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Conservancies: Integrating Wildlife Land-Use Options into the Livelihood, Development and Conservation Strategies of Namibian Communities1
... In most instances, cBnRm was associated with positive ecological outcomes (galvin et al., 2018). for example, several articles described how wildlife populations recovered in different areas in Namibia after the implementation of CBNRM, referring in particular to springbok, oryx, Hartmann's mountain zebra, elephants and black rhino (Boudreaux and Nelson, 2011;Schnegg and Kiaka, 2018;Weaver et al., 2010;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). Weaver et al. (2010) and Weaver and Skyer (2003) attributed growing numbers of springbok, oryx and Hartmann's mountain zebra in the Nyae Nyae Conservancy, and the successful recovery of elephants, black rhino and lions in different parts of the country, to an increasingly positive attitude towards conservation as a result of the conservancy model. ...
... for example, several articles described how wildlife populations recovered in different areas in Namibia after the implementation of CBNRM, referring in particular to springbok, oryx, Hartmann's mountain zebra, elephants and black rhino (Boudreaux and Nelson, 2011;Schnegg and Kiaka, 2018;Weaver et al., 2010;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). Weaver et al. (2010) and Weaver and Skyer (2003) attributed growing numbers of springbok, oryx and Hartmann's mountain zebra in the Nyae Nyae Conservancy, and the successful recovery of elephants, black rhino and lions in different parts of the country, to an increasingly positive attitude towards conservation as a result of the conservancy model. Furthermore, Schnegg and Kiaka (2018) summarized how diversity and numbers of wildlife have increased, attributed to the influence of CBNRM in Namibia. ...
... Continued hunting was attributed to hunting practices being an essential marker of Basarwa identity and the need for game meat as part of the San diet. Such defiance of hunting restrictions also emerged in Namibia, even though Weaver and Skyer (2003) postulated a fundamental positive shift towards wildlife and reduction in poaching associated with the national conservancy legislation. A recent study of three namibian conservancies showed that local hunting continued to occur on a regular basis, whereas "poaching" was reported to decline in the event books of the conservancy governance (Lubilo and Hebinck, 2019). ...
This report comprises a review of published literature that examines the effectiveness of trade restrictions and related measures in addressing wildlife crime and linked threats to species conservation in the Southern African (SADC) region, with a focus on elephants, rhinos, lions, and pangolins.
... Benefits of the LIFE Project included increasing the number of wild animals in the region (Weaver and Skyer 2003;WWF 2000) and facilitating the process whereby the NNFC was able to establish a conservancy in the Nyae Nyae area (Berger et al. 2003). Under wildlife management policies of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET 1995a) and the Nature Conservation Amendment Act of 1996 (Republic of Namibia 1996), this type of institution gave communities, in a kind of collective proprietorship system, the right to benefit from wildlife on communal land and from tourism concessions (Jones and Murphree 2001: 42-45). ...
... The NNDFN and the LIFE Project both had important impacts in Nyae Nyae in terms of creating jobs and distributing income (Berger et al. 2003;Weaver and Skyer 2003;Wiessner 2004). Some employment opportunities were related to the NNFC, which had a number of openings in leadership positions and the everyday management of the organization. ...
... Of this, N$477,672 was distributed as benefits to the 770 adult members of the conservancy, amounting to N$620 per person. The safari operator that had obtained a concession from the NNC, African Hunting, employed 26 men and 2 women (Weaver and Skyer 2003). As a side benefit, the meat from animals that had been killed by safari clientele was distributed to residents of Nyae Nyae. ...
... The game reserve is bordered by communal land to the west and north, the Nyae-Nyae (Weaver & Skyer, 2005) and Gaum Conservancies (Dries Alberts, pers. ...
... Since the provisioning of water, the elephant population have increased rapidly from a guestimated 80 in 1976 to the present population in excess of 3 000 (Weaver & Skyer, 2005). Most of these elephants apparently dispersed from elsewhere into the reserve and Weaver & Skyer (2005) claim that such movements are continuing. ...
... Since the provisioning of water, the elephant population have increased rapidly from a guestimated 80 in 1976 to the present population in excess of 3 000 (Weaver & Skyer, 2005). Most of these elephants apparently dispersed from elsewhere into the reserve and Weaver & Skyer (2005) claim that such movements are continuing. Colloquial wisdom suggests that some of these elephants even move as far away as southern Angola, western Botswana and the Caprivi. ...
... Many development experts maintain that the systematic inclusion of the local communities in the governance of protected areas under certain agreements can guarantee the sustainability of natural resource use [2]. In addition, proponents of sustainable development argue that inclusion of local communities can be a 'win-win' strategy that generates both economic and environmental benefits [2,[7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. ...
... In addition, in these countries, communities are increasingly involved in community-based natural resource management programs and attempt to include their lands in wildlife management projects [10,29]. Similarly, in Namibia, revenues from trophy hunting are considered a primary stimulus for development of wildlife conservancies on more than 70,000 km 2 of communally owned areas [9]. Further, in Tanzania, incentives from trophy hunting have resulted into the creation of Wildlife Management Areas where sustainable wildlife utilization is the primary land use [23]. ...
We examine the conservation effects attributable to changes in the size of community-governed protected areas (PAs) by adopting a generalized difference-in-difference (DID) design with a two-way fixed effect regression model and synthetic control methods. Panel data from the extraordinary datasets of the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPAs) and the Red List of International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are used for 32 Sub-Saharan African countries in this study. Our generalized DID estimates show that countries with community-governed PAs have reduced the IUCN Red List threat level by 17% for mammals. We also find stronger evidence of the effect of community-governed PAs on the IUCN threat level using synthetic control method that allows us to match the “intervention countries” with those countries that exhibit similar pre-intervention threat level. Our results are robust on alternate specifications in which we exploit variations in the cumulative size of the designated PAs differentiated by the IUCN governance types. We also compare the effect of strictly state-governed PAs with community-governed PAs. Our findings provide evidence in support of recent qualitative studies that find positive responses of community participation towards common goods that carry potential economic incentives. This paper contributes to the idea that inclusive environmental policies and legislations yield environmental gains not at the cost of social exclusion.
... We drew on critical discourse analysis (CDA) (Van Dijk 1993) in reading a series of interconnected scientific papers published in ecological journals (specifically Angula et al. 2018;Naidoo, Weaver, De Longcamp, et al. 2011;Naidoo et al. 2016;Naidoo, Weaver, Stuart-Hill, et al. 2011;St€ ormer et al. 2019;Weaver and Skyer 2003), and popular media statements linked to these articles, all of which address CBNRM and important components (notably tourism and trophy hunting) in Namibia. In CDA, the analytical focus is "on the role of discourse in the (re)production and challenge of dominance [which is] the exercise of social power by elites, institutions or groups, that results in social inequality, including political, cultural, class, ethnic, racial and gender inequality" (Van Dijk 1993, 249-250, emphasis in original). ...
... The papers referred to above (Angula et al. 2018;Naidoo, Weaver, De Longcamp, et al. 2011;Naidoo et al. 2016;Naidoo, Weaver, Stuart-Hill, et al. 2011;St€ ormer et al. 2019;Weaver and Skyer 2003) have been written by professionals working for organizations that have collaboratively instigated and supported CBNRM initiatives throughout the country, through work financed by and linked with especially WWF Namibia, WWF US, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and the Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organizations (NACSO). The CBNRM model has been promoted since before independence (1990), accelerating since independence and leading to a current total of 86 communal area conservancies (NACSO 2020). ...
This paper emphasizes the importance of researcher position and reflexivity for professionals in the ecological and development sciences. We draw on critical discourse analysis (CDA) to analyze a selection of scientific papers written by Namibian Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) professionals and their relationships with public discourse regarding this conservation and development program. These papers mainly show “success” whilst disregarding “failure” of elements in the program that elsewhere are highly criticized (especially trophy hunting and ecotourism). In addition, they seem to disregard questions concerning researchers’ conflicts of interest that bear on the papers’ “objectivity.” We argue that such positions beg more transparency and epistemological accountability. In particular, we propose greater disclosure and reflexivity regarding researcher positioning as an important methodological response for illuminating when and how researchers have an interest in specific outcomes of their research, so as to enhance interpretation of the knowledge produced by such research.
... When well-managed, trophy hunting can create revenue for communities that can be used for nature conservation (such as monitoring or anti-poaching activities) and jobs (such as cleaning, skinning or tracking) and it provides meat for marginalized people. Proponents often articulate such economic benefits as crucial to the future of conservation and rural development (Weaver and Skyer 2003;IUCN 2016;Naidoo et al. 2016;NAPHA 2016;Brown 2017;Angula et al. 2018). ...
