such as a dive or sprint. A wicket-keeping specific catching test should reflect this, and include a multitude of catching scenarios. Due to the fact that the wicketkeeper performs repetitive movement in multiple planes, training and movement assessments should take this into account. The findings from this study can assist practitioners in understanding assessment , program and skill development aspects of the wicketkeeper position.
... Rugby league (RL) is an international team invasion sport played in over 14 countries. Game-play consists of two 40 minute halves, during which players execute a range of physical (e.g., anaerobic and aerobic power), technical (e.g., passing and kicking) and perceptual (e.g., decision-making and pattern recall) skills [1,2]. The sport is contested between two teams who field 13 players per side, with the rectangular pitch dimensions ranging between 112-122 x 58-68 m. ...
Objectives: To compare the game-play characteristics between the European Super League (ESL) and the National Rugby League (NRL) competitions.
Methods: Eleven team performance indicators were extracted from each match played by every ESL and NRL team over their respective 2016 season. Data was averaged, classified according to competition (Two levels: ESL and NRL), and modelled using univariate and multivariate techniques. Specifically, effect size statistics enabled between group comparisons, while non-metric multidimensional scaling enabled multivariate insights into competition dissimilarity.
Results: Seven of the 11 performance indicators showed ‘large’ to ‘very large’ effects. Notably, NRL game-play generated fewer ‘line breaks’, ‘errors’, ‘tackles’ and ‘dummy half runs’ relative to ESL game-play (d >1.2). Despite the NRL generating fewer ‘all runs’ (d = 1.27 [0.57-1.95]), game-play in this competition generated greater ‘all run distances’ relative to the ESL (d = 1.78 [1.02-2.51]). Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed clear multivariate competition dissimilarity, with ESL and NRL teams orienting distinctive positions on the ordination surface. Further, there was a greater spread in the relative positioning of NRL teams compared to ESL teams, indicating greater team dissimilarity within the NRL.
Conclusions: Our observations may be explained by differing competition rule interpretations, in addition to differing game strategies and player skill capabilities. Both coaches and talent recruitment managers associated with these competitions may consider our data to assist with the identification and recruitment of suitable players from these respective competitions.
Background
Australian Rules Football athletes complete long preseasons, yet injuries occur frequently at early stages of the competitive season. Little is known about the high-speed running (HSR) prescription during a preseason or whether players are adequately prepared for competition. This study described absolute and relative preseason and in-season HSR demands of 2 professional Australian football teams.
Hypothesis
HSR and sprinting volumes are significantly lower in elite Australian Rules football athletes during in-season compared with preseason.
Study Design
Cohort study.
Level of Evidence
Level 3.
Methods
During the 2019 season, HSR volume was collected for 2 professional Australian football teams (n = 55). Individual maximum speeds (V max ) were captured to calculate relative running speed thresholds, as reported in 5% increments from 70%V max to 100%V max .
Results
Weekly volume of running above 70%V max ( P = 0.01; r = 0.56) and 80%V max ( P = 0.01; r = 0.58) was significantly greater in the preseason than the in-season. The weekly volume completed above 90%V max was not significantly greater in the preseason than the in-season ( P = 0.10; r = 0.22). Individual variation in the distance completed at specific percentages of V max expressed as a coefficient of variation was reported as 51% at 71% to 80%V max , 39% at 81% to 90%V max , and 41% at 91% to 100%V max .
Conclusion
The volume of HSR completed by athletes is far greater in the initial 4 weeks of the preseason than in any other point in preseason or competitive phases. At the individual level, there is substantial variation in the distance covered. This supports the concept of a heavily individualized approach to high-speed prescription and monitoring.
Clinical Relevance
Practitioners should carefully consider individual variation regarding sprinting volume during both preseason and in-season when prescribing and monitoring training to improve on-field performance and reduce the risk of injury.
Background: Game-based training (GBT) is a holistic method for improving performance in team sports. Task constraints and design parameters can affect training effectiveness. The evidence on how small-sided game (SSG) design in rugby union (RU) influences outcome variables is lagging. No study has investigated the contemporary SSG practices of RU practitioners in different performance contexts.
Methods An anonymous online survey with twenty-four questions was distributed to RU training staff six times worldwide in one year through multiple e-platforms. A frequency analysis was used to assess responses and contrast it with the literature.
Results: 115 surveys were recorded. The dominant characteristics were >5 y experience (66% of respondents), head coach position (53%), New Zealand-based (77%), coaching male players (69%) on the local/school level (68%). Higher-level practitioners applied larger SSG formats with shorter duration, using more extreme pitch sizes and less tackling, for conditioning purposes primarily. Lower-level practitioners targeted fun and technique. Smaller game formats and tackling were used more in male and youth players, and on the lower levels. Further observed differences relate to practitioner role, experience, and geographical location.
Conclusion: Practitioners design SSG differently depending on their coaching background, target population, competition level, and geographical location. Practitioner education on GBT would optimise RU training practice. This study provides performance-contextual insights.
