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Rethinking Scale: Moving Beyond Numbers to Deep and Lasting Change

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Cynthia Coburn at Northwestern University
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Abstract

The issue of “scale” is a key challenge for school reform, yet it remains undertheorized in the literature. Definitions of scale have traditionally restricted its scope, focusing on the expanding number of schools reached by a reform. Such definitions mask the complex challenges of reaching out broadly while simultaneously cultivating the depth of change necessary to support and sustain consequential change. This article draws on a review of theoretical and empirical literature on scale, relevant research on reform implementation, and original research to synthesize and articulate a more multidimensional conceptualization. I develop a conception of scale that has four interrelated dimensions: depth, sustainability, spread, and shift in reform ownership. I then suggest implications of this conceptualization for reform strategy and research design.
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Arkansas Leadership Academy, Adapted June 2006
RETHINKING SCALE: MOVING BEYOND NUMBERS TO DEEP AND LASTING CHANGE
Cynthia E. Coburn
Educational Researcher
August/September 2003, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 3-12
OVERVIEW
! Four interrelated dimensions of scale: depth, sustainability, spread and transfer of
ownership are filters through which leaders should view change. The goal is not simply
change, but lasting change.
1. Depth: Nature of change
! Does the change go deep into the organization’s beliefs?
! Individual beliefs?
! Does the change have an impact on the classroom or is it simply a surface
change?
! Who is responsible for the change?
2. Sustainability: Endurance over time
! How long will the change endure?
! What strategies are in place to assure sustainability of the change?
3. Spread: Norms, principles, beliefs understood by greater numbers of people
! How widespread is the change?
! Who is involved in the change?
! Who should be involved?
! Who will benefit from the change?
4. Ownership: Shifts in reform ownership (knowledge and authority) to implementers
! Who “owns” the process?
Arkansas Leadership Academy, Adapted June 2006
APPLICATION OF RETHINKING SCALE TO EDUCATION REFORM EFFORTS
TO CHANGE CLASSROOM PRACTICES
! Depth
Deep change…change that goes beyond surface structures or procedures (such as changes
in materials, classroom organization…) to alter teachers’ beliefs, norms of social interaction,
and pedagogical principles as enacted in the curriculum. By teachers’ beliefs (we mean)
underlying assumptions about how students learn, the nature of subject matter,
expectations for students, or what constitutes effective instruction. Capturing depth may
require in-depth interviewing and classroom observation, refocused on such indicators as
the nature of instructional tasks, discourse patterns in the classroom, and teachers’
conceptions of knowledge and learning…systematic collection of student work samples…use
of teacher logs.
! Sustainability
The concept of scale has meaning over time. The distribution and adoption of an innovation
are only significant if its use can be sustained in original and even subsequent schools.
Schools that successfully implement reforms find it difficult to sustain them in the face of
competing priorities, changing demands, and teacher and administrator turnover.
Externally-developed school reforms may be especially vulnerable to this problem because
implementation typically involves a short-term influx of resources, professional
development, and other forms of assistance to facilitate implementation that dissipates over
time as external developers turn their attention to other sites. (We need) strategies for
providing schools with the tools they will need to sustain the reform, especially after the
initial influx of resources dissipates. Because classrooms are situated in and inextricably
linked to the broader school and system, teachers are better able to sustain change when
there are mechanisms in place at multiple levels of the system to support their efforts. We
know a lot about challenges to sustainability in the early year of reform. But how do these
challenges different as reforms mature and initial energy, personnel, and funding dissipate?
Arkansas Leadership Academy, Adapted June 2006
Spread (Breadth)
Spreading of reform to greater numbers of classrooms and schools…must involve the spread
of underlying beliefs, norms and principles. Spread at the school level not only involves the
reform moving to more and more classrooms, but also reform principles or norms of social
interaction becoming embedded in school policy and routines. This type of spread may be
especially important for reforms that challenge conventional or institutionalized approaches
to teaching and learning in significant ways. Recasting spread to include spread of norms
and principles within suggests that the district’s role may be important beyond the support
it provides to schools…the district may be a strategic site for spread itself…creating
knowledgeable leaders who can influence policy, procedures, professional development and
values.
