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TWO HALVES OF PLAY
Simulation versus Abstraction and Transformation in Sports Videogames
Design
"In-your-face marketing. Extreme camera angles. Trash-talking superstars.
Sound like TV sports? Try sports videogames."
(Ratliff, 2003)
INTRODUCTION
Sports videogames have been one of the defining forces throughout the history
of videogames. The installation generally accepted as the first video game was a
sports game - Tennis For Two (Higinbotham, 1958), which used an oscilloscope
as a display. The first commercial success in video games was a sports game -
Pong (Alcorn, 1972) - and the game that sold the most copies in 2005 (Campbell,
2006) is a sports game - Madden NFL 06 (EA Tiburon, 2006). Sports games
contribute substantially to a positive public perception of videogaming through
the emergence of e-sports.
Unlike most videogame genres, the ongoing quest for more realistic
representations means for sports games that they become more like the "real
thing". Looking at a current generation sports videogame it appears to be a
consummate emulation of reality. From authentic stadiums, jerseys and perfectly
recreated player tattoos, the cheering crowd singing songs apt for the teams on
the court, the presentation and statistical inserts that often exceed even the most
professional sports television coverage to the colorful commentators, sports
videogames actually are nearly a perfect replica of reality regarding their
audiovisual facing.
Wii Tennis, a part of Wii Sports (Nintendo, 2006), has gone a long way since
Pong towards a simulation of reality. Or has it? While in some aspects, Wii tennis
is without doubt more realistic than Pong, it introduces new elements to
specifically enhance gameplay; like the power serve, the ninja-like jumping skills
of players or the way twists that you use to spin on the ball. On the other hand,
leaving out many of the complex characteristics of real tennis, Wii tennis
becomes much more enjoyable as a game.
It should be noted that this dichotomy is fundamentally different from the
narratology/ludology dualism that has been discussed widely in literature [eg.
Frasca (2003), Aarseth (2004)]. In most sports games, narrative is superficial and
"tacked on". While it does provide for a more exiting overall experience, the core
mechanics of the game are untouched by it. We will try to show that in this core
mechanics, the concept of story has a different specificity.
It is a truism that simulation alone does not constitute a game (since simulations
in itself have no goals and are rarely fun), but in which ways can we deviate from
pure simulation in order to make a good game? What do realism and simulation
mean in the context of sports videogames? What aspects of games are subject
of simulation, and when do we experience a game as realistic? And finally, how
can we map the complex movements of a real sport onto the limited interaction
space of videogame controllers.
This article presents a simple model to suggest answers to these questions.
MAPPING REALITY: ABSTRACTION AND TRANSFORMATION
Representational games that try to simulate reality to every extent possible raise
the bar for success very high (Wolf, 2003). Every shortcoming when striving for
complete realism is fatal and destroys the "willing suspension of disbelief"
(Coleridge, 1817). Tolkien (1966) describes the importance of this willingness in
the context of fairy tail reading. Here, the creation of worlds with their own rules
and laws preserve an "inner consistency of reality", as he puts it. An argument
derived from drama is made by Laurel (1991) who argues that "it is key to the
success of a dramatic representation that all of the materials that are formulated
into action are drawn from the circumscribed potential of the particular dramatic
world".
To properly support the player in her "willing suspension of disbelief", sports
videogames don't really simulate as much as translate or map a real world matter
onto a gratifying and consistent game experience. In respect to gameplay this
mapping necessitates grave design decisions. Sports have innate rules, and
videogames can be described as rule sets themselves. As Juul (2005) puts it:
"To play a video game is therefore to interact with real rules while imagining a
fictional world, and a video game is a set of rules as well as a fictional world."
In contrast to other games, rules in sportsgames have two sources: the rules of
the game simulated, and the rules introduced in order to make a videogame the
simulation a videogame. The rules of the modelled sport can be transferred
without loss, while the modelling itself introduces implicit rules that come, among
others, from the fact that simulations are always reductionist. Grünvogel (2005)
writes about the second kind of rules: "Models are idealisations of a system, in
which certain aspects of the system are captured and other aspects are ignored.