We sought to conduct a bibliometric analysis and review of the most cited publications relating to rugby since 2000 in order to identify topics of interest and those that warrant further investigations. Clarivate Web of Science database was used to perform a literature search using the search term “rugby.” The top 200 papers by citation count were extracted and reviewed for the inclusion criteria: all subjects were rugby players. The top 50 manuscripts were included for analysis of author, publication year, country of lead authors, institution, journal name and impact factor, topic, participant sex, and level of rugby. The total number of citations was 9,071 (average of 181.4 citations/article), with an average journal impact factor of 7.21; the top article was cited 407 times at the time of analysis. The most frequent publication was the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (26%), followed by the British Journal of Sports Medicine (20%) and the Journal of Sports Sciences (18%). Forty-eight (96%) of the manuscripts contained only male subjects, with 1 manuscript including females only and 1 manuscript containing mixed sexes. Thirty-three (66%) of the manuscripts focused on professional rugby players, with the next highest player group being mixed levels (10%). Twenty-eight (56%) concentrated on topics regarding strength and conditioning, 11 (22%) on injury, and 4 (8%) on physiology. Despite rugby being one of the most injurious sports and community players representing the largest component of the player pool, most of the top-cited rugby articles are cohort studies of professional male athletes focused on performance and strength and conditioning, noting the bias in research towards socially relevant topics that may not impact the majority of stakeholders and long-term health of rugby athletes. These findings highlight the need for further research among women and community athletes and on topics in injury prevention.
To investigate differences in the game demands of top-level professional basketball players based on their position and the quarter of the game. Thirteen elite male players were assessed on their positions (point guard, guard, forward, and centre) over different quarters (Q1-Q4) during 15 home games. A multivariate analysis of variance was performed using role and quarters as predictors to assess distances, speeds, and accelerations. The guard and point guard covered more distance than the centre and forwards (p > 0.001). The average distance covered was higher (p < 0.01) in Q4 than in the other quarters. Both speed and the percentage of time spent in the jogging to max speed range decreased significantly from Q1 to Q4, while time spent standing and walking tended to increase from Q1 to Q4. The point guard spent the highest percentage of total time performing major accelerations followed by the guard, while the forwards and centre spent less time performing accelerations. Overall, 22.8 ± 0.7% of total playing time was spent performing major accelerations, which decreased from Q1 to Q4. These findings suggest that the positions of elite basketball players vary in terms of the activities demands they place on players, underscoring the need for individualised role-based conditioning.
The repeated sprint ability (RSA) was considered as a major physical determinant of performance in rugby union. However, some studies from rugby league highlighted that the simple RSA is not sufficiently representative of the physical constraints of the sport and does not prepare properly the players to the game. In this context, the ability to repeat high intensity efforts (RHIE) is suggested as a physical quality more specific to rugby union and thus more discriminant of the performance. The RHIE topic is address in 3 different steps : the evaluation, the development and the optimization.
In a first study, the assessment of metrological properties of key outcomes from sprint and tackle performance is made using a RHIE test, specifically modified to represent the physical demands of rugby union. Results show that only sprint indices have a sufficient level of reliability to be used with players. Measures of tackle intensity are too variable for an appropriate interpretation. However, this test allows practitioners to identify the physical qualities associated with RHIE, in order to prescribe coherent development strategies with rugby union players. This topic is discussed during the second study. In this context, body composition, maximal sprinting speed and aerobic capacity are the major performance determinants of the RHIE. Therefore, they should be integrated to specific strength and conditioning programs in rugby union. To verify this hypothesis is the aim of the third study, during which an improvement in RHIE ability is observed after a training block composed of an integrated high intensity interval method. Furthermore, results show that coaches or athletes could benefit from a training methodology based on the alternation of contacts and movements, without limiting the adaptation process. The third part of this thesis focus on the RHIE optimization specially to prepare key games or playoffs, periods during which a taper strategy seems to be preferred by coaches. However, the meta-analysis and review of literature performed during the fourth study of this thesis highlight that although a taper is effective to improve neuromuscular and cardiovascular qualities, there is no information available concerning the RHIE ability. In this context, the fifth study consists in the implementation of a taper strategy following an overload training block, with a focus on the influence of the pre-taper fatigue level on the RHIE supercompensation process. Results confirm the improvement of RHIE after the taper, and highlight an inverted U relationship between the pre-taper fatigue level and the magnitude of improvement in performance. Despite minor performance consequences, players on the left side of the relationship do not benefit from the taper due to a too small accumulated fatigue level. However, the situation of those on the right side of the relationship is more problematic. These players do not benefit from the taper due to an incomplete recovery provoked by a too severe state of accumulated fatigue considering the taper implemented. This phenomenon could be observed during short-term taper, often the only solution available within the context of professional sport. By including sleep quality as a moderator of the taper benefits, results of the sixth study show that poor sleep quality predispose athletes to a severe state of accumulated fatigue and therefore to a reduced taper efficiency with a higher risk of injury and upper respiratory tract infections.
This thesis is based on scientific studies providing key information to coaches wishing to focus on the evaluation, development and optimization of their players’ repeated high intensity efforts ability. This work leads to key practical applications, which should guide coaches in their understanding of the RHIE.