! Ownership
…buy-in or acceptance (is different from) a shift in knowledge of and authority for the
reform. If the leader is the only one who owns the change, it is unlikely that it will be
sustained past the leader’s tenure. It is the old notion that people will support what they
help to create. As the change process progresses, it is important that ownership for the
change transfer to those who must implement it. With the shift in ownership, analysis of the
change process would also shift to the implementers of change. One of the key
components of taking a reform to scale, them, is creating conditions to shift authority and
knowledge of the reform from external actors to teachers, schools, and districts.
Development of the capacity to provide reform-related professional development or other
structures for ongoing teacher and administrator learning may be a central feature for
shifting authority and ownership for the reform. Shift in reform ownership also requires
transferring substantive and strategic decision-making from the reform organization to
district and school leaders. This shift requires that reformers cultivate deep, reform-
centered knowledge among key leadership and model ways to draw upon that knowledge in
ongoing decision-making. Shift in ownership may require that schools and districts develop
Arkansas Leadership Academy, Adapted June 2006
the capacity to generate continued funding for reforms. Shift in reform ownership may be a
central element in sustaining and spreading reform in the face of shifting priorities, changes
in funding, and challenges to policy coherence. Placing reform ownership as a central
element of scale raises the priority for directing reform attention and resources to strategies
that have the potential for enabling schools and districts to assume ownership for the
reform over time. The more challenging a reform is to a teachers’ existing beliefs and
practices, or the more aspects of classroom practice or levels of the system it engages, the
more it may need well-elaborated materials and sustained, ongoing professional
development to achieve depth. Reforms of this nature may require more effort on the part
of reformers to work with multiple levels of the system to encourage normative coherence
and sustainability. The more ambitious the reform, the more challenging it may be to
simultaneously achieve spread, sustainability and depth.
... στον επιβαλλόμενο θεσμικό χαρακτήρα, στο οργανωτικό πλαίσιο που επικρατεί στην εκάστοτε σχολική μονάδα, (Day, 2007) στις ήδη διαμορφωμένες πεποιθήσεις των εκπαιδευτικών για θέματα αξιολόγησης (Coburn, 2003ꞏ Κατσαρού & Τσάφος, 2001ꞏ Van Veen & Sleegers, 2009, στον βαθμό προηγούμενης εμπλοκής με ανάλογες αξιολογικές διαδικασίες (Day, 2007) καθώς και στα συναισθήματα και σκέψεις που δημιουργούνται κατά τη διάρκεια των διαδικασιών και τα οποία αλληλεπιδρούν με την επαγγελματική ταυτότητα των εκπαιδευτικών (Cross & Hong, 2009ꞏ Day & Lee, 2011. Στην παρούσα μελέτη παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα που αφορούν στη διαμόρφωση συναισθημάτων και στάσεων αναφορικά με τον βαθμό αποδοχής των διαδικασιών της αυτοαξιολόγησης της σχολικής μονάδας και αποτελούν μέρος ποιοτικής έρευνας που διερευνά τον τρόπο που βιώνουν την εκπαιδευτική αλλαγή οι εκπαιδευτικοί τον πρώτο χρόνο εφαρμογής των διαδικασιών (2021)(2022), την επίδραση που αυτή έχει στο παρεχόμενο εκπαιδευτικό έργο και στη μαθησιακή διαδικασία καθώς και τις συνεργασίες που δημιουργούνται στα πλαίσια της οργανωτικής διαδικασίας. ...
... Στην εκπαιδευτική πραγματικότητα οι εκπαιδευτικοί διασφαλίζουν έναν τρόπο εργασίας που τους παρέχει ασφάλεια (Μάνεσης κ.ά.,2006) δημιουργώντας ένα ισχυρό σώμα αυτοκατασκευασμένης γνώσης για τη δουλειά τους (Ryan, 2005) βασιζόμενοι σε πρότερες πεποιθήσεις και πρακτικές (Coburn, 2003). Η εκπαιδευτική αλλαγή υπεισέρχεται αιφνιδιαστικά για να κλονίσει την τάση για αδράνεια καθώς και την περιχαράκωση συμφερόντων συνοδευόμενη πολλές φορές από έλλειψη ενημέρωσης (Καράμπελας, κ.ά., 2006). ...