[..] Good models are those who are simple yet still manage to reproduce even
quite roughly a large number of features of a particular system. [..] the main
difficulty to construct a model is to identify the important aspects of the system."
The principles of this mapping of reality to a constrained playable game are the
focus of this research paper. It will be argued that besides straight up simulation
there are two distinct ways to mediate between reality and gameplay; abstraction
and transformation.
The former follows Juul's (2007) definition of abstraction. Juul describes
abstraction as the level of detail of the represented world that is implemented in
the fictional world. "The level of abstraction is the level on which the player can
act: The actions that are available to the player".
The most apparent examples of abstraction are found in control schemes. The
complex and malleable actions that have to be executed by a human in a sport
have to be mapped onto the layout of controls on game controller. This process
requires decisions to be made specifically about which actions (or in an even
more constrained view: which manifestations of an action) should be offered to
the player to perform or initiate, and which actions should be left out of the game.
In that sense abstraction can also be understood as form of designing by
constraints; Abstraction is about the constraints that are defined upon the
players' actions in order to liberate her from decisions that are deemed
unnecessary in the context of the video game.
Often aspects of a real game are included in a videogame in a way that distorts
or transforms them in a way that retains their meaning and/or function within
gameplay, but leaves little else of what was there originally. This process can be
referred to as transformation. As an example imagine a trick-ski challenge. In the
real world it would be scored by judges. In the imaginary game, the score will still
be the central factor to grade player performance and further to decide who has
won. Nevertheless the score's manifestation in the game may change
completely, while still retaining this defining quality; e.g. the judges may be
transformed to collectable score items and multipliers. This process of mapping a
real world matter onto the game world, saving only theme, meaning or function
but changing other qualities significantly is what we call transformation.
This paper aims to provide a determination of various possible qualities of
realism that can be implemented in sports videogames. These qualities can be
used to assess design decisions as a trade-off between simulation and
gameplay. For this purpose, we chose a qualitative example from each of a
number of informally defined sports videogame genres and analysed it by
evaluating their degrees of simulation, abstraction and transformation in a
number of dimensions.
GENRES
The following list of genres is not to be understood as a precise method to divide
sports games into different categories but as a means of understanding the
different approaches sports videogames may take. Some of the genre names
loosely follow Conway's (2007) distinction. Even though the number of presented
genres has been increased by introducing the fun sports simulation and the deep
sports simulation to accommodate genre transcending games the borderlines
shall still be understood as being fuzzy rather than a sharp categorisation.
The extreme sports game
In this context the genre of extreme sports games does not exclusively signify the
simulation of extreme sports like skydiving or free climbing but an exaggerated
vision of any sport. Examples include the ridiculous heights and aerial stunts that
can be achieved in version 3 of the SSX snowboarding series (EA Canada,
2003) or the high-flying, physics-defying dunks of Midway’s NBA Jam (Midway,
1993).
Realism is exchanged for action, and gameplay does not focus on providing a
realistic experience of the sport but on skillful moves that lead to equally skillful
looking results on the screen. The endless combinations of artistic moves in the
SSX 3 more resembling the combo scheme of a beat-'em-up than a realistic
approach to the moves possible when really snowboarding.
Extreme sports games simulate the excitement, flair and clichés of the sport
rather than the sport itself. Controls usually have simple basics and do not reflect
reality but allow for a vast array of moves when (randomly or intentionally)
exhausting the combinations of the often provided modifiers. EA Big's SSX 3
(short name: ssx) is chosen as the representative of this genre.
The fun sports game
Fun sports simulations provide a very reduced, accessible version of the
represented sport. Earlier examples include the diverse summer-, winter- or
world games collections which very intensely relied on hefty button mashing or
waggling of the joystick to simulate running – a feature found in many of the
offered disciplines. A feature of many fun sports games is to center the
interaction around the use of one physical metaphor, which is used as a strong
simulation. As Rusch (2007) states, providing strong and consistent metaphors
allows for a quick orientation of the player within a fictional world. Through this
feature fun sports games usually are very accessible and the rest of the game is
subordinated to this central gameplay element. A prime example is Wii Tennis,
which even excludes player-controlled movement in favor of offering a very
haptic experience of metaphorically striking the ball with the controller.