High-speed running (HSR) has previously been documented as a popular metric among rugby league researchers. Researchers place importance on HSR due to its inclusion in assessing the demands of training and match-play to help prescribe accurate training loads and recovery methods. However, there is currently no information available as to 1 how important rugby league practitioners perceive HSR to be and what methods are currently used by practitioners to quantify HSR. Furthermore, practitioners' perceptions of specific benefits, barriers and motivations when selecting HSR methods is also currently limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide a current insight into the practice and perceptions of rugby league practitioners when quantifying HSR. This study surveyed practitioners working in the European Super League (n = 12) and the Australasian National Rugby League (n = 11). Ranking analysis established HSR to be the most important metric for both training practice and match-play. Absolute HSR thresholds were applied by 52% of respondents (n = 12) with the most common being 5.5m•s-1 (n = 9). Individualised HSR thresholds were applied by 48% of respondents (n = 11) with the most common approach implementing peak sprint speed methods (n = 9). Absolute HSR thresholds are perceived to permit better group data comparison whereas individualized methods are perceived to permit better interpretation of HSR data. Ultimately, practitioners are motivated to implement their chosen methods with the possibility of more accurately prescribed HSR thresholds, although impracticality of specific testing procedures may act as a barrier.
High-speed running (HSR) has been documented within rugby league to differentiate playing standard, position and often precedes pivotal match events. Practitioners and researchers place importance on HSR due to its inclusion in assessing the demands of training and match-play to help prescribe accurate training loads and recovery methods. High-speed running can be quantified in absolute terms whereby the same threshold speed is applied to all players (e.g., 5.0m∙s-1). Within rugby league, differences in tactical demand, anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics exist between positions and players, suggesting that absolute HSR thresholds may not be appropriate due to under and over estimations of HSR data. Alternatively, practitioners may individualize the threshold speed to individual players physical qualities such as peak sprint speed, maximal aerobic speed (MAS) or the speed at which the ventilatory thresholds occur. Individualizing HSR warrants the practitioner to select a valid and practical test to quantify the HSR threshold speed. It is suggested that using peak sprint speed to quantify HSR can produce erroneous interpretation of HSR data whilst the practicality of specific physiological derived thresholds can be questioned. Implementing MAS to quantify HSR using a set time/distance trial may be the most appropriate approach for rugby league practitioners.
Background:
In rugby league (RL), the ability to repeatedly engage in the tackle, whether as a ball carrier or tackler, is essential for team success and player performance. It is also the leading cause of injury, with over 90% of total injuries occurring during the tackle in professional and amateur cohorts. To effectively reduce the risk of injury and optimise performance, establishing the extent of the 'problem', through injury surveillance or descriptive performance studies is required.
Objective:
The purpose of this narrative synthesis was to systematically search and synthesise tackle injury epidemiology and tackle performance frequency in RL. To achieve this objective, a systematic review was conducted.
Methods:
The search was limited to English-only articles published between January 1995 and October 2018. Based on the search criteria, a total of 53 studies were found: 32 focused on tackle injury epidemiology (nine cases studies) and 21 focused on tackle frequency.
Results:
In general, over 600 tackles may occur during an RL match. Tackle injury frequencies (both overall and time-loss injuries) ranged between 47%-94% at the professional level, and between 38%-96% for the lower levels of play. A greater proportion of injuries occurring in professional RL are severe time-loss injuries when compared to lower levels of play. Most time-loss and overall injuries occur to players who are tackled, i.e., ball carriers, across all levels of play.
Conclusion:
This narrative synthesis will facilitate tackle injury prevention and performance research in RL, and act as a reference document for coaches and practitioners.
To minimize underperformance, injury, and illness, and to enhance readiness for training and match-play, post-match responses are commonly monitored within professional rugby. As no clear consensus exists regarding the magnitude and duration of post-match recovery, this review summarized the literature (17 studies yielded from literature searching/screening) reporting neuromuscular (countermovement jump [CMJ], peak power output [PP], and flight time [FT]), biochemical (creatine kinase [CK]) or endocrine (cortisol [C] and testosterone [T] concentrations), and subjective (wellness questionnaire and muscle soreness) indices after rugby match-play. For neuromuscular responses (11 studies), reductions in PP <31.5% occurred <30 minutes after match, returning to baseline within 48-72 hours. Post-match reductions in FT of <4% recovered after 48 hours. For biochemical and endocrine responses (14 studies), increases in CK, ranging from 120 to 451%, peaked between 12 and 24 hours, returning to baseline within 72 hours of match-play. Initial increases of <298% in C and reductions in T concentrations (<44%) returned to pre-match values within 48-72 hours. Mood disturbances (6 studies) required 48-72 hours to normalize after peak decrements of <65% at 24 hours. This review highlights that 72 hours were needed to restore perturbations in neuromuscular, biochemical and endocrine, and subjective/perceptual responses after competitive rugby match-play. Notably, only 4 studies reported responses in more ecologically valid scenarios (i.e., those in which regular training and recovery strategies were used) while also reporting detailed match demands. A lack of research focusing on youth players was also evident, as only 3 studies profiled post-match responses in younger athletes. Deeper insight regarding post-match responses in ecologically valid scenarios is therefore required.