... This paper examines trophy hunting in two case studies in Namibia, a country that has often been presented as a success story (Naidoo et al. 2016;NAPHA 2016;Brown 2017;Angula et al. 2018;Weaver and Skyer 2003), because it creates such benefits for local communities in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), which Such a CBNRM vision is mainly presented by practitioners from conservation NGOs, government officials and stakeholders representing private hunting operators. This vision is problematic since they implement market-based solutions for nature conservation, thereby assuming that local populations who do not follow such principles do not (yet) understand how to do 'proper' nature conservation. ...
In the global neoliberal ecological discourse, trophy hunting proponents often articulate the economic benefits it creates for local communities, especially through jobs and meat. Trophy hunting
revenues are also crucial to support the overall operational costs of
community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). The aim of this paper is to show that this rather simplified dominant discourse,
based only on “benefits”, sells short the local realities of the Khwe and Ju/’hoansi Bushmen (San) in the Bwabwata National Park and the Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia, respectively. Building on Gibson, I use the concept of “social affordances” as an addition to
economic benefits. This leads me to argue for an expansion of the
debate beyond the limits of economic benefits to the human domain, to better understand the multiple experiences, perceptions, power relations and meanings (for good and ill) of local actors on trophy hunting and its main players.
... Livestock areas can also be potential conservation zones (e.g. the Namibian community conservancy model; . These conservancies employ integrated livestock-wildlife land management that leads to improved land productivity, higher wildlife densities, increased connectivity between areas for wildlife movements and increasing viability of Namibia's protected area network (Weaver & Skyer 2003). They also play a crucial role in the conservation of cheetahs ). ...
... They also play a crucial role in the conservation of cheetahs ). Both the wildlife management area and conservancy models prove successful in changing land use patterns in some of Africa's arid and semi-arid communal areas towards more environmentally appropriate patterns and also lead to improved livelihoods (Weaver & Skyer 2003, Mbaiwa & Stronza 2010. ...
1. Large carnivores are a critical component of Africa’s biodiversity, and their conservation requires a clear understanding of interactions between large carnivores and people.
2. By reviewing existing literature, we identify 14 key factors that influence large African carnivore conservation, including ecological (biodiversity conservation, interspecific competition, ranging behaviour, ecological resilience, prey availability, livestock predation, disease and population viability), socio-economic (people’s attitudes and behaviours and human costs and benefits of coexistence with
large carnivores) and political (conservation policy development and implementation, conservation strategies and land use zoning) factors.
3. We present these key factors in a model illustrating the levels of impact on large African carnivore conservation.
4. We identify the key principle that underpins each factor and its implications for both large carnivore conservation and human–carnivore conflict.
5. We provide a synthesis of the key factors and related principles in large African carnivore conservation and highlight the importance of the site-specific and species-specific context in conservation policy and implementation, formulated through an interdisciplinary and adaptive approach.
... Across conservancies, landowners were found to be more tolerant of predators in comparison to livestock and sheep farmers making them an ideal land use for carnivore conservation (Lindsey et al., 2006). In Namibia conservancies have proven to be successful, currently 17 are adjacent to protected areas substantial increasing the buffer area and in turn reducing the impact of the edge effect (Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 1998;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). In conjunction with a marked change in the attitudes of communal area residents, highlighted by the communities integrating wildlife and tourism enterprises into their livelihood strategies (Weaver and Skyer, 2003). ...
... In Namibia conservancies have proven to be successful, currently 17 are adjacent to protected areas substantial increasing the buffer area and in turn reducing the impact of the edge effect (Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 1998;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). In conjunction with a marked change in the attitudes of communal area residents, highlighted by the communities integrating wildlife and tourism enterprises into their livelihood strategies (Weaver and Skyer, 2003). ...
Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate, principally as a consequence of increasing human population. Effects of this expansion are exemplified by the extent to which many carnivores are now in conflict with humans, particularly in unprotected rangelands. One such species is the brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea), classified as ‘Near Threatened’ (Wiesel et al., 2008). The IUCN SSC hyaenid specialist group identified that brown hyaena are under threat due to human persecution and noted that greater understanding of their distribution and abundance is needed. With the principal aim of assessing the distribution and abundance of brown hyaena in South Africa, this study responds to that challenge. Five specific objectives were established: to utilise local knowledge to map the distribution of carnivores across South Africa; to determine the factors driving attitudes and perceptions of South African farmers to carnivores; to determine differences in relative abundance of carnivores in protected areas compared to unprotected in the North West and Limpopo Provinces; to compare home range estimates and movement patterns of free living brown hyaena inside and outside protected areas in the same provinces; to determine what variables influence brown hyaena home range size.
Distribution of brown hyaena and other carnivores, and attitudes to them, were determined using a web-based questionnaire involving multiple stakeholder groups. The results confirmed current knowledge on carnivore distributions but, critically, revealed wider distribution of brown hyaena and other key species than are currently known by IUCN (2013). Responses demonstrated that cultural group and land use type significantly affected attitudes towards all carnivores, with Afrikaans livestock farmers demonstrating the most overtly negative attitudes to all carnivore species. An encouraging finding was that 25% of land owner respondents had positive attitudes to brown hyaenas and were therefore likely to be well disposed to engaging in conservation activities. Further information on the abundance and movement ecology of brown hyaena was gained through an intensive field study in the North West and Limpopo Provinces, which are under-researched. The study was conducted in protected and unprotected areas since brown hyaenas are found in both but are subject to different pressures. The use of remote camera traps demonstrated that the relative abundance of brown hyaena was four times lower in unprotected areas than in the protected areas. A significant finding was that mesopredators showed higher relative abundances in the unprotected areas. This suggests probable further human-wildlife conflict if mesopredator release continues to occur. Low levels of abundance in the unprotected areas, in conjunction with persecution, led to the conclusion that conservation efforts should be focused here.
GPS collars were used to determine differences between brown hyaena home range across the protected and unprotected areas, to gain insights into their habitat use, and to establish their movement patterns through the fragmented landscape. The study demonstrated that home range sizes in the unprotected areas were not only significantly smaller than in the protected areas but also substantially smaller than those found across the entire hyaena’s range. Reasons for the variation are suspected to be higher levels of persecution and greater biomass availability outside the protected areas in conjunction with the relatively high density of apex predators inside the protected areas. In conclusion, large carnivore research is critically required outside protected areas where carnivores are currently involved in the most conflict and are at the greatest risk.
... With support from World Wildlife Fund, other NGOs, and the U.S. Agency for International Development, the government of Namibia is promoting wildlife tourism microentrepreneurship as a strategy to foster wildlife conservation goals. In Namibia, as in many other low-resource countries, the traditional top-down wildlife conservation models were failing (App et al., 2008;Weaver & Skyer, 2003). The program, titled Communal Conservancies, is a joint venture between government, universities, NGOs, and rural communities in Namibia (Stuart-Hill, Diggle, Munali, Tagg, & Ward, 2005). ...
... The interview protocols were developed in English. The interviews were conducted in English, Afrikaans, or Multiple types of secondary and primary data were used in this study including technical reports from previous evaluations of the communal conservancy program, poverty reports for Namibia, and ethnographies conducted about the ethnic groups living in the study area (App et al., 2008;Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 1995;Mosimane, 2012;Weaver & Skyer, 2003;World Bank, 2002). ...
Wildlife conservation has often focused on protecting charismatic wildlife from native communities and allowing multinational companies to profit from showing those resources to foreign tourists. This has contributed to local poverty and fueled poaching and concomitant policing of resources
by governments, foreign conservationists, and private industry. An alternative receiving increasing scholarly attention consists on enabling eco-dependent tourism microentrepreneurship as a way to foster local conservation behaviors. In the case of wildlife tourism in Namibia, this might entail
the provision of wildlife tours and camping services by indigenous communities. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which wildlife tourism microentrepreneurship leads to intrinsically motivated wildlife conservation. A controlled comparison case study design
was used to test this research question. The findings reveal that males in conservancy communities have internalized proconservation behaviors and both males and females in those communities report richer and more complex wildlife value orientations.
... Livestock areas can also be potential conservation zones (e.g. the Namibian community conservancy model; . These conservancies employ integrated livestock-wildlife land management that leads to improved land productivity, higher wildlife densities, increased connectivity between areas for wildlife movements and increasing viability of Namibia's protected area network (Weaver & Skyer 2003). They also play a crucial role in the conservation of cheetahs ). ...