The sports simulation
The sports simulation attempts to provide a realistic experience of a single player
sport. While not allowing for exaggerated moves as the extreme sports games it's
focus lies on skillful execution of moves and correct handling of physics in a
generally more real world.
EA's Skate (EA Black Box, 2007) that posts a contrast to the established Tony
Hawk's skateboarding series (Neversoft, 1999-2007) through its innovative
controls was chosen as the example for this category.
The team sports simulation
The team sports simulation is the genre, which has the greatest tradition of all.
Characterised by extensive licensing and annual revisions the team sports
simulation usually implements team sports like football, basketball or baseball.
Controls are complex to allow execution of as many realistic moves as possible.
Team sports simulations ideally excel in using sophisticated AI to provide the
sensation of control over a whole team while being able to actively control only
one player at a time. The Pro Evolution Soccer series (short name: pes)
(Konami, 2001-2007) was examined as a representative of the team sports
simulation genre.
The deep sports simulation
“Yes, it's the best... but is it only for the most dedicated?”
IGN Magazine (Magruder, 2003) on the Formula 1 racing simulation F1
Challenge '99-'02 (Image Space Incorporated, 2003)
The deep sports simulation extends the underlying framework of the (team)
sports simulation by providing opportunities and challenges beyond the actual
gameplay. These extend to in-depth team management, multi-season-play and a
flurry of statistical data upon player decisions can be based. In games that strictly
focus on management active gameplay is or may even be excluded. The
additional depth in racing simulations stems from the vast possibilities in car
configurations that need to be made according to one’s individual driving style
while factoring in weather and track information. A strong example is Gran
Turismo (short name: gt) (Polyphony Digital, 1997-2007) which features a career
mode that allows to play for extended time offering several hundred vehicles that
are very characteristically modeled not only regarding their visual style but also in
respect to driving characteristics and physical attributes. When set to the highest
degree of realism, the configurable driving model in conjunction with a steering
wheel and pedal provides as close an experience to real driving as you can get
sitting in front of the television set.
METHODOLOGY
To evaluate the chosen genre representatives according to their degrees of
abstraction and transformation, gameplay is analysed according to four distinct
categories; implementation of rules, player control, the course of action and
presentation. The proposed categorisation does not intend to be a formal model
for the description of digital games as a whole but as a specialised tool to
describe and analyse decisions made in the design process of sports
videogames. Yet several analogies to other models can be drawn to explain our
approach.
"Interaction Map" is one of four areas for a methodological analysis of games
presented by Consalvo and Dutton (2006) and posts research questions like "Are
interactions limited?" or "What is the range of interaction?". These questions are
answered in the player control category.
Lindley (2005) posts four levels of temporal structure in his analysis of ludic
space and time. The "discourse level" signifies long-term narration while the
more short-term "performance level" regards the plot . In our model both of those
aspects of story-telling are covered in the course of action. The "simulation level"
deals with player interaction and is equivalent to our category of player control.
The "generative substrate" addresses rules and is likewise covered in the
implementation of rules.
Zimmermann and Salen (2004) suggest the following categorisation of game
rules; "Implicit Rules" cover social aspects. In our model those are not dealt with
explicitly but can be attributed to the competitive aspects of playing sports
videogames. "Constituative Rules" are the mathematical core of the game rules.
How rules of the original sport are implemented in the game is dealt with in the
implementation of rules. This mathematical core also plays a role in our proposed
category of presentation where modeled player skills and physical attributes are
often based on formal mathematic expressions. "Operational Rules" deal with
player behaviour and interaction and can be attributed to the category of player
control.
In the following, the games are examined separately regarding these categoriess
(implementation of rules, player control, the course of action and presentation).