Resumo em portuguêsEssa dissertação apresenta dois objetivos de trabalho (1) desenvolvimento e avaliação um programa computacional para análises técnico-táticas em combates de judô; (2) analisar as ações técnico-táticas utilizadas por atletas de judô de quatro classes de idade (pré-juvenil, juvenil, júnior e sênior), nas oito categorias de peso oficiais do Brasil (super-ligeiro até pesado) no sexo masculino e feminino, em dois níveis diferentes, a saber: (a) Circuito Paulistano e (b) Estadual de São Paulo. Nesta segunda parte, foram analisadas as variáveis: i) estrutura temporal do combate; ii) execução e orientação de golpes; iii) quantificação de pontuação; e iv) caracterização do tipo de pegada. Para verificação da objetividade do programa computacional, três experts realizaram 20 análises de combate, sendo que um deles analisou as mesmas 20 por três vezes (1° expert, n= 20; 2° expert n= 20, e; 3° expert n= 60). Para a comparação entre grupos observados no segundo estudo e para verificar a correlação de concordância (CCC) entre as medidas dos experts, utilizou-se a Análise de Variância e, quando necessário, post hoc de Tukey, com nível de significância adotado de 5%. Os resultados quanto ao programa demonstraram forte correlação intra e inter-expert, com alto grau de concordância (> 0,90 de índice) para 41 grupos de variáveis e (>0,80 de índice) para 37 grupos de variáveis, respectivamente. Para o segundo estudo, os principais resultados para o sexo masculino foram: no nível estadual e/ou a classe sênior, utilizam maiores tempos de combate, de luta em pé (tachi-waza) de movimentação livre, de pegada e da variação de pegada e direção de ataque. Nos grupos do sexo feminino, ocorreram diferenças entre o nível estadual e/ou a classe sênior (exceto quando comparado à classe pré-juvenil no tempo de combate sem pausa e no tempo de pegada) e os demais grupos - com tempos maiores para combate, tachi-waza, movimentação livre e pegada -, demonstraram diferenças entre a categoria pesado - que possuiu tempos de combate, tachi-waza, movimentação livre e pegada menores do que as categorias meio-leve, leve e meio-médio. Quanto às diferenças entre níveis, as atletas do estadual apresentaram uma frequência maior de entradas de golpe e de quantidade de tipos de pegada utilizados.
Abstract
This dissertation has two goals: developing and evaluating a computer program for the analysis of technical and tactical combat in judo, and analyzing technical-tactical actions used by judo athletes from four age classes (pre-juvenile, juvenile, junior and senior) in the eight official Brazilian weight categories (super-light to heavy), males and female, at two different levels, namely: (1) São Paulo City (Paulistano) and (2) São Paulo State levels. The variables were: i) temporal fight structure, ii) execution and direction of throws, iii) quantification of scores and iv) characterization of grip type. In order to verify the objectivity of the computer program, three experts conducted 20 analyses of combats, with one expert examining three times the same 20 (1st. expert, n = 20; 2nd. expert n = 20; 3rd. expert n = 60). For comparison between groups observed in the second study and in order to verify the concordance correlation (CCC) between experts measurements, analysis of variance and, when necessary, post hoc Tukey test with significance level p <0.05, were used. The results from the software showed strong intra and inter-expert agreement, with higher rate (> 0,90 of index) in 41 groups of variables and (>0,80 of index) in 37 groups of variables, respectively. For the second study, the most significant results from the male group were at the state and/or the senior class, using longer periods of combat, standing fight (tachi-waza), free displacement, grip time and variation in grip type, and direction of attacks. In females, there were differences between state and/or the senior class (except when compared to pre-juvenile in fight time without pause and grip time) and other groups, with more combat time, tachi-waza, free displacement and grip - showing differences between the heavyweight, who presented less combat, tachi-waza, free movement and grip times, and half-lightweight, lightweight and welterweight categories. Regarding differences between levels, state-level athletes used a higher frequency of techniques and different grip types.
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las demandas de carrera del hockey hierba femenino utilizando valores relativos para determinar los umbrales de intensidad. 15 jugadoras (23,7 ± 4,1 años) fueron monitorizadas en partidos de competición oficial, utilizando un sistema de posicionamiento global (GPS). Para determinar los umbrales relativos de intensidad de carrera se usaron el test 30-15IFT y la velocidad máxima de sprint. Los resultados muestran que existen diferencias significativas entre analizar la carrera de alta intensidad de las jugadoras de hockey con valores absolutos y valores relativos pasando de 479,8 ±134,9 m a 1116,3 ± 281,4 m); Tamaño del efecto ± 90% LC = 2,78 (2,17-3,38), distancias que se ajustan más a los esfuerzos de las jugadoras. Sin embargo, el número de sprint realizados disminuyó (de 6,26 a 3,59). Se concluye que el uso de umbrales relativos incrementa la distancia recorrida a alta intensidad en jugadoras de hockey hierba.
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the running demands of women’s field hockey, using relative values to determine intensity thresholds. 15 players (23,7 ± 4,1 years) were monitored in official competition matches, using a global positioning system (GPS). To determine the thresholds relative to the intensity of the race, the 30-15IFT test and the maximum sprint speed were used. The results show that there are significant differences between the analysis of high-speed running of the hockey players with absolute and relative values, increasing from 479.8 ± 134,9 m to 1116,3 ± 281,4 m; Effect size ± 90% CL = 2,78 (2,17-3,38), distances that are more accurate to the player’s effort. However, the sprint number was decreased (from 6,26 to 3,59). The use of relative thresholds increases high-intensity running in women’s field hockey.