... They also play a crucial role in the conservation of cheetahs ). Both the wildlife management area and conservancy models prove successful in changing land use patterns in some of Africa's arid and semi-arid communal areas towards more environmentally appropriate patterns and also lead to improved livelihoods (Weaver & Skyer 2003, Mbaiwa & Stronza 2010. ...
1. Large carnivores are a critical component of Africa’s biodiversity, and their
conservation requires a clear understanding of interactions between large
carnivores and people.
2. By reviewing existing literature, we identify 14 key factors that influence large
African carnivore conservation, including ecological (biodiversity conservation,
interspecific competition, ranging behaviour, ecological resilience, prey availability,
livestock predation, disease and population viability), socio-economic (people’s
attitudes and behaviours and human costs and benefits of coexistence with
large carnivores) and political (conservation policy development and implementation,
conservation strategies and land use zoning) factors.
3. We present these key factors in a model illustrating the levels of impact on large
African carnivore conservation.
4. We identify the key principle that underpins each factor and its implications
for both large carnivore conservation and human–carnivore conflict.
5. We provide a synthesis of the key factors and related principles in large African
carnivore conservation and highlight the importance of the site-specific and
species-specific context in conservation policy and implementation, formulated
through an interdisciplinary and adaptive approach.
... Competitively inferior species suffer from competition with larger species in protected areas, reducing survival rates (Kelly et al., 1998). The conservancies of Namibia have been suggested as a concept to conserve wildlife on unprotected land while improving rural livelihoods (Weaver & Skyer, 2003). A conservancy is a demarcated area of land collectively managed by a group of land-occupiers who agree to maintain their shared natural resources in a sustainable and economically beneficial manner (Shaw & Marker, 2010). ...
... A conservancy is a demarcated area of land collectively managed by a group of land-occupiers who agree to maintain their shared natural resources in a sustainable and economically beneficial manner (Shaw & Marker, 2010). Although research suggests that attitudes towards wildlife have improved since the development of Namibian conservancies, this appears to only be in relation to game species (Weaver & Skyer, 2003). Polices for equitable land redistribution are in place in many southern African countries and yet there are no known published articles to date on the perceived HWC experienced in these resettled communities. ...
Conservancies provide the opportunity for land-occupiers to manage natural resources in a collaborative, sustainable, and profitable manner. Human–wildlife conflict, however, has limited their success due to the financial loss of crops, livestock and game by certain wildlife species. Questionnaires (n = 147) were conducted in five conservancies and four resettled farms in Namibia to determine the attitudes toward predators and conservancy membership. Attitudes were significantly affected by perceived depredation and when respondents asked for help to reduce predation. Attitudes toward predators and conservancies were more positive when individuals perceived they received benefits from both. Improving livestock husbandry practices in conjunction with increasing tangible benefits of predators and conservancies may improve the attitudes of rural communities, leading to an increase in the viability of integrated carnivore conservation and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa.
... There are also lion (Panthera leo), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), giraffe (Giraffa angolensis), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), eland (Tragelaphus oryx), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and Ostrich (Struthio camelus) present. There is also a population of diseasefree buffalo (Syncerus caffer ) that are enclosed in a quarantine camp (Weaver & Skyer, 2003) as per the required veterinary regulation (Barnes, 2013). This study focuses on carnivores; Table 1 provides an inventory of carnivores that occur in NNC. ...
Community Based Natural Resource Management in Namibia is known as an exemplary conservation programme giving local communities rights over the use of wildlife resources.
Monitoring of wildlife population numbers and trends is essential in conservancies to manage wildlife for sustainable benefits and reduced human–wildlife conflict. Nyae Nyae Conservancy conducts systematic wildlife monitoring, inclusive of carnivores. Monitoring carnivore presence and distribution is important because they are often the leading cause of livestock depredation in the area. Incidences of livestock depredation by carnivores are
recorded in the conservancy, helping inform decision-making regarding the need to reduce or relocate problem-causing carnivores. To complement these incidence records, annual
foot transect counts and spoor surveys of carnivores were introduced in 2017. This study compared the relative species richness, number of observations and their distribution
detected by regular counts, spoor surveys and human–wildlife conflict incidence reports for ten carnivore species in Nyae Nyae Conservancy. Between 2017 and 2022, there were an average of 17 physical sightings, 25 human–wildlife conflict incidents, and 208 spoor recordings of the ten target carnivore species per year. The highest annual species richness for physical surveys was five, while spoor of all ten species were only identified in 2019. In 2021
and 2022, a total of five carnivore species were involved in human–wildlife conflict incidents, the highest recorded during the study period. Over the six-year period, the relative abundance of species to each other correlated significantly between spoor surveys and human–wildlife conflict incidence frequency, while there was no relationship between spoor surveys and transect visual sightings, or between sightings and human–wildlife conflict
incidence. The study indicates that spoor counts are effective in detecting the presence of carnivore species, but do not necessarily provide an accurate indication of the overall
abundance and proportional abundance of carnivores.
... There is experience of community wildlife conservancies in several other African countries including Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Tanzania (Taylor, 2009;Child & Barnes, 2010). It is Kenya and Namibia that have the most extensive programmes, and both have a structured legal and institutional framework for implementation of the conservancy model (Weaver & Skyer, 2003;Mascia & Mills, 2018;Ntuli & Muchapondwa, 2018;Oduor, 2020). Kenya has 76 community conservancies and the total area covered by conservancies, including private conservancies, is 64,000 km 2 (KWCA, 2022). ...
The growing human population in Africa is putting increasing pressure on habitats and wildlife outside of protected areas. The wildlife conservancy model in Namibia empowers rural communities to decide on the use of wildlife. Namibia started to implement the conservancy model in the 1990s and provides relevant experience from which other countries can learn. We reviewed the conservancy model in northwest Namibia to identify lessons for other countries. Our core work included case studies on six conservancies. We confirmed success factors for conservancies include: investment and revenues, strong governance and support from NGOs, as has been identified in previous studies. We conclude that a comprehensive wildlife monitoring programme is also a critical success factor. The wildlife monitoring method in conservancies in Namibia has been consistent since 2001, and the results show that populations have recovered and stabilised, although there are ongoing risks to wildlife and habitats in this fragile landscape.
... The point we are making in our paper is that a cluster of connected papers with similar findings and interpretations was written by an overlapping group of authors with institutional interests in their research. In keeping with Critical Discourse Analysis, what is more relevant for our paper is not the number of citations but (i) the connectedness in terms of citations between a small number of 5 With regard to Naidoo et al.'s accusation that we misrepresent a conference paper (Weaver and Skyer 2003) by conflating it with peer reviewed journal articles, on 7-8 (emphasis added) we state explicitly that "In 2003, at the fifth World Parks Congress in South Africa, scholars working at WWF Namibia and NACSO presented their work," something that is also clarified in the reference list. Again, we do not understand the problem of using such "unpublished" grey literature material which is publicly available at the website of a crucial donor for CBNRM in Namibia at the time, see https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACX280.pdf: this too is authored scientific research output. ...
We respond to two rejoinders to our review article “Science for Success,” which proposed fuller contextualization of epistemological approach, researcher position and interests in conservation research. This way readers—including reviewers and journal editors—can better understand and interpret findings. We suggest this contextualization is particularly important when conservation and development professionals undertake research about programs they are involved in, as this can potentially create a conflict of interest. Both rejoinders follow an extended process of complaint about our article that included academic and legal threats, and ad hominem attacks, with little engagement with the points made about researcher positionality. We consider this to be a form of discursive violence” deployed to silence unfavorable perspectives, confirming our argument that positionality in conservation (research) begs self-reflection and transparent disclosure.
... It is also argued that in Sub-Saharan Africa CBNRM practices are often driven by the need to fulfil personal interest exercise of political power (Nelson & Agrawal, 2008). In Namibia the creation of communal conservancies was blamed for the increase in the number of wild animals resulting in competition for grazing land and water between wildlife and livestock (Weaver & Skyer, 2003). The ban on trophy hunting and other forms of consumptive wildlife use in some countries greatly diminishes the potential economic returns for communities and creates disincentives for conservation by reducing wildlife's local economic value (Norton-Griffiths, 2007). ...