The categories are then individually discussed and illustrated, using examples
from the prior analysed games as well as from other games. Following Scott
McClouds (1993) taxonomy of comic styles, we use a triangle to visualise the
results. The bottom left of the triangle signifies a complete simulation, the bottom
right a complete transformation and the top corner stands for a fully abstracted
implementation. In this display, the distance from the bottom left corner denotes
the quality of the game as simulation. The direction of the vector between the left
corner and the data point shows the weighting between abstraction and
transformation that led to the removal from reality.
The games are examined in the following categories:
Implementation of Rules
On the one hand, this category deals with the game's implementation of the
sport's rules, and if and how physics and other rules of the real world are
represented. On the other hand, it includes what additional rules have been
implemented.
Presentation
“[..]you’ll remember the pluses and minuses popping up over a player’s head to
indicate stat increases and decreases. This time around, that same structure is in
place, but the cosmetic side is different. Instead of symbols, it’s all about the
animations this time around, as the players will shake their head in
disappointment or pump their fists in jubilation.”
Games magazine PSX Extreme (Dutka, 2007) on NCAA March Madness 08 (EA
Canada, 2007).
This category defines the presentational layer of sports videogames. This not
only includes graphical and acoustic realism but also true-to-life statistics and
player skills / gear properties as well as an authentic setting. The term graphics
not only implies the visual quality but also factors such as an accurate
representation of real athletes through licensing. Audio qualities, like having
commentators, factor in as well. As Steven Poole (2000) stated: "The modern
sports game is no longer a re-creation of an actual sport so much as it is a re-
creation of viewing that sport on television." This notion of realism is applicable to
many modern sports videogames.
Course of action
The course of action stands for everything amounted to the whole of one game
played, race carried out or match fought out. Using this category, it is analysed
how the game represents time, if results resemble reality and if attained statistics
are accurate compared to the real world. The course of action also includes if
there are eventual implementations of momentum, or if raising her skill level is
left to the player herself. Essentially this describes whether the player can
immerse herself into a game flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) and how
the game assists this factor by temporarily raising ratings when playing good.
Further, a look is taken how and if games create drama and if some kind of
storytelling can be attributed to the game experience.
Control
When regarding control in sports videogames, several aspects must be
regarded. Firstly, there is individual control, which deals with the controls
implemented for the fully controlled avatar or vehicle (e.g. movement, passing,
steering,…). Individual control includes the mapping of possibilities of the real
world onto the game world. This factor is influenced by the chosen control
scheme. Secondly, Team Control deals with the amount of control the player is
given over the rest of the team in team-sports games and how deeply strategic
options are implemented. Further it is analysed how the game provides
challenge, emulates skillfulness and rewards mastery.
EVALUATION
SSX 3
Fig.1: SSX 3
Rules: SSX transforms the judging that takes place in snowboard contests to a
flurry of bonuses and multipliers for individual tasks. Physics are present but
have been transformed to allow crazy gravity-defying jumps and stunts. The
usual track boundaries are partially removed as the player acts in a free
environment where additional areas are unlocked as the game progresses. In
contrasted to reality the player is invulnerable but crashing is punished; damage
is forfeited but the time loss remains which is an abstracted version of a crash in
the real world.
Presentation: SSX 3 does not implement actual snowboarding stars or legends, it
presents abstracted versions of them. By implementing stereotypical characters it
does well in recreating actual clichés within the game's fictional world. This cliché
is enforced by the addition of licensed music from the mainstream punk and rap
genres. Graphical realism is important as avatars are physically accurately
modeled and have a tremendous choice of branded gear to wear. SSX is
displaying animations realistically but in a move of transformation allows so-
called "uber-moves" that are accompanied by special animations and light tails.
The surrounding or playground is a transformed version of reality. The amount of
ramps, rails and other features present in SSX cannot be found on any real
mountain.
Course of action: In the later iterations of SSX all races and challenges happen
on one mountain and all tracks are connected like they are in a real ski-region.