When developing a sport specific training program for a team, the strength and conditioning coach needs a detailed knowledge and understanding of the demands placed on participants during competition. Observation using time and motion analysis is a practical alternative to more sophisticated procedures that can provide details relating to the type of match play activities performed, how often they are performed, and for what period of time. In addition, the frequency and ratio of work to rest, overall distance covered, and intensity of effort—and therefore the dominant energy systems used—can be identified and estimated.
summary: Some strength and conditioning practitioners attempt to target important aspects of a sport when creating training programs for their athletes so to prepare the athletes for the specific requirements of their sport. This can be a difficult task when working with team sport athletes, as the physical demands may not be clearly evident by watching a single game. Through time-motion analysis (TMA), practitioners may be better able to develop more specific training programs for their athletes. This article seeks to illustrate the utility of TMA but also to identify factors that may affect the validity and reliability of this technique.
(C) 2007 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Limited information exists about the movement patterns of field-hockey players, especially during elite competition. Time-motion analysis was used to document the movement patterns during an international field-hockey game. In addition, the movement patterns of repeated-sprint activity were investigated, as repeated-sprint ability is considered to be an important fitness component of team-sport performance. Fourteen members of the Australian men's field-hockey team (age 26+/-3 years, body mass 76.7+/-5.6 kg, VO2max 57.9+/-3.6 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); mean+/-s) were filmed during an international game and their movement patterns were analysed. The majority of the total player game time was spent in the low-intensity motions of walking, jogging and standing (46.5+/-8.1, 40.5+/-7.0 and 7.4+/-0.9%, respectively). In comparison, the proportions of time spent in striding and sprinting were 4.1+/-1.1 and 1.5+/-0.6%, respectively. Our criteria for 'repeated-sprint' activity (defined as a minimum of three sprints, with mean recovery duration between sprints of less than 21 s) was met on 17 occasions during the game (total for all players), with a mean 4+/-1 sprints per bout. On average, 95% of the recovery during the repeated-sprint bouts was of an active nature. In summary, the results suggest that the motion activities of an elite field-hockey competition are similar to those of elite soccer, rugby and Australian Rules football. In addition, the investigation of repeated-sprint activity during competition has provided additional information about the unique physiological demands of elite field-hockey performance.
Time motion analysis is extensively used to assess the demands of team sports. At present there is only limited information on the reliability of measurements using this analysis tool. The aim of this study was to establish the reliability of an individual observer's time motion analysis of rugby union. Ten elite level rugby players were individually tracked in Southern Hemisphere Super 12 matches using a digital video camera. The video footage was subsequently analysed by a single researcher on two occasions one month apart. The test-retest reliability was quantified as the typical error of measurement (TEM) and rated as either good (<5% TEM), moderate (5-10% TEM) or poor (>10% TEM). The total time spent in the individual movements of walking, jogging, striding, sprinting, static exertion and being stationary had moderate to poor reliability (5.8-11.1% TEM). The frequency of individual movements had good to poor reliability (4.3-13.6% TEM), while the mean duration of individual movements had moderate reliability (7.1-9.3% TEM). For the individual observer in the present investigation, time motion analysis was shown to be moderately reliable as an evaluation tool for examining the movement patterns of players in competitive rugby. These reliability values should be considered when assessing the movement patterns of rugby players within competition.
The two primary principles that should be applied when designing training programmes for individual and team sports are: (i) overload and (ii) specificity. With respect to specificity Rushall and Pyke (1990) stated that:
The maximum benefits of a training stimulus can only be obtained when it replicates the movements and energy systems of a sport....research indicates that task repetitions should be as physiologically, biomechanically and psychologically similar to the sport performance criteria as possible (p.73).
For some sports the application of specificity is relatively easy (eg endurance running, swimming, basketball etc.). However, in a body contact sport such as rugby league, there are obvious difficulties with the application of this principle due to the very real potential for injury. With such sports it is necessary to utilise training methods that closely parallel the physical and technical aspects of competition without the associated acute physical stress and injury potential.
Each sport is composed of a number of component parts that act either in isolation or in combination with one another. For example, in rugby league a player may be required to sprint after an opposing player, tackle him, pick-up a loose ball, sprint back down field and then pass the ball to a support player. If research can isolate these component parts and quantify each of them, the coach or team conditioner may be able to design a training programme that will specifically match the various demands of the sport.
Time and motion analysis has been employed as an effective method of determining and quantifying player behaviour, and therefore the component parts of a sport, during competition or in the training environment. This approach has been utilised in a variety of sports including rugby union (Docherty et al., 1988), soccer (Reilly & Thomas, 1976; Mayhew & Wenger, 1985), netball (Steele & Chad, 1992), handball (Alexander & Boreskie, 1989) and lacrosse (Romas & Isles, 1985). Typically, such analysis is conducted by direct observation or via the use of video taping so that detailed analysis can be conducted at a later date.