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) emphasises the role and benefits of local communities in order to promote a sustainable utilisation of natural resources. This study aims to identify and analyse the locally perceived benefits and challenges of CBNRM practices in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. A specific focus is on Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), which has faced challenges due to changes in the political and economic environment in the country. The findings based on a household survey from three wards adjacent to Hwange National Park suggest that community members have negative perceptions on CAMPFIRE largely due to their non-involvement in the decision-making and management of the natural resources. The community members do expect to gain benefits from CAMPFIRE but they do not perceive and experience receiving any. Therefore, they consider facing mainly challenges from the Park, emanating from the current inefficiencies of CAMPFIRE.
... More recently, some governments have been actively supporting such efforts by enabling community-based management (e.g., Shaffer et al. 2017), although these are often designated to avoid deforestation. The development of Sustainable Development Reserves in Brazil (Vieira et al. 2015), community conservancies (Weaver and Skyer 2003) or hunting zones (van der Wal and Djoh 2001) in Africa, conservation-linked livelihood security projects (Wicander and Coad 2018), and hunting management in extractive industry areas (Gumal et al. 2008) are other examples of attempts to manage wild meat. Where forms of management exist, few evaluations have been made on their effectiveness (but see examples: Nielsen and Meilby 2013;Veríssimo et al. 2018). ...
Across the Global South, wildlife is harvested for food and livelihoods and for cultural and medicinal purposes, yet the dynamics of the wild meat sector are changing as remote areas become more accessible, more people are living in urban areas, and the world is becoming increasingly connected. The research articles in this special issue explore the contemporary use of wild meat in the lives and livelihoods of people across a rural-urban gradient, provide examples of how use may be evolving in relation to the changing social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental contexts, and what this means for sustainable wildlife management and biodiversity conservation. Urbanization, social change, and cultural dynamics contribute to the diversity of, and motivation for, wild meat uses, while human population growth and the changing state of the natural environment can ultimately influence sustainability. Given the diversity of wild meat uses across social-ecological contexts, and the potential for inequitable management decisions, incorporating social justice in wild meat management will ensure human-wellbeing while curbing biodiversity loss.
... Conservancies are legally defined protected areas, co-managed by neighboring land occupiers (Lindsey et al., 2009). Conservancies often aim to mitigate human conflicts with wildlife by reversing wildlife declines in the area and by providing local communities with income from the use of wildlife (e.g., through tourism or trophy hunting; MET, 1995;Weaver & Skyer, 2003). Despite this approach, some communities receive little to no benefits from occupying land within a gazetted conservancy, which is typically due to low wildlife numbers stemming from bushmeat hunting and livestock grazing competition, and the lack of capacity to increase tourism or trophy hunting potential in the conservancy (MET/NACSO, 2018). ...
Livestock depredation has severe socio-economic impacts on local communities. Consequently, carnivores are often persecuted because of actual or perceived threats to livestock. Perceptions of threats are often shaped by underlying socio-cultural values, which make resolving human conflicts with carnivores complex. We conducted questionnaires with local farmers (n = 276) at workshops to assess annual livestock depredation rates in Namibia’s eastern communal conservancies. On average, farmers lost 8% of total herd size to depredation, with high variability among respondents. The main predators were African wild dog and black-backed jackal. Depredation intensified with herd size and carnivore familiarity (i.e., better carnivore identification skills and more frequent carnivore encounters). We suggest that patterns of depredation are predicted by carnivore occurrence and we recommend spatial modeling of risk to prioritize mitigation efforts. Reported livestock husbandry practices used before workshops were apparently ineffective, which might be attributed to lack of knowledge and/or resources.
... Especially the culling of birds (sometimes protected species such as Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii, Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus and Hamerkop Scopus umbretta) was in direct conflict with national conservation efforts. Local (Weaver and Skyer 2003) and global (Jackson & Allan 2000) conservation efforts are known to be increasing wildlife populations (particularly migratory bird species). The risk of aircraft-wildlife collisions is therefore also increased, further emphasizing the antagonistic effect airport activities and conservation efforts are having on each other. ...
... Namibia's conservancy program is comprehensive and country-wide (Weaver and Skyer, 2003;Jones and Weaver, 2009;Scanlon and Kull, 2009;Naidoo et al., 2016), with nearly 44% of the country's area designated as freehold or conservancy land (Behr et al., 2015). The conservancy institution provides communal and commercially-registered conservancies with legal rights to manage and benefit from wildlife protection on their lands (Nott and Jacobsohn, 2004;Scanlon and Kull, 2009). ...
In the last decade, poaching of high-profile wildlife species has increased across Africa, particularly threatening the viability of rhinoceros populations. Protection efforts and anti-poaching measures have increased across the continent, but a lack of research on the motivations driving the recruitment of local people by poaching syndicates may limit successful law enforcement. We explore the societal drivers and personal motivations behind individuals' involvement in poaching syndicates in Namibia and how this process is perceived at different levels of decision-making. There was a general consensus across all informant populations that wildlife crime syndicates are divided into five tiers of engagement. Poachers, the lowest tier, are typically recruited by a second tier of local business people via a cycle of dependency and debt. Further, although anti-poaching efforts are generally aimed at apprehending individuals at the lowest tier, the dependency mechanism used by local recruiters supplies syndicates with a consistent source of recruits. We also identified a misalignment of perceptions between local people and socially distant conservation practitioners regarding the personal motivations and societal drivers of commercial poaching. We urge conservation practitioners to invest in developing a more con-textual understanding of local perceptions and perspectives prior to establishing rhinoceros protection measures. Such contextual information is critical to ensuring that limited conservation resources are used effectively to achieve the greatest positive impact for both people and rhinoceros.
... The target area selected for this study was the former Hereroland, which now consists of communal and emerging commercial farms within the Omaheke and Otjozondjupa regions of central-eastern Namibia. In order to empower the farmers to sustainably utilise their natural resources, especially wildlife resources, the establishment of communal conservancies is promoted in Namibia (Weaver & Petersen 2008;Weaver & Skyer 2005). At the start of the study (2004) The goal of the Desert Margins Programme (Namibia) was the conservation and restoration of biodiversity in Namibia's desert margins. ...
The establishment of communal conservancies aims to have the local communities share in the benefits especially of wildlife resources, in this way spearheading the conservation of the environment. The Desert Margins Programme in Namibia aimed to develop vegetation resource data for the Otjituuo, Okamatapati, Ozonahi, African Wild Dog, Otjinene, Epukiro, Otjombinde, Omuramba Ua Mbinda, Eiseb and Ondjou communal conservancies, in order to assist with natural resource planning. For this purpose, a phytosociological survey of this area, with 422 relevés, was conducted during 2004. The data was captured in Turboveg and forms part of the Namibian phytosociological database (GIVD AF-NA-001). The data was split into two, representing two major land forms, the ‘hardeveld’ and the ‘sandveld’, respectively. A classification was undertaken using the Modified two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) procedure. Further refinements, based on field observations and literature sources, were performed using Cocktail procedures. Thirteen vegetation associations were formally described in this article, of which two were subdivided into subassociations. These associations can broadly be grouped into broad-leaved savanna types typical of the central and northern Kalahari of Namibia and microphyll savannas found on the transitions to the Central Plateau. One association, the Burkeo africanae–Pterocarpetum angolensis, forms the southern fringe of the Zambesian Baikiaea Woodlands ecoregion of the World Wildlife Fund, whilst all the other associations fall within the Kalahari Acacia–BaikiaeaWoodlands ecoregion. The Combreto collini–Terminalietum sericeae is the most widespread association and dominates the landscape. Threats to the vegetation include overutilisation and regular fires, both of which could easily lead to desertification. This threat is aggravated by global climate change.Conservation implications: This article described 13 plant associations of the central Kalahari in eastern Namibia, an area hitherto virtually unknown to science. The information presented in this article forms a baseline description, which can be used for future monitoring of the vegetation under communal land use.
... The protected area landscape is thus effectively expanding because of the proliferation of communal and freehold conservancies (Weaver and Skyer 2003, Weaver and Peterson 2008, NACSO 2014, 2015. Overall, the protected area network expanded by 28,983 km² (9%) between 2010 and 2013 (MET 2014), directly affecting roughly 195,000 people, or 13.9% of the population (NACSO 2016). ...