Thereby time is represented realistically to a certain degree as the player has to
drive to the race she wants to take next. Some abstraction still occurs as the
player lives on that very mountain for her whole career. When racing or doing
trick challenges, even if they are graded differently than in reality, results are
presented hierarchically like in real contests as the player is mostly competing
against AI controlled opponents. Game flow is represented artificially and thereby
transformed as the multiplier rises when chaining moves and not crashing for
stretches. The same moves are then scored higher than usual and the so called
"uber-tricks" become available. The game does not involve much drama apart
from occasional close finishes in races but tells a clichéd story of a snowboarding
career that is abstracted to having more sports apparel and tracks available over
the course of a career.
Control: In extreme sports games gameplay does not focus on providing a
realistic experience of the sport but on a vast array of moves that lead to skillfully
looking results on the screen. The endless combinations of artistic moves in SSX
3 are transformed and more resemble the combo scheme of a beat-'em-up than
a realistic approach to the moves possible when really snowboarding. There is a
deep choice of moves but executing them does not require a high degree of skills
as tricks can also be pulled of randomly with ease. On screen results are
designed to immediately satisfy the player rather than to show of individual skills
that need to be learned. The control scheme is mostly transformed for gameplay
purposes as tricks are handled by including many modifiers rather than having to
pull of different moves with the controller. Strategic options are not present and
the configurable gear has no influence on the gameplay.
Wii Tennis
Fig.2: Wii Tennis
Rules: Wii Tennis implements all of the rules present in real world tennis. The
only difference is scoring which for the sake of dynamic and fast paced changes
of player pairings is abstracted to the possibility of playing only one set with a
maximum of five games without a tiebreak. Ball physics are reduced to several
primitives of strokes but are present in general. The transformed player
movement (which is controlled by the AI) sometimes stretches the rules of
physics enabling the player to return virtually unreachable balls. Wii Tennis
implements a dramatic additional rule as, in a move of abstraction, it eliminates
single player matches. When just 2 players are available it is still only possible to
engage in double matches with each player controlling two avatars at the same
time.
Presentation: Wii Tennis' graphical style is highly abstracted from reality even
excluding arms and legs reducing the avatars to head, torso, hands and a racket.
All features of a tennis court are present. Audio is functional with added realism
stemming from the sound of hitting the ball separately being played on the
speaker of the Wii Remote, with which the player strikes the ball. No real tennis
professionals are included. Players use their Mii alter egos, that are created
separately from the game. Overall, with the exception of the sounds played
through the Wii remote, Wii Tennis presents a highly abstracted, functional
representation of tennis.
Course of action: Through the restrictions regarding the number of games that
can be played (see above), Wii Tennis matches are fast paced and last five to
ten minutes which is way shorter than in reality. Individual rallies sometimes still
are longer than in real matches as players tend to catch more balls than normally
possible and lengthy duels between two players that are volleying are a
regularity. Wii Tennis presents a transformation of time as it stretches and
contracts it to ensure fast paced yet dramatic gameplay. Besides experience
points, that are given out after matches against the AI, there are no statistics
recorded or displayed. The controls, that eliminate the necessity of movement,
allow the player to focus on the next shot. The intuitive way of striking is the only
point of focus for the player and allows her to immerse herself quite easily. The
drama of a lengthy rally, that occurs in real tennis as well, leaves players and
spectators in awe after a hard-fought point is finally earned.
Control: Wii Tennis' controls are very abstracted to a certain degree. Movement
is eliminated and the usual positioning relative to the ball is controlled by timing.
Through the intuitive way of striking the ball with the controller many things like
spinning the ball, serving or the distinction between forehand and backhand are
represented quite accurately. Possible shots still are reduced to an amount of
primitives. Strategic options are not present but Wii Tennis presents quite a
tactical challenge; as skillful players return most balls with relative ease
opponents need to apply a kind of "short-term tactic" for each individual rally.
Skillful play is implemented very elegantly as the game is highly accessibly to
novices (which is made apparent by the Wii's spreading among casual players)
but appeals to expert players too as there is little to none random present and as
the game gets quite tactical when no unforced errors are made.
Skate
Fig.3: Skate
Rules: In Skate scoring is handled similarly to the aforementioned SSX 3.
Physics are quite accurate and allow mildly exaggerated maneuvers at the most.