The physical demands in soccer have been studied intensively, and the aim of the present review is to provide an overview of metabolic changes during a game and their relation to the development of fatigue. Heart-rate and body-temperature measurements suggest that for elite soccer players the average oxygen uptake during a match is around 70% of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max). A top-class player has 150 to 250 brief intense actions during a game, indicating that the rates of creatine-phosphate (CP) utilization and glycolysis are frequently high during a game, which is supported by findings of reduced muscle CP levels and severalfold increases in blood and muscle lactate concentrations. Likewise, muscle pH is lowered and muscle inosine monophosphate (IMP) elevated during a soccer game. Fatigue appears to occur temporarily during a game, but it is not likely to be caused by elevated muscle lactate, lowered muscle pH, or change in muscle-energy status. It is unclear what causes the transient reduced ability of players to perform maximally. Muscle glycogen is reduced by 40% to 90% during a game and is probably the most important substrate for energy production, and fatigue toward the end of a game might be related to depletion of glycogen in some muscle fibers. Blood glucose and catecholamines are elevated and insulin lowered during a game. The blood free-fatty-acid levels increase progressively during a game, probably reflecting an increasing fat oxidation compensating for the lowering of muscle glycogen. Thus, elite soccer players have high aerobic requirements throughout a game and extensive anaerobic demands during periods of a match leading to major metabolic changes, which might contribute to the observed development of fatigue during and toward the end of a game.
The aim of this study was to assess physical fitness, match performance and development of fatigue during competitive matches at two high standards of professional soccer. Computerized time-motion analyses were performed 2-7 times during the competitive season on 18 top-class and 24 moderate professional soccer players. In addition, the players performed the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test. The top-class players performed 28 and 58% more (P < 0.05) high-intensity running and sprinting, respectively, than the moderate players (2.43 +/- 0.14 vs 1.90 +/- 0.12 km and 0.65 +/- 0.06 vs 0.41 +/- 0.03 km, respectively). The top-class players were better (11%; P < 0.05) on the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test than the moderate players (2.26 +/- 0.08 vs 2.04 +/- 0.06 km, respectively). The amount of high-intensity running, independent of competitive standard and playing position, was lower (35-45%; P < 0.05) in the last than in the first 15 min of the game. After the 5-min period during which the amount of high-intensity running peaked, performance was reduced (P < 0.05) by 12% in the following 5 min compared with the game average. Substitute players (n = 13) covered 25% more (P < 0.05) ground during the final 15 min of high-intensity running than the other players. The coefficient of variation in high-intensity running was 9.2% between successive matches, whereas it was 24.8% between different stages of the season. Total distance covered and the distance covered in high-intensity running were higher (P < 0.05) for midfield players, full-backs and attackers than for defenders. Attackers and full-backs covered a greater (P < 0.05) distance in sprinting than midfield players and defenders. The midfield players and full-backs covered a greater (P < 0.05) distance than attackers and defenders in the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (2.23 +/- 0.10 and 2.21 +/- 0.04 vs 1.99 +/- 0.11 and 1.91 +/- 0.12 km, respectively). The results show that: (1) top-class soccer players performed more high-intensity running during a game and were better at the Yo-Yo test than moderate professional players; (2) fatigue occurred towards the end of matches as well as temporarily during the game, independently of competitive standard and of team position; (3) defenders covered a shorter distance in high-intensity running than players in other playing positions; (4) defenders and attackers had a poorer Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test performance than midfielders and full-backs; and (5) large seasonal changes were observed in physical performance during matches.
The aim of this study was to quantify movements of Super 12 rugby players in competition because information on elite rugby players' movements is unavailable. Players were categorized into forwards [front (n = 16) and back row (n = 15)] and backs [inside (n = 9) and outside backs (n = 7)] and their movements analysed by video-based time motion analysis. Movements were classified as rest (standing, walking and jogging) and work (striding, sprinting, static exertion, jumping, lifting or tackling). The total time, number and duration of individual activities were assessed, with differences between groups evaluated using independent sample t-tests (unequal variances), while differences between halves were assessed with paired sample t-tests. Forwards had 7:47 min:s (95% confidence limits: 6:39 to 8:55 min:s, P<0.01) more time in static exertion than backs, but backs spent 0:52 (0:34 to 1:09, P = 0.01) min:s more time sprinting than forwards, and had a 0.7 (0.3 to 1.2, P = 0.01) s longer duration of each sprint. Forwards spent 7:31 (5:55 to 9:08) min:s more time in work activities (P = 0.01) and had 2.1 (1.3 to 2.8) s longer work durations (P<0.01) than backs. The results indicate frequent short duration (<4 s) work efforts followed by moderate duration (<20 s) rest for forwards, and extended (>100 s) rest duration for backs. High-intensity efforts involved static exertion for forwards (mean +/- standard deviation frequency = 80 +/- 17) and sprinting for backs (27 +/- 9). In conclusion, after nearly a decade since becoming professional, elite rugby union is still characterized by highly intense, intermittent movement patterns and marked differences in the competition demands of forwards and backs.