Protected areas and adjacent landscapes are increasingly being viewed as integrated. A more general awareness is emerging
of the relevance of collectively managed landscapes for conservation and human well-being. In Namibia, areas dedicated to conservation
are increasing because of the proliferation of conservancies and game reserves. Management toward integrated conservation in these
landscapes involves land use practices variably dedicated to wildlife management and the inclusion of land owners and resource users
in the decision-making process. We use stakeholder analysis to identify participants integral to an expanded protected area network
around the Etosha National Park in Namibia. We identified and categorized important stakeholder groups, and quantitatively and
qualitatively assessed their relative importance to the protected area decision-making process. Twelve stakeholder groups were identified,
and categorized according to proximity to the national park, land tenure, and land use type. Primary stakeholders, those who both
affect and are affected by decision making, comprised livestock farmers, communal conservancy members, resettlement farmers, and
tourism/hunting enterprises. For each group the cumulative values of position (level of support for, or opposition to the concept),
interest (perceived disadvantages and advantages thereof), and power (resources stakeholders can mobilize to express their position)
were calculated. These attributes provide an indication of stakeholder salience, i.e., how likely stakeholders are to affect or be affected
by an integrated conservation landscape. We find that livestock farmers, although interested in the concept, mostly oppose protected
area expansion. The conflict in opinion is linked to the benefits derived from being part of the conservation landscape and the losses
endured due to the porous park fence, including human-wildlife conflict and regulations involving a veterinary cordon fence. A
consideration of stakeholder salience, taking into account the different perceptions surrounding the benefits of living adjacent to a
protected area, can potentially lead to the better implementation of integrated conservation areas.
Key Words: conservation landscapes; primary stakeholders; salience; stakeholder analysis
... Africa is also home of Community Nature Conservancies, which were pioneered in Namibia. The 1990 law, which allows communities to create these entities for conservation purposes and gain the benefit of tourism income, provides clear regulations and government support (Weaver and Skyer, 2003;Fraser, 2009). Not all countries have the legal or social infrastructure to make conservancies -or their variations -work. ...
... Apart from that, the country has a healthy population of other predators such as cheetah which is the highest population in the world. The only predator species which has been declining over the years is African Wild Dog [23]. The population continue to decline beside conservation efforts which brought about increase in other wildlife species. ...
Local people living with wildlife also saw their possibility of response limited by laws and regulations and became more
vulnerable to wildlife damages. Human-wildlife conflicts remain to this day a major concern for humans as well as a serious threat to
the survival of many wildlife populations. Changing human values and attitudes are have been noted to be shaping wildlife
management approaches, where eco-centric, protectionist views of wildlife may not recognize or accommodate the needs of those
living with wildlife. The causes are diverse and inter-connected. As biodiversity declined, the world came to recognize the importance
of wildlife and the necessity to preserve it. Biodiversity is crucial for the stability of ecosystems and their capacity to provide the
ecosystem services necessary to sustain human life. In order to safeguard biodiversity, the conservative approach has been to shield
biodiversity from human interventions. Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) management are means of control the occurrence of these
incidents. If the damage is already done, compensation and insurance schemes developed to replace the loss but, in most cases, these
schemes do not meet the initial targets. The scale and urgency of the HWC in the country required intervention from government
through Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). MET developed Human Wildlife Conflict policy and it was first released in
2009 and it was aimed to address issues relate to HWC.
... NRMP-Botswana, "Natural Resources Management Program", also called Botswana Community Trust Program funded by USAID through a U.S. consulting firm, CHEMONICS [95][96][97] ? LIFE-Namibia, "Living in a Finite Environment" run through World Wildlife Fund (WWF)/USA and funded by USAID [97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104]; ? SCP-Tanzania, "Selous Conservation Program (SCP)" funded by the German funding agency- GTZ [105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113]; ? ...
The author gives a personal view of wildlife and development in Africa based on 30 years of experience as well as academic study. Unless there are sustainable African solutions, the politics of despair will lead to catastrophe. Please note a minor error in the Abstract & Executive Summary should be 20th instead of 21st Century.
This is an historic overview of conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa from pre-colonial times through the present. It demonstrates that Africans practiced conservation that was ignored by the colonial powers. The colonial market economy combined with the human and livestock population explosion of the 20 st century are the major factors contributing to the demise of wildlife and critical habitat. Unique insight is provided into the economics of a representative safari company, something that has not been readily available to Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) practitioners. Modern attempts at sharing benefits from conservation with rural communities will fail due to the low rural resource to population ratio regardless of the model, combined with the uneven distribution of profits from safari hunting that drives most CBNRM programs, unless these ratios are changed. Low household incomes from CBNRM are unlikely to change attitudes of rural dwellers towards Western approaches to conservation. Communities must sustainably manage their natural areas as "green factories" for the multitude of natural resources they contain as a means of maximizing employment and thus household incomes, as well as meeting the often overlooked socio-cultural ties to wildlife and other natural resources, which may be as important as direct material benefits in assuring conservation of wildlife and its habitat. For CBNRM to be successful in the long-term, full devolution of ownership over land and natural resources must take place. In addition, as a means of relieving pressure on the rural resource base, this will require an urbanization process that creates a middleclass, as opposed to the current slums that form the majority of Africa‘s cities, through industrialization that transforms the unique natural resources of the subcontinent (e.g., strategic minerals, petroleum, wildlife, hardwoods, fisheries, wild medicines, agricultural products, etc.) in Africa
... As of 2014, there were 82 registered communal area conservancies that cover greater than 16 million ha (20% of Namibia's land area) and are home to one-fourth of rural Namibians (Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organizations, 2014). A conservancy committee manages the activities of the community, including the development of zonation and management plans, the allocation of watering points, the reintroduction and monitoring of wildlife and other natural resources, and joint venture partnerships with tourism and hunting operators (Weaver and Skyer, 2003). A network of government and NGO support groups provide technical and financial assistance to the committee (Naidoo et al., 2016;Fig. ...
Cheetahs are often found outside of state-owned protected areas and require landscape scale management not provided by individual farms. Collaborative ventures between landowners or users have a potential to provide management at the spatial scale intrinsic to the species. And, collaborative networks can fill gaps in the landscape not protected by public reserves. We use models of collaborative ventures among freehold livestock farmers in Namibia and communal livestock farmers in Namibia and Kenya to illustrate benefits and challenges of collaborative management for wildlife conservation. Benefits include creation of large, managed landscapes, the potential for increased profits, and a potential reduction or compensation for losses from predators. Challenges to successful collaborations include the need to provide sustained, tangible benefits to land users, the need for coordination and expertise, and the potential for gaps in the newly protected landscape when collaboration between neighbors is not complete. The land-use models we share here have attempted to solve these challenges through local innovations and strategies that keep the livelihoods of the landowners or land users at the forefront of consideration.
... Cooperation and willingness of the local communities to protect the elephant are essential if conservation objectives set by wildlife managers are to be met (Berkes, 2004). To that end, currently 82 areas, which include human settlements, have been declared conservancies in Namibia, to partially protect wildlife in areas outside of national parks (Weaver and Skyer, 2003;MET Conservancies, 2017). These areas cover about 19.8% of Namibia's total area, and this is in addition to the 16.8% designated as protected area (MET Conservancies, 2017). ...
The conservation of the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) is of prime importance for many African countries. Interactions between elephants and humans are known to induce stress and thereby have the potential to affect elephants' fitness. In Namibia, anthropogenic disturbances are increasing due to increasing human population size and development, particularly near protected areas, such as national parks. In this study, we investigated elephant stress levels in relation to their land use, specifically their protection status, comparing elephants within Etosha National Park in Namibia with elephants residing outside the park. We noninvasively collected dung samples of 91 elephants and determined the concentration of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), an indicator of physiological stress. Elephants outside the park (N = 35) had significantly higher concentrations of fGCM than those inside ENP (N = 56), suggesting that, despite including community-based conservancies, unprotected areas are more stressful for elephants than protected areas, most likely due to increased interactions with humans. We also found that males had lower fGCM concentrations than females, but no significant effect of age, body size or group size was detected. Additionally, herd sizes were significantly smaller and calf recruitment was potentially lower in unprotected areas. These findings underpin the importance of protected areas such as ENP, while encouraging decision-makers to continue reducing and mitigating potential human-induced disturbances.
... The article also advocates the sustainable use of living natural resources for the benefit of all Namibians, present and future (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2007). Namibia legalised conservancies in 1996, giving communities the power to establish their own conservancies (Weaver and Skyer 2003). ...