Skate also is situated in a free world, thus transforming the bounded area of a
skating contest to a city-wide playground. Vulnerability is abstracted to awkward
landings that are displayed in close-ups. Crashes are only sanctioned by
breaking the current scoring streak.
Presentation: Just like SSX, Skate does not feature real skateboarding
professionals but uses stereotypical, clichéd and thereby abstracted characters
to accurately capture the flair of skating. Avatars are modeled physically accurate
with branded boards and apparel available for customisation. In contrast to SSX's
uber-moves Skate's animations are modeled realistically. All moves present in
Skate can be executed in reality and vice versa. Skate's game world is believable
but the city and its playgrounds are slightly transformed from of reality; all walls
have rounded edges to the floor for gameplay purposes.
Course of action: As Skate is located in a city, time is represented quite
realistically because the player has to travel between locations herself. Time is
not a significant factor because Skate's objectives mostly amount to various
distributed challenges. Skate's many moves are all derived from real
skateboarding and are all represented by the accurate names. The game also
keeps track of moves that have been successfully executed at least once. A
transformed game flow is forced on the player only in the sense that chained
moves raise a multiplier that is immediately decreased by inactivity. Just as SSX
tells the story of a rising snowboarding star, Skate's career allows the player to
live the cliché of a skateboarder that is mostly abstracted to unlocking areas and
gear and to learning new moves over the course of action.
Control: "In essence, Skate transforms the button pushes. They are no longer
random hits, but little metaphors for the swoop of an entire body." states Clive
Thompson (2007) in Wired Magazine. Skate is controlled by representing body
and skateboard with the gamepad's two analogue sticks. This control method,
while still abstracting from reality, is more authentic than the usual button
mapping. An equally abstracted part of the control scheme is the handling of
grabs; it is done using the shoulder buttons of the appropriate side / hand that is
to be used for grabbing the skateboard while in mid-air. Skate's arsenal of moves
virtually includes every labeled move present in skateboarding. All of these
moves can be executed intuitively with the described control scheme. This also
means that moves differ greatly in their difficulty and the required mastery.
Reward is given appropriately by the score and by the gratification of having
accomplished something that might have been difficult to learn (as more realistic
controls draw the player nearer to her avatar she better understands the difficulty
of the executed move). Strategy is not involved and the customisable gear does
not influence the gameplay.
Pro Evolution Soccer
Fig.4: Pro Evolution Soccer
Rules: Pro Evolution Soccer emulates all of the rules of real world football. Even
the inconsistencies between referees regarding fouls are factored in by having
the option to determine a random strictness for the referee before the game. This
strictness is not displayed but players have to find out while playing what moves
they can get away with. In contrast to many other ball sports games Pro
Evolution Soccer has always taken pride in having independent ball and player
body-physics. Still there exists a little invisible rubber-band that slightly attaches
the ball to the player's feet (in a slightly abstracted version of ball handling) and
player collision physics sometimes fail when players appear to "warp" through
one another.
Presentation: Pro Evolution Soccer has always been known for its realistic
animations that also add to the gameplay experience. Further it is quite
representative of the team sports simulation genre as most of the teams and
players are licensed and represented with the appropriate logos, dresses. The
shortcomings of player rosters are addressed by a healthy community that
regularly provides updated content. Player looks are very real and feature distinct
shooting styles and goal celebrations for several star players. The graphical
realism is typical as other team sports simulations like NBA 2K8 (Visual
Concepts, 2007) take it even further to recreate every tattoo, head- or wristband
players wear in real basketball games. Pro Evolution Soccer also features
commentary and presents game statistics that add to the TV style presentation of
the game. Because the graphic representation is not perfect it is a mild
abstraction of the real world looks of football and its players.
Course of action: Pro Evolution Soccer distorts and thereby transforms time to a
high degree. A match that lasts 90 minutes in reality can be played in 10 minutes.