... Οι εκπαιδευτικοί που υπηρετούν σε σχολεία με πρότερη εμπειρία σε αξιολογικές διαδικασίες εκφράζουν αφενός συναισθήματα άγχους και αμφιθυμίας, τα οποία απορρέουν από την πρόκληση αντιμετώπισης του καινούριου θεσμικού πλαισίου (Fullan, , 2004 και αφετέρου αίσθημα ασφάλειας, το οποίο απορρέει από πρότερες δοκιμασμένες πρακτικές (Coburn, 2003), οι οποίες έχουν δημιουργήσει ενδεχομένως ένα σώμα αυτοκατασκευασμένης γνώσης για το δικό τους παρεχόμενο εκπαιδευτικό έργο (Ryan, 2005). Κατά τη διάρκεια του σχολικού έτους οι εκπαιδευτικοί φαίνεται να διατηρούν την αυτοπροστασία της επαγγελματικής ταυτότητας (Day, 2007), να λειτουργούν με συμμετοχικές πρακτικές αλληλεπίδρασης (Katsarou, & Tsafos, 2008) και να περιορίζουν τον υπερβολικό φόβο αρνητικών συνεπειών σε πρακτικές αντικειμενικές δυσκολίες ꞏHult, & Edström, 2016.Τα αρχικά συναισθήματα επιφύλαξης μετουσιώθηκαν σε συναισθήματα ανακούφισης αλλά και ικανοποίησης για το αποτέλεσμα με τις πιθανότητες για αποδοχή της εκπαιδευτικής αλλαγής να μεγιστοποιούνται (Cross, & Hong, 2009). ...
Self-assessment of the school unit: Teachers’ emotions and beliefs in the context of dealing with educational change.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • May 2023
The Self-assessment of the school unit: Teachers' emotions and beliefs in the context of dealing with educational change. Vourvouli Stavroula, PhD Candidate The self-evaluation of the school unit is an institutional educational change whose implementation is called upon to be managed by all teachers. Professional experiences, the formation of the professional identity as well as the beliefs of teachers interact with their emotions and shape their attitude towards the management of educational change at the various stages of implementation of the processes. The school context in which teachers work, the degree of familiarity with such educational methods, the fact that the change is enforced from above, as well as the possible collaborative model developed in the school unit during the application affect the emotions of the teachers by influencing the management of the application.
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... Linear models that assume replicating a gold standard are challenged for their appropriateness in education. Different educational studies discuss what "scaling" means and what it entails (see for instance, Klinger et.al, 2013;Fullan 2000;Coburn 2003;Hargreaves and Fink 2000;Bocconi, Kampylis and Punie 2013). On the surface, scaling as defined in education seems to bear some resemblance to the medical sciences --scaling is about diffusing an innovation from one context to the masses (Klinger et al. 2013;Sternberg et al. 2006). ...
... There are, however, complex challenges of reaching out broadly while simultaneously cultivating the depth of change necessary to support and sustain consequential change. Coburn (2003) and Dede (2006) develop a conception of scale that has four interrelated dimensions: depth, sustainability, spread, and shift in reform ownership to the teacher and the school. To elaborate:  Depth looks at the nature of change, whether change is affected by the organization's beliefs, whether individuals' beliefs and thereafter practices have evolved; whether these changes are merely superficial. ...
... All three types of innovations happen concurrently for a healthy ecology to occur. Growth and spread of innovations happen locally and the state of play can be understood according to Coburn's (2003) and Dede's (2006) frameworks and criteria. ...
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... a. DUK 2012, S. 4; Schreiber 2017, S. 285) verfolgt wird, ergibt sich die Notwendigkeit einer Veränderung aller Bildungseinrichtungen im Sinne eines gesamtinstitutionellen Ansatzes, welcher sich auf den unterschiedlichsten Ebenen und Prozessen an Prinzipien der Nachhaltigkeit orientiert. Um die Wirksamkeit von BNE zu erhöhen, erscheint eine Transformation der gesamten Bildungseinrichtung erforderlich (UNESCO 2017(UNESCO , S. 53, 2014, da Schulen als "Mikrokosmos der Gesellschaft" (Schreiber 2017, S. 286) Coburn (2003) die vier Indikatoren Verbreitung ("spread"), Tiefe ("depth"), Nachhaltigkeit ("sustainability") und Identifikation ("ownership") und erweitert die Analyse somit um drei Kennzeichen, welche jeweils qualitative Indikatoren darstellen (Gräsel 2010, S. 10). Die Verbreitung misst sich an der Anzahl der beteiligten Schulen und Lehrkräfte und stellt damit einen quantitativen Faktor dar (Coburn 2003, S. 7). ...