Sports scientists require a thorough understanding of the energy demands of sports and physical activities so that optimal training strategies and game simulations can be constructed. A range of techniques has been used to both directly assess and estimate the physiological and biochemical changes during competition. A fundamental approach to understanding the contribution of the energy systems in physical activity has involved the use of time-motion studies. A number of tools have been used from simple pen and paper methods, the use of video recordings, to sophisticated electronic tracking devices. Depending on the sport, there may be difficulties in using electronic tracking devices because of concerns of player safety. This paper assesses two methods currently used to measure player movement patterns during competition: (1) global positioning technology (GPS) and (2) a computer-based tracking (CBT) system that relies on a calibrated miniaturised playing field and mechanical movements of the tracker. A range of ways was used to determine the validity and reliability of these methods for tracking Australian footballers for distance covered during games. Comparisons were also made between these methods. The results indicate distances measured using CBT overestimated the actual values (measured with a calibrated trundle wheel) by an average of about 5.8%. The GPS system overestimated the actual values by about 4.8%. Distances measured using CBT in experienced hands were as accurate as the GPS technology. Both systems showed relatively small errors in true distances.
This study examined the influence of the opposing team, seasonal variations and the influence of first half activity on match performance in top-level soccer players. Physical performance measures were collected using the ProZone match analysis system from 20 professional soccer players from the same team and their opponents (n = 188) during a season. Match activities (standing, walking, jogging, running, high-speed running and sprinting), distances (total distance [TD], high-intensity running [HIR] and very high-intensity running [VHIR]) and other measures including involvement with the ball and peak running speed were collected. The influence of opponent team, the level of opposition, first half physical activities on second half activities, and playing position were analysed. The main finding was that TD (r = 0.62, p < 0.05), HIR (r = 0.51, p < 0.05), and VHIR (r = 0.65, p < 0.05) of the reference team was influenced by the activity profile of the opponent teams. The TD and HIR was higher against Best opponent teams compared to Worst opponent teams (p < 0.05), and the TD, HIR and VHIR travelled in the first half significantly influenced the distances covered in the second half. TD, HIR and VHIR were greater at the end of the season. These results may be used to interpret meaningful changes in match performance in top level soccer.
In rugby league, individual playing positions require a wide range of physical performance qualities and offensive and defensive skills. This study investigated the physical performance, anthropometric, and skill characteristics of specific playing positions in sub-elite rugby league players. Ninety-eight sub-elite rugby league players (mean+/-S.D. age, 22.5+/-4.9 years) participated in this study. Players underwent measurements of anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of four skinfolds), muscular power (vertical jump), speed (10m, 20m, and 40m sprint), change of direction speed (L run), and maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test). In addition, two expert coaches independently assessed the skill of players using standardised technical criteria. Hit-up forwards were heavier and had greater skinfold thickness than the adjustables and outside backs positional groups. Furthermore, hit-up forwards had significantly (p<0.05) slower change of direction speed than outside backs, and slower 20m and 40m speed than both the adjustables and outside backs positional groups. Hit-up forwards had a significantly greater (p<0.05) ability to 'hit and spin' than both adjustables and outside backs. The evasion skills (i.e. ability to beat a player and 2 versus 1 ability) of adjustables and outside backs were significantly greater (p<0.05) than hit-up forwards. Adjustables had significantly greater (p<0.05) skills under physiological game stress than hit-up forwards and better catching, ball carrying, and basic passing skills than the hit-up forwards and outside backs. These findings demonstrate that the physical performance, anthropometric, and skill qualities of sub-elite rugby league players vary according to playing position.
The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the intra- and interobserver reliability of work-rate in soccer as well as looking at match to match as well as within match variability in work-rate in soccer. A 60 subject intra-observer reliability study revealed 95% ratio limits of agreement of 1.025×/÷1.155 while a 60 subject inter-observer reliability study revealed 95% ratio limits of agreement of 1.050×/÷1.337 for workrate. The main study used PlayerCam data from 113 FA Premier league matches that were covered by the interactive Sky Sports Extra channel. The PlayerCam facility normally covers 6 different players per match, 3 from each team, for 15 minutes each. This provided a total of 678 fifteen minute observations from 277 individual players. Some players were covered on more than one occasion with one player being covered on 11 occasions. The 61 players who were observed twice, had a mean absolute difference between their first and second observed performances of 2.76+1.94% which was greater than the difference between positional group means. The one player who was observed on 11 occasions had a greater variability in work rate (12.48+2.71%) than the variability between the 115 different midfielders analysed during the current investigation (11.01+2.63%). On one occasion, the PlayerCam facility covered a single subject for the entire duration of the match, showing considerable variation between successive 15 minute periods of the match (12.27%, 9.49%, 8.35%, 9.11%, 7.43%, 6.55%). The current investigation has revealed that the reliability of timemotion analysis is limited. Furthermore, individual match data for subjects may be unrepresentative as the level of within subject variability is comparable with the level of between subject variability.