The score and the usual offensive statistics displayed in football broadcasts
match those of real football matches. This is done by eliminating most of the
gameplay that takes place in the midfield, generally increasing pace and by a
shortening the field. Momentum is implemented by the option of randomly
determining player condition and by modifying this condition in season play
according to fatigue and experience gained. Though hard to determine
transformed team momentum during individual matches seems to be present as
well. The team thats playing better is seemingly being favored by temporal
increases in its ratings. Drama takes place in close finishes just like it does in real
football games and additional (and thereby transformed) drama is provided by
the huge amounts of shots that do not just miss the goal but hit the goal's post or
crossbar for additional moments of frustration or relief (depending on your
perspective). In Pro Evolution Soccer 2008's "World Tour" mode, the player gets
put into dramatic finishes of games with a given challenge like "There is only 10
more minutes to play and you are trailing 1-2. win the game!"
Control: Pro Evolution Soccer gives the player a great choice of available moves
that are mapped to a very arbitrary control scheme. The depth of learning new
moves and how to use them is great. This means that the game is not highly
accessible and complete mastery is quite elusive. Some rules are imposed by
the highly abstracted control scheme that is greatly influenced by the history of
sports videogames; there are various fixed running speeds, movement is only
possible in angles of 45 degrees, passing targets can only be chosen by the
length of the button press and an by giving an approximate direction, and more of
the like.
Team control is enabled in two ways; the game presents a host of configurable
strategic options even though their degree of influence is only partially apparent
to the player. During the game teammates can be controlled partially by play-
calling, double cross passes and by calling for assistance on defense - all
abstracted options of real world football. The AI tries to support and anticipate
player actions as much as possible to establish a feeling of control - not only over
the individual player but the team as a whole. The added strategic depth and
tactical settings suggest even more control over the directly uncontrollable. As
UK game magazine Edge (2007) states this wrestling for control over a whole
team is just what makes Pro Evolution Soccer so emotional and compulsive: "No
outcome is guaranteed. All you can do is maximise your odds. Infuriating? Often.
Unfair? Possibly. But the compulsion lies in taming the unpredictable, using a
combination of your hard earned skill, experience and sheer bloody-minded force
of will."
Gran Turismo
Fig.5: Gran Turismo
Rules: In the Gran Turismo series driving has always been as real as possible.
All car settings are configurable and represented in the driving model. With all
driving aids turned off and when using a steering wheel with a manual clutch
there's little distinguishing it's driving physics from reality. Races come in all
different lengths and modes available in real life with the possibility to even take
part in 24h marathons. Were it not for the non-existing damage model that pulls
the player out of the otherwise complete illusion of driving a car the moment she
crashes, Gran Turismo would stand as an almost perfect simulation of the rules
of the real world.
Presentation: When playing the latest demo version of Gran Turismo 5 Prologue,
its graphics and sounds appear to better and shinier than in the real world. Every
car detail has been remodeled as accurately as possible and engine roars are
very distinctly marking different vehicles . The many non-fictional tracks in the
Gran Turismo games also are true-to-life. A feature that has been abstracted
from reality is that not even a particle of dirt smuts the shiny car models over the
course of a race.
Course of action: In Gran Turismo time is represented accurately. Due to the
accurate simulation of the used cars and tracks lap times are realistic as well.
Gran Turismo does not implement a racing career in the sense that a full racing
season can be played. Progression in the game instead unlocks new tracks and
cars. When finishes are close, drama is present just like in real races. The
amount of drama is reduced by the missing damage model (which is an
abstraction) as risk and thereby tension decrease.
Control: When playing Gran Turismo with the best possible controller
configuration using a force feedback wheel with pedals, clutch and handbrake,
controls are mapped 1:1 from the real world to the game world. Driving a car to
its limits is almost as challenging in Gran Turismo as it is in reality. Options in
Gran Turismo allow for simplifications of the control; automatic transmission as
well as braking and traction assistance can be turned on to ease driving.
Strategic options allow for the configuration of car specifics like suspension and
tires. More strategic depth is not available as damage and the wear and tear of
longer races are missing.
RESULTS
Implementation of Rules
Fig.6: Implementation of Rules
The highest possible amount of abstraction is achieved by Tennis For Two. It
reduces the original rules to a minimum (hit or miss the court) so you can still
identify it with it's ancestor. One example of a complete transformation is a
sports-themed pinball machine like Mexico 86 (Zaccaria 1986). It's style is
derived from the sport of football, but none of the original rules are applied in the
presented pinball game.