This study contends that, on the one hand, cultural factors and the lack of appropriate policies in Kenya and within conservancies hinder women’s participation in decision-making. On the other hand, involving women in decision-making in conflict management increases their effectiveness. The government has made several efforts to improve conflict management and peacebuilding in the country, including the establishment of the National Steering Committee on Peacebuilding and Conflict Management. It has developed not only a draft framework for a conflict management policy, but also a draft national policy on peacebuilding and conflict management. However, the policy often neglects gender issues, particularly in defining the role of women in conflict management.This situation raises questions about the extent of women’s participation in the conflict management process in Kenya. This study seeks to explore how the inclusion of women in conflict management processes and decision-making in conflict-related programmes can contribute to more effective outcomes. The research design is based on a descriptive approach using a case study methodology with a focus on conservancies in Kenya, in particular the Naboisho Conservancy in the Maasai Mara. The study used purposive sampling to select key informants with specific knowledge and skills relevant to the study. A qualitative approach was used to collect data from both primary and secondary sources.
... Studies (e.g. Baldus & Cauldwell, 2004;Child, 2000;Child, 2005;Lewis & Alpert, 1997;Weaver & Skyer, 2003) have shown that where sustainable safari hunting is carried out as the main land-use activity in areas occupied by rural communities, revenues that accrue from safari hunting have resulted in improved attitudes towards wildlife among local communities, increased involvement of communities in CBNRM programmes, requests to have land included in wildlife management projects, and in some cases increasing wildlife populations. ...
This paper examines the effects of the safari hunting ban of 2014 on rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Northern Botswana using the social exchange theory. The paper used both primary and secondary data sources. Data were analysed qualitatively. Results indicate that the ban led to a reduction of tourism benefits to local communities such as: income, employment opportunities, social services such as funeral insurance, scholarships and income required to make provision of housing for the needy and elderly. After the hunting ban, communities were forced to shifts from hunting to photographic tourism. Reduced tourism benefits have led to the development of negative attitudes by rural residents towards wildlife conservation and the increase in incidents of poaching in Northern Botswana. The implications of hunting ban suggest that policy shifts that affect wildlife conservation and rural livelihoods need to be informed by socio-economic and ecological research. This participatory and scientific approach to decision-making has the potential to contribute sustainability of livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Botswana.
... Trophy hunting is a common practice in several African countries because they are known for: (a) the prevalence of wildlife utilization, (b) a well established hunting industry and (c) an extraordinary alpha and gamma diversity of suitable and target wildlife species for trophy hunters. Countries like Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe have used trophy hunting to achieve the objectives of community based natural resources management through the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), Communal Wildlife Conservancies and Administrative Management Design for Game Areas (ADMADE) (Bond, 2001;Gibson and Marks, 1995;Lewis and Alpert, 1997;Weaver and Skyer, 2003), respectively. For example, in Zimbabwe, CAMPFIRE is known to have generated over US$20 million of transfers to the participating communities during 1989-2001, of which 89% of which came from trophy hunting (Frost and Bond, 2008). ...
Although the contribution of trophy hunting as a conservation tool is widely recognised, there is perpetual debate and polarization on its sustainability. This review integrates five themes mostly considered in isolation, as independent research fields in wildlife conservation: (1) trophy quality and population ecology of hunted species, (2) behavioural ecology of hunted populations and associated avoidance mechanisms, (3) physiological stress in hunted populations, (4) genetic variability and desirable traits, and (5) socio-economic imperatives in wildlife conservation. We searched for articles on search engines using specific key words and found 350 articles from which 175 were used for this review under five key themes. Population and trophy quality trends of commonly hunted species seem to be declining in some countries. Elevated hunting pressure is reported to influence the flight and foraging behaviour of wildlife thus compromising fitness of hunted species. Selective harvesting through trophy hunted is attributed to the decline in desirable phenotypic traits and increased physiological stress in most hunted species. Though it provides financial resources need for conservation in some countries, trophy hunting works well in areas where animal populations are healthy and not threatened by illegal harvesting and other disturbances. There remains much polarity on the sustainability of trophy hunting in modern-day conservation. More research need to be conducted across the five themes examined in this review for broader analytical analysis and comparison purposes. A new research agenda is needed regarding wildlife sustainable use principles and their sustainability and acceptability in modern-day conservation.
... Community Conservancy: Community conservancies are legally-recognized and formed by communities who have united to manage and benefit from wildlife and other natural resources (Weaver and Skyer, 2003). Examples of community conservancies include: Westgate, Meibae, Kalama in Samburu county as well as Melako Wildlife Conservancy in Marsabit county. ...
... Trophy hunting reportedly provides more jobs, at higher salaries, than commercial agriculture or any other land utilization scheme found in communal conservancies in Namibia (Lamprecht, 2009). This revenue is extremely important in a country that is still working to undo the legacy of unequal wealth distribution brought about by Apartheid, and is often recognized as the impetus for the expansion of wildlife conservancies and conservation efforts on land that is communally owned (Ashley and Barnes, 1996;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). ...
... Trophy hunting reportedly provides more jobs, at higher salaries, than commercial agriculture or any other land utilization scheme found in communal conservancies in Namibia (Lamprecht, 2009). This revenue is extremely important in a country that is still working to undo the legacy of unequal wealth distribution brought about by Apartheid, and is often recognized as the impetus for the expansion of wildlife conservancies and conservation efforts on land that is communally owned (Ashley & Barnes, 1996;Weaver and Skyer, 2003). ...
The international outcry and indignation which followed the killing of " Cecil the Lion " in Zimbabwe in July 2015 opened a Pandora's Box on the ethical and economic implications of trophy hunting, especially in African countries. Private trophy hunting operators such as Hunters Namibia Safaris, a Namibian company, more than ever before, had to justify their business. No easy task when your trade is often described as being controversial, unsustainable and, in many instances, cruel. While the debate on trophy hunting was always intense internationally and locally, the death of " Cecil the Lion " only escalated it. Governments, trophy hunting operators, professional hunters, communities impacted by trophy hunting, and national and international NGOs all had a point of view in the heated debate over whether or not trophy hunting is indeed a sustainable and worthwhile activity. Some countries such as South Africa and Namibia tout the success of the industry in terms of economic gain and wildlife conservation. Botswana took another direction and banned trophy hunting in 2013. But now the country faces the loss of income that hunters provided, as well as growing instances of wild animals such as lion and elephant threatening rural communities. So who is right and who is wrong about the sustainability of the industry? Some say that a well-regulated trophy hunting industry plays an important role in the conservation of wildlife and guarantees immediate and long-term economic benefits for communities (as well as the country as a whole). Others say the opposite – according to this view, trophy hunting is an unsustainable and unethical practice which wreaks havoc amongst big cat populations, elephants and endangered species such as black rhino.
... Conservancies are also required to draw up a clear plan for the equitable distribution of conservancy benefits to members. (NACSO, 2013, p. 11) Over the past twenty years Namibian conservancies have irrefutably become a showcase for community conservation in Southern Africa, with solid numbers indicating growing wildlife populations and economic benefits for the rural poor (Boudreaux and Nelson, 2011;NACSO, 2009NACSO, , 2010NACSO, , 2011NACSO, , 2013Weaver and Skyer, 2003). Conservancies are presented as unique in that they allow rural communities almost full ownership and management of local natural resources (Hulme and Murphree, 1999), making the Namibian CBNRM system 'one of the most successful examples of legal empowerment of the poor of the past decade' (Boudreaux and Nelson, 2011, p. 17). ...
... The number of small communal conservancies, which bring immense benefits to many rural communities, has spiraled significantly in many parts of the country. Surveys indicate that Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), Oryx (Oryx gazelle) and Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) populations increased over 10 times between 1982 and 2000 with about 80% of these located on privately owned farms or freehold conservancies [2]. However, the characteristics of soil, vegetation, spatial distribution of resources and presence of multispecies, such as predators, all influence the dynamics of the host-parasite system [3]. ...
... The target area selected for this study was the former Hereroland, which now consists of communal and emerging commercial farms within the Omaheke and Otjozondjupa regions of central-eastern Namibia. In order to empower the farmers to sustainably utilise their natural resources, especially wildlife resources, the establishment of communal conservancies is promoted in Namibia (Weaver & Petersen 2008;Weaver & Skyer 2005). At the start of the study (2004) The goal of the Desert Margins Programme (Namibia) was the conservation and restoration of biodiversity in Namibia's desert margins. ...