The energetics of repeated sprint efforts are poorly defined. To investigate this topic the performance of two separate groups of subjects on cycling (6 x 6 s maximal efforts, departing every 30 s) and running (6 x 40 m maximal efforts, departing every 30 s) repeated sprint ability (RSA) tests was correlated against performance measures of anaerobic power (cycling: work done in 10 s and Peak Power; running: 10 m and 40 m sprint time and vertical jump), anaerobic work capacity (cycling: work done in 30 s; running: 400 m sprint time) and aerobic power V̇O2 max). The absolute test scores for each RSA test (cycling: total work done in 6 efforts; running: total time taken for 6 efforts) were significantly correlated with all criterion energy system performance measures (p < 0.01), but more strongly with anaerobic power (r = 0.67-0.94) and work capacity (r = 0.91) measures, rather than aerobic power (r = 0.49-0.66). The cycling relative test score (% decrement over 6 efforts) was significantly correlated to anaerobic (r = 0.60-0.68) (p < 0.01) and aerobic (r = -0.55) (p < 0.05) power measures, but not to anaerobic work capacity. The running % decrement score was only significantly correlated with V̇O2 max (r = -0.62) (p < 0.01). Therefore, while RSA seems to be dependent to some degree on the level of each of anaerobic power and work capacity and aerobic power, the degree of association differs when the RSA test performance is measured in absolute or relative terms. The results suggest that the power of the anaerobic energy systems are major determinants of the total work or time RSA scores and hence repeated power or speed. The aerobic energy system is more closely associated with the RSA % decrement score and hence overall fatigue and recovery between sprints. Some implications for the training of RSA are also discussed.
In the Australian Football League (AFL), specific game movements and activities have not been studied since the 1970s and 1980s and the game is now much faster than it was 20-30 years ago. Using lapsed-time video analysis, AFL players from five different positions (full forward/full back, centre half forward/centre half back, small forward/small back, mid fielders and ruckmen) had their movement patterns (stand, walk, jog, fast-run, sprint, change of direction) and game activities (possessions, ruck duels, ground ball contests, shepherds, spoils, bumps and tackles) recorded in two games each in the 2000 season. A descriptive analysis of the results was undertaken. The main findings were: full forward/full back were most different from the other positions, as they were seen to stand more and jog and fast-run less: ruckmen and midfielders were involved in more game activities than the other positions; for all positions, there were more than 150 high intensity movements (fast-run plus sprint) in the game, but these accounted for only 4-6% of total movement time: virtually all of the high intensity movements lasted for <6 secs; more than half of all sprints involved at least one change of direction, mostly within the 0-90 degrees arc (left or right) and all ground ball contests took <6 secs, with midfielders having 2-3 times as many as the other positions. Improvements in specific pre-season and in-season training practices for different positions should be possible after careful interpretation of these findings.
Descriptive data on game movement demands of contemporary players in the Australian National Soccer League (NSL, now the A League) are lacking. The purpose of this study was to profile movement demands of NSL games and specifically analyse distance covered, time in various speed categories (e.g., walking, jogging, striding, etc.), number of sprint speed efforts and overall mean player speed. Video tapes of 45 players from the 2002 to 2003 NSL season were analysed for whole- and half-game movement patterns and game statistics using Trak Performance software. Bivariate and ANOVA statistics were used for between game halves and positional comparisons. Results showed no changes to the frequency and speed of high intensity demands in both halves of the game. However, a 14% slower overall speed in the second half of the game when compared with the first half was attributed to fewer observations of the low intensity movements (9.0% less walking and 12.4% less jogging) and more stationary periods. Engagement in game events such as kicking and passing was also 11.2% less frequent in the second versus first half of games. Position-specific results of higher movement speeds of midfield players (7.2kmh(-1)), compared with defenders (6.1kmh(-1)), agree with previous results from international professional leagues. The results provide position-specific directions for future conditioning drills and benchmark fitness requirements in high level soccer players. The results also highlight the challenge to ensure consistency of second-half performances for elite level soccer players in Australia.
The aim of this study was to determine the reliability of a non-motorised treadmill team-sport simulation for measuring physiological responses and performance demands of team sports. Following familiarisation, 11 team-sport athletes completed a peak sprinting speed assessment followed by a 30-min team-sport simulation on the non-motorised treadmill, on three occasions, 5 days apart. Several performance (total distance, distance covered during each speed category, total work, high-intensity activity, mean maximal sprinting speed and power) and physiological variables (V(O)(2), heart rate and blood measures) were measured. A one-way analysis of variance and ratio limits of agreement were used to compare the results from each trial. Significant differences were established in total sprint distance and high-intensity activity between trials 1-2 and trials 1-3 and 3-s mean maximal sprinting speed for trials 1-3 (p<0.05). No other significant differences were identified. Moderate to high intraclass correlation coefficients (i.e., >0.8) were identified in 11 of the 18 physiological and performance variables measured. Ratio limits of agreement for total distance covered and total work performed during the team-sport simulation were 0.99 (*//1.05) and 0.97 (*//1.09), respectively. Largest measurement error was shown in post-exercise blood lactate concentration with a coefficient of variation of 17.6%. All other measures showed low coefficients of variation of < or = 10%. These results show that the non-motorised treadmill team-sport simulation provides a reliable tool for assessing and monitoring physiological and performance demands of team-sport activity. We recommend the inclusion of two familiarisation sessions prior to testing.
Reliability from consecutive pairs of trials (Excel spreadsheet) A new view of statistics (retrieved 22
- W G Hopkins
Hopkins, W. G. (2000). Reliability from consecutive pairs of trials (Excel spreadsheet). A new view of statistics (retrieved 22 June 2006 from: sportsci.org/resource/stats/xrely.xls).
- Dobson B. P.