From the figure it can be seen that a distinction can be found between games
that are driven by results (score or position) and games that are driven by score.
Games driven by result need little to no abstraction or transformation regarding
rules, while games driven by score transform the ruleset to be more suited for
video games than for sports. This distinction would be even stronger if Gran
Turismo were not displaced due to its lack of a proper damage model.
Presentation
Fig. 7: Presentation
The maximum in abstraction again is reached by Tennis For Two. In this game,
the tennis court is replaced by two perpendicular lines, a long horizontal and a
short vertical line, and the ball is abstracted into a single pixel, with no players or
rackets visible on screen. The example for an almost completely transformed
presentation is the Deathball mod for Unreal Tournament (Team Vortex, 2002).
While the resulting game can still be called football, it has very little visual
resemblance with the original sport.
Thanks to technological progress, the presentational quality of sports games has
bettered significantly over the last couple of years. Quality and depth (e.g.
through commentary and displayed statistics) almost match that of a TV
broadcast. If parts of the presentation are less realistic, this cannot any longer be
contributed to technological lacks. Instead, it acts as a concession to gameplay
as made apparent by Skate's and SSX's tweaks to their respective game worlds.
The highly abstracted vision of Wii Tennis underlines the approach Nintendo has
taken in creating simple and accessible games. The notion of accessibility of Wii
Tennis is enforced through the functional yet likable style of its graphics.
Games like 2K Sports' NBA 2K8 have evolved the realistic qualities of the
presentation in a way that it converges with other media like television and the
internet; by example displaying real-time news and game results during actual
gameplay.
Also, many games featuring statistically and visually highly accurate rosters (like
football or basketball games) can rely on a competent user base that keeps the
game up-to-date with vast amounts of user-generated content, until the next
revision is released.
Course of action
Fig.8: Course of action
The course of action of the football fun game Mario Strikers Charged (Nintendo,
2007) is highly transformed as gameplay amounts to either charging up the ball
through passing for a chance to beat the otherwise perfect keeper or to waiting to
unleash a super move that scores up to five goals at once. Fifa Manager (EA
Sports, 2003-2007) abstracts football videogames to a few moments of waiting
for the simulation to come up with the results.
Game Flow: To recreate the "flow" experience athletes can achieve in real life
sports when in the lead, some videogames implement momentum. Momentum
favors the player already in the lead by increasing her odds of success even
more. It is disputed if this should not be left to the player immersing herself in the
flow of the game rather than artificially imposing it through game mechanics.
Momentum detaches the player from the simulation which would demand from
her to immerse herself and thereby play better, but it still is a move towards
realism as it implements a distinct and important feature especially present in
possession based team-sports like basketball or american football.
Drama: Usually it's in the player’s hands to create an intriguing matchup. A new
story is written with every game or season played. Some games may enforce
close games to create drama but are thereby detaching the player from the
simulation.
A typical feature that adds suspense to the game is the opposite of the described
momentum, a feature often found in racing games. When implemented, vehicles
in poor positions can drive faster than the leading car. This "rubber-banding"
raises the dramatic moment of the game experience. Another form of
dramatisation has been described in the analysis of Pro Evolution Soccer.
Time: While we have included time in this category, it can be seen as part of all
four categories. The distortion of time is a necessity in games where the real
game takes far too long for a videogame to be engaging and fun.
Control
Fig.9: Control
The type of controller has a strong impact on possible mappings. To map
functions to (digital) pushbuttons, almost always transformations have to be
made. Special forms of pushbuttons (like shoulder buttons that call to mind the
experience of grabbing something, or pressure sensitive pushbuttons) allow for
more abstract mappings, like for example the board grabs in SSX or gradual
acceleration in Gran Turismo. Analogue sticks facilitate abstract mappings much
better when moves like pushing, pulling, changing a stance or steering are
involved. The motion control offered by the Wii Remote lets designers