The establishment of communal conservancies aims to have the local communities share in the benefits especially of wildlife resources, in this way spearheading the conservation of the environment. The Desert Margins Programme in Namibia aimed to develop vegetation resource data for the Otjituuo, Okamatapati, Ozonahi, African Wild Dog, Otjinene, Epukiro, Otjombinde, Omuramba Ua Mbinda, Eiseb and Ondjou communal conservancies, in order to assist with natural resource planning. For this purpose, a phytosociological survey of this area, with 422 relevés, was conducted during 2004. The data was captured in Turboveg and forms part of the Namibian phytosociological database (GIVD AF-NA-001). The data was split into two, representing two major land forms, the ‘hardeveld’ and the ‘sandveld’, respectively. A classification was undertaken using the Modified two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) procedure. Further refinements, based on field observations and literature sources, were performed using Cocktail procedures. Thirteen vegetation associations were formally described in this article, of which two were subdivided into subassociations. These associations can broadly be grouped into broad-leaved savanna types typical of the central and northern Kalahari of Namibia and microphyll savannas found on the transitions to the Central Plateau. One association, the Burkeo africanae–Pterocarpetum angolensis, forms the southern fringe of the Zambesian Baikiaea Woodlands ecoregion of the World Wildlife Fund, whilst all the other associations fall within the Kalahari Acacia–BaikiaeaWoodlands ecoregion. The Combreto collini–Terminalietum sericeae is the most widespread association and dominates the landscape. Threats to the vegetation include overutilisation and regular fires, both of which could easily lead to desertification. This threat is aggravated by global climate change.Conservation implications: This article described 13 plant associations of the central Kalahari in eastern Namibia, an area hitherto virtually unknown to science. The information presented in this article forms a baseline description, which can be used for future monitoring of the vegetation under communal land use.
... Apart from extractive reserves, community forests have also been established to provide key sources of NTFPs (Ham and Theron, 1998;Adhikari et al., 2004). In more recent times traditional and communal area conservancies are taking off to provide NTFP services, especially in southern Africa (Weaver and Skyer, 2003). The term "community forestry" has different meanings and has been misinterpreted over the years. ...
... With support from World Wildlife Fund, other nonĉgovernmental organizations and the U.S. Agency for International Development, the government of Namibia is testing communityĉbased natural resource management (CBNRM) as an alternative to traditional topĉdown economic development models in indigenous villages that depend, in part, on wildlife tourism (App et al. 2008, Weaver & Skyer 2003. We investigated the impact of CBNRM on indigenous villages by comparing CBNRM communities and nonĉCBNRM communities in regard to wildlife interaction, wildlife value orientations (WVOs), and two quality of life indicators: subjective wellĉbeing and selfĉdetermination. ...
Introduction With support from World Wildlife Fund, other non organizations and the U.S. Agency for International Development, the government of Namibia is testing community natural resource management (CBNRM) as an alternative to traditional top economic development models in indigenous villages that depend, in part, on wildlife tourism (App et al. 2008, Weaver & Skyer 2003). We investigated the impact of CBNRM on indigenous villages by comparing CBNRM communities and non communities in regard to wildlife interaction, wildlife value orientations (WVOs), and two quality of life indicators: subjective well and self Conceptual Background WVOs are value beliefs about how humans should relate to wildlife. Cross research has identified dimensions of WVOs that include materialism, mutualism, symbolism, caring, safety and security, attraction, and repulsion (e.g., Kaczensky 2007, Zinn & Shen 2007), and WVOs have been used to predict and explain responses to wildlife attacks on humans; wildlife damage and disease transmission to domestic animals and humans; wildlife tourism and recreation; and the acceptability of wildlife management actions. Subjective well has been defined as the balance between positive and negative events and conditions in life, and, to the degree that individuals experience high subjective well the report of a sense of happiness, peace, fulfillment and life satisfaction (Diener 1984). We operationalized subjective well by explaining to study participants that "people's overall happiness is affected by the combination of good and bad things in life," and then asking them to help us make a list of things in their lives that make them happy and a list of things in their lives that make them sad.
... It was eventually funded by USAID. Because of its perceived success and for political reasons [40], similar programs developed in other East and Southern African countries that have also been extensively reviewed in the literature, much of this information being readily available online for those readers wishing to delve deeper into a particular country's CBNRM program: ADMADE–Zambia, " Administrative Management Design for Game Management Areas " funded by USAID through the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) of the New York Zoological Society8485868788899091929394; NRMP–Botswana, " Natural Resources Management Program " , also called Botswana Community Trust Program funded by USAID through a U.S. consulting firm, CHEMONICS959697 LIFE–Namibia, " Living in a Finite Environment " run through World Wildlife Fund (WWF)/USA and funded by USAID979899100101102103104; SCP–Tanzania, " Selous Conservation Program (SCP) " funded by the German funding agency- GTZ105106107108109110111112113; LIRDP–Zambia, " Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Project " funded by the Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD) [113,114] Traditionally, CBNRM was initiated in areas outside the park estate, co-habited by humans and wildlife bordering parks or in game reserves that were designated as hunting blocks [115]. CBNRM appears in many guises, including Integrated Conservation and Development (ICD), Community- Based Conservation (CBC), Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), Community Wildlife Management (CWM), Collaborative (or Co-) Management (CM) and Protected Area Outreach Projects [116]. ...
... Namibia has been commended for its efforts to conserve large tracts of land, and the wildlife within them, through the formation of conservancies (Weaver & Skyer 2003). Conservancies are legally defined protected areas, comanaged by neighbouring land occupiers, which aim to collaboratively use natural resources in a sustainable manner (CANAM [Conservancy Association of Namibia] 2010). ...
Human-wildlife conflict is detrimental to the conservation of threatened carnivores and the livelihoods of rural communities. This paper compares perceived levels of human-carnivore conflict experienced on five Namibian communal conservancies and four resettled farming areas. Factors explored include how reported depredation was affected by livestock husbandry practices, the perceived annual cost of depredation and the reported problem predator species. Of the 147 respondents interviewed, perceived depredation was greater than in previous studies; high perceived depredation was associated with greater rates of predator removal, increased ranking of predators as problems and increased predator sighting frequency. Small stock species were the most commonly depredated livestock. The most frequently perceived predators were: jackals on goats and sheep, wild cats on chickens, leopards on horses and spotted hyenas on cattle. The financial cost of this predation was US$508898, mostly attributable to cattle depredation, and agricultural training schemes recommending good livestock management may help reduce this cost. A move from small to large stock farming could be promoted in areas with an abundance of small- to medium-sized carnivores and a lack of large carnivores. Further incentives, such as meat provision and income from consumptive and non-consumptive tourism could ensure benefits outweigh costs of wildlife coexistence.
... In southern Africa, the adoption of community-based approaches to resource management, such as CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Program For Indigenous Resources) in Zimbabwe, softened the hard edge and allowed communities to benefit from protected areas, be they national parks, game reserves, safari areas, or private conservation initiatives (Child, 1995). Other Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programmes continue to be developed and evaluated Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas in East and southern Africa (Murphree, 2000;DFID, 2002;Weaver and Skyer, 2005;Murphree, 2005;Lewis, 2005) including the DFID-funded Mpomiba project with 19 villages close to the Ruaha National Park in Tanzania and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)-funded project with forty villages adjacent to the Selous Game Reserve. In Namibia, the National Community Wildlife Conservancy Programme has led to the registration of significant numbers of communityowned conservancies, many of which have entered into joint ventures with the private sector. ...
Issues affecting the interplay among wildlife health, the health of domestic animals, and human health are receiving inadequate attention from protected area managers. This chapter encourages an innovative framework, called the "One Health Paradigm," by taking a broad ecological definition of health that brings together many disciplines that too often have remained isolated from each other. This ecosystem approach to health issues is especially pertinent in the parts of the world where domestic animals often interact with the wild species of greatest interest to protected area managers. Steve Osofsky and his colleagues also provide a perspective on the many relationships between the health of wildlife and the health of people living in the often-remote areas adjacent to protected areas, where human health care is often in short supply. Building a more appropriate response to the problems of disease transmission across the interface between wildlife and domestic animals can also lead to improvements in the health status of the people living around protected areas, thereby building a more positive attitude towards the protected area and conservation authorities. This chapter also emphasises the highly dynamic relationship between people, domestic animals, and wildlife, calling for significant investments in training, monitoring and research in order to ensure a healthy outcome for all concerned. The elements in the "One Health" paradigm provide a solid basis for building support for protected areas from those living near them and those working on human and animal health. Editor's introduction
Etosha Pan to the Skeleton Coast examines the conservation histories and concerns of one of southern Africa’s most iconic conservation regions: the variously connected ‘Etosha-Kunene’ areas of north-central and north-west Namibia. This cross-disciplinary volume brings together contributions from a Namibian and international group of scholars and conservation practitioners, working on topics ranging from colonial histories to water management, perceptions of ‘wildlife’ and the politics of belonging. Together, these essays confront a critical question: how can the conservation of biodiversity-rich landscapes be reconciled with historical injustices of social exclusion and marginalisation?