... Die Verbreitung misst sich an der Anzahl der beteiligten Schulen und Lehrkräfte und stellt damit einen quantitativen Faktor dar (Coburn 2003, S. 7). Als weiterer Erfolgsindikator führt Coburn (2003) das Kennzeichen Tiefe an, welches der Oberflächlichkeit gegenübersteht. Dabei geht es um veränderte Glaubenssätze und Überzeugungen, Normen und pädagogische Leitlinien der Lehrperson, welche durch bspw. ...
... Die Innovation ist somit zu einer "Standardpraktik" (Altrichter und Wiesinger 2005, S. 32) geworden. Der formulierte Zeitraum der Umsetzung ist auch bei Coburn (2003) der Indikator der Nachhaltigkeit. Auch das von Coburn (2003) erarbeitete Erfolgskriterium der Tiefe ist in "Schule 2" erkennbar, da sich BNE bspw. in Normen und pädagogischen Leitlinien zeigt. ...
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... Implementation and Replication Studies in Mathematics Education 4 (2024) [161][162][163][164][165][166][167][168][169][170][171][172][173][174][175][176] In recent years, implementation of innovations in mathematics education has been extensively discussed in our community (e.g., Jankvist et al., 2021a;Koichu et al., 2021a;Ahl et al., 2022;Aguilar et al., 2023b;. At a glance, the discussion began from consideration of prominent writings in the fields of implementation science (e.g., Nilsen, 2015), diffusion of innovations (e.g., Rogers, 2003) and implementation research in education at large (e.g., Century & Cassata, 2016;Coburn, 2003). The discussion was also informed by theoretical work within the field of mathematics education. ...
... The answer to the research question creates an impression of a successful implementation process according to Coburn's (2003) four categories for assessment of dissemination of innovation chosen by the authors as part of their theoretical framework, namely, depth, sustainability, spread and ownership. Simultaneously, the answer creates an impression of an enormous difficulty of the process for all the actors involved. ...
... As in Ahl et al. (2023), the systematic review is conducted following PRISMA guidelines, using searches in Google Scholar and various Nordic journals, eventually resulting in 20 studies. These are categorized using a framework based on Aguilar et al. (2023a) and Coburn's (2003) dimensions of scaling, including depth, sustainability, spread, and shift in ownership. Following Aguilar et al., projects were classified as small, medium, or large, depending on the level of developer involvement and organizational structure. ...
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... To classify the studies in our review, we use a framework for categorizing studies on a small, medium and large scale introduced by Aguilar et al. (2023). Our definition of scaling follows Coburn's (2003) dimensions of scaling. Coburn (2003) identifies four key dimensions essential for scaling educational reforms effectively: depth, which requires substantial changes in classroom practices and teacher beliefs beyond superficial adjustments; sustainability, focusing on the long-term endurance of reforms amidst changing conditions; spread, which includes both expanding reforms to more schools and integrating them deeply within existing systems; and shift in reform ownership, advocating for a transition of control from external entities to local educators and institutions to ensure reforms are embedded and sustained internally. ...
... Our definition of scaling follows Coburn's (2003) dimensions of scaling. Coburn (2003) identifies four key dimensions essential for scaling educational reforms effectively: depth, which requires substantial changes in classroom practices and teacher beliefs beyond superficial adjustments; sustainability, focusing on the long-term endurance of reforms amidst changing conditions; spread, which includes both expanding reforms to more schools and integrating them deeply within existing systems; and shift in reform ownership, advocating for a transition of control from external entities to local educators and institutions to ensure reforms are embedded and sustained internally. Moving beyond a model where the innovation designer retains a central role in maintaining an innovation enactment is crucial for scaling. ...
... Jankvist and colleagues analysed preservice teachers' written work (projects) for a new course designed to prepare future teachers for interdisciplinary teaching. They proposed implementing similar types of courses for pre-service teaching programs as well as for in-service PD programs, aligning with the depth dimension of Coburn's (2003) scaling dimensions. Säfström et al. (2021) reported preliminary results of an ongoing project that initiates teacher-researcher collaboration. ...
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... First, to promote personal transformation, we utilized Rogers' diffusion of innovation (2003). Second, we employed Coburn's (2003) model of sustainable innovation scaling to advance a cultural change throughout an organization. ...
... The approach or program alone does not help the participant progress through the later diffusion of innovation stages. Therefore, developing a PD program that supports the faculty member's learning and adopting an innovation through discussion and implementation is critical (Coburn 2003). In addition, positive attitudes towards a particular innovation are correlated with higher rates of adoption of the innovation. ...
... In addition, positive attitudes towards a particular innovation are correlated with higher rates of adoption of the innovation. Furthermore, modeling the use of the innovation in the PD program is a crucial way to help demonstrate and encourage the adoption of the innovation by program participants (Coburn 2003). In addition, sustained, ongoing PD programs are critical to fostering lasting change and adopting innovation (Yoon et al. 2007). ...
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... The scaled-up implementation of new instructional approaches or curricula into classrooms has been one of the largest challenges in education systems, for which mathematics education research has continued to refine their implementation strategies (Century & Cassata, 2016;Coburn, 2003;Roesken-Winter et al., 2021). When combined with teacher professional development, curriculum materials have been considered highly promising for scaledup implementations of new instructional approaches or curricula (Ball & Cohen, 1999;Rezat et al., 2021), as they can support teachers in transforming intended curricula into enacted curricula (Remillard & Heck, 2014;Schmidt et al., 1996). ...
... For scaled-up implementations of new instructional approaches or curricula (Century & Cassata, 2016;Coburn, 2003) into many mathematics classrooms, different implementation strategies have been established and combined (Ball & Cohen, 1999;Roesken-Winter et al., 2021). The special issue and the current paper focus on material implementation strategies that seek to provide material support to teachers and professional development (PD) facilitators for their enactments of the instructional approaches (Ball & Cohen, 1996;Rezat et al., 2021). ...
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... Sin embargo, muchos docentes no tienen acceso a formación continua o a recursos que les permitan implementar estas estrategias de manera efectiva. Además, las presiones curriculares y las evaluaciones estandarizadas a menudo limitan la capacidad de los educadores para experimentar con enfoques innovadores (Coburn, 2003). ...
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The Literature-Based Basals in First-Grade Classrooms: Savior, Satan, or Same-Old, Same-Old?
Article
  • Apr 1998
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IF; A longitudinal study of teachers in four districts across the state of Texas, we used a survey, interviews, and observations to examine changes in teacher practices related to the adoption of the new literature-based basal reader programs. Through surveys we collected the views of over 250 teachers statewide and focused on 14 teachers for a mon in-depth examination. We present our results in two stages: Year 1 was the baseline year before the adoption of the new programs, and Year 2 was the first year of the adoption. The survey and interview data suggested that in Year 1 almost all teachers were satisfied with the quality of instruction they provided students and had not made significant program modifications. However, we found major differences in teachers' practices; these differences were displayed on a continuum from those who did not use a basal but developed their own literature units, to those who used the basal including the teachers' manuals, to those who supplemented the basal with additional skills instruction, to the teacher who used only skills worksheets. In Year 2, we found some adjustments in practices. Some teachers did nor use the new basal at all, continuing in their literature only or skills only programs. Some teachers adopted the new basal with new methods of instruction; others adopted the new basal, but imported their old instructional methods; still others continued to use the old basals. We found that teachers' epistemological orientations were determining factors in how they responded to changes in teaching contest and how they adapted their practices to the new programs. Using Belenky et, al's (1988) ways of knowing framework, we found that most teachers worked within the same epistemological framework in Years 1 and 2. Additionally, we found that there was little staff development in any of the districts to support teachers' implementations of the new programs.
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What Does It Take to Break the Mold? Rhetoric and Reality in New American Schools
Article
  • Jun 2000
In 1991, the New;eu American Schools Development Corporation (NASDC) was created in order to create "break-the-mold" models for a "new, generation of American schools". NASDC sought to achieve this goal by funding eleven different design teams including the ATLAS Communities Project-a collaboration of the Coalition of Essential Schools, the School Development Program, Harvard Project Zero, and the Education Development Center While schools associated with ATLAS and the other design teams showed some signs of progress In the first few years of their work, there has been little evidence that these positive outcomes have been achieved by "breaking the mold." In fact, the NASDC strategy and the ATLAS collaboration may have exacerbated basic renditions that make it difficult for schools and organizations to explore new ideas and develop innovative practices. By drawing on studies of innovation in business organizations, this paper argues that rather than trying to create "break-the-mold" school designs, reformers should aim to create the conditions that allow for a better balance between efforts to explore new ideas that may be successful in the future and the further expansion of practice that have been successful In the past.
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