The book is organised in five parts: the first provides a historical backdrop for the book’s detailed case studies, focusing on environmental and conservation policy and legislation; the second investigates post-Independence approaches to conservation; the third focuses on ‘Etosha-Kunene’ ecologies and related management issues; the fourth explores how historical circumstances shape present conservation and cultural landscapes; and the fifth addresses contemporary complexities of lion conservation and community-based natural resource management (CBNRM).
By offering a comprehensive overview of evolving conservation boundaries, policies and practices in the region, this timely volume paves the way for the future design of conservation initiatives that more fully consider and integrate historical and cultural knowledge and diversity. Essential reading for conservation practitioners, policymakers, and academic researchers alike, this volume also serves as a valuable resource for university students interested in conservation studies and histories of conservation.
Community-based conservation is advocated as an idea that long-term conservation success requires engaging with, providing benefits for, and establishing institutions representing local communities. However, community-based conservation’s efficacy and impact in sustainable resource management varies depending on national natural resource policies and implications for local institutional arrangements. This paper analyses the significance of natural resource management policies and institutional design on the management of common pool resources (CPRs), by comparing Namibian conservancies and community forests. To meet this aim, we reviewed key national policies pertinent to natural resource governance and conducted 28 semi-structured interviews between 2012 and 2013. Key informants included conservancy and community forest staff and committee members, village headmen, NGO coordinators, regional foresters, wildlife officials (wardens), and senior government officials in the Ministry of Environment and Tourism and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry. We explored the following questions: how do national natural resource management policies affect the operations of local common pool resource institutions? and how do external factors affect local institutions and community participation in CPRs decision-making? Our results show that a diversity of national policies significantly influenced local institutional arrangements. Formation of conservancies and community forests by communities is not only directly linked with state policies designed to increase wildlife numbers and promote forest growth or improve condition, but also formulated primarily for benefits from and control over natural resources. The often-assumed direct relationship between national policies and local institutional arrangements does not always hold in practice, resulting in institutional mismatch. We aim to advance theoretical and applied discourse on common pool resource governance in social-ecological systems, with implications for sustainable land management policies in Namibia and other landscapes across sub-Saharan Africa.
The warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) can be used as a model for investigating disease transmission at the human, wildlife, and livestock interface. An omnivore and scavenger, a warthog moves freely between natural ecotypes, farmland, and human communities and is susceptible to diseases of zoonotic, agricultural, and conservation concern. A retrospective study using 100 individual serum samples collected from May 1999 to August 2016 was performed to determine antibody prevalence to seven pathogens in warthogs from five locations in northeastern South Africa. Higher prevalence of antibodies to African swine fever virus and Mycobacterium bovis to M. bovis was detected in warthogs from the Greater Kruger National Park ecosystem and no antibodies to African swine fever virus in warthogs from uMhkuze Game Reserve. Low prevalence of antibodies to foot-and-mouth disease virus, Rift Valley fever virus, and influenza A virus was detected in all locations, and no antibodies against Brucella and Leptospira spp. were detected. No statistically significant difference in antibody prevalence was found between sexes for any disease. At the univariate analysis, M. bovis seropositivity was significantly different among age categories, with 49% (35/71) of adults found positive versus 29% (4/14) of juveniles and 9% (1/11) of sub-adults (Fisher’s exact test, P=0.020), and between the sampling locations (Fisher’s exact test, P=0.001). The multivariate model results indicated that juvenile warthogs had lower odds of testing positive to M. bovis antibodies than adults (juveniles’ odds ratio [OR]=0.17, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.02–1.0), although this result was not statistically significant at the 5% level (P=0.052). For warthogs sampled at Satara Buffalo Camp, the odds (OR=0.22, 95% CI: 0.035–0.96) of being M. bovis antibody positive were significantly lower (P=0.043) than for warthogs sampled at Skukuza. Of particular interest in this study was the detection of warthogs seropositive
Community-based natural resource management programs can recover wildlife and deliver tangible benefits such as financial gains to local communities. Less-tangible impacts like changes in attitudes towards wildlife are not as well-understood, yet in the long-term, positive attitudes may be an important determinant of sustainability in such programs. We investigated the connection between actual and perceived benefits of a community-based conservation program in Namibia and residents' attitudes towards wildlife. We administered a questionnaire with a specific focus on attitudes to >400 community members across 18 communal conservancies that generated either (i) high benefits from tourism, (ii) high benefits from hunting, or (iii) low/no benefits. We used an empirical modelling approach that isolated the impact of conservancy-level benefits, while controlling for a variety of factors that can also influence attitudes towards wildlife. Using an information theoretic and model-averaging approach, we show that all else equal, respondents living in conservancies generating high benefits from hunting had more favourable attitudes towards wildlife than those living in conservancies generating low benefits (as expected), but also as compared to those living in conservancies generating high benefits from tourism. A variety of individual-level characteristics, such as the costs and benefits (both tangible and intangible) that respondents have personally experienced from wildlife, as well as demographic factors, were also important in conditioning attitudes. Our results demonstrate that community-based conservation programs can positively impact attitudes towards wildlife, but that this is conditioned by the type and magnitude of benefits and costs that individuals experience from wildlife, all of which should be assessed in order to most effectively support such programs.
Cambridge Core - Natural Resource Management, Agriculture, Horticulture and forestry - Rewilding - edited by Nathalie Pettorelli
Change History: November 2015. D Johns updated the text throughout the article and updated the references.
The community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) program in Botswana has been ongoing for almost two decades. It aims at achieving biodiversity conservation and rural development, especially improved rural livelihoods. The objective of this chapter is to assess whether CBNRM has been successful in achieving its goals of biodiversity conservation and improved rural livelihoods in Botswana. The chapter also investigates the effectiveness of the CBNRM institutional framework in ensuring that CBNRM achieves its goals. Both primary and secondary data sources were collected and analyzed. Results suggest that CBNRM in Botswana largely involves wildlife-based tourism activities such as photographic and safari hunting. CBNRM offers local communities the opportunity to participate in tourism development and natural resource conservation. In the 20 years of its implementation in Botswana, CBNRM has mixed results. That is, some projects have relatively succeeded in achieving either biodiversity conservation or improved rural livelihoods (e.g. employment creation, generation of income, provision of social services) while other projects have collapsed. There are factors that explain the performance of each project (e.g. availability of skilled personnel or lack of capacity building, reinvestment of CBNRM revenue or misappropriation of funds, strong community cohesion or lack of it). Therefore, it is concluded that the success or failure of CBNRM in Botswana depends on several factors which include the effectiveness of the institutional framework of individual CBNRM projects. In this regard, CBNRM should be judged based on the political, social and economic factors of individual projects. However, the success of some CBNRM projects in Botswana demonstrates that CBNRM can be an effective tool to achieve conservation and improved livelihoods.
This paper describes the successful national program initiated by the South African government to produce disease-free African buffalo so as to ensure the sustainability of this species due to threats from diseases. Buffalo are known carriers of foot-and-mouth disease, bovine tuberculosis, Corridor disease and brucellosis. A long-term program involving multiphase testing and a breeding scheme for buffalo is described where, after 10 years, a sustainable number of buffalo herds are now available that are free of these four diseases. A large portion of the success was attributable to the use of dairy cows as foster parents with the five-stage quarantine process proving highly effective in maintaining the “disease-free” status of both the calves and the foster cows. The projects proved the successfulness of breeding with African buffalo in a commercial system that was unique to African buffalo and maintained the “wildness” of the animals so that they could effectively be released back into the wild with minimal, if any, behavioral problems.
This book is the result of six years' intensive research and brainstorming by a group of South Africans under the editorship of J. du P. Bothma, the incumbent of the Eugene Marais Chair of Wildlife Management at the University of Pretoria. The group, comprising professional botanists and zoologists, veterinarians and wildlife managers, emphasises the fact that game (in all its characteristics and attributes) is unquestionably a natural asset in many parts of southern Africa
Economic returns to land use options in Gondwana Canon Park
- Barnes
- Humavindu
Barnes JI and Humavindu M. Economic returns to land use options in Gondwana Canon Park, Karas, Namibia. Unpublishedreport,Nature Windhoek, Namibia. 2003. 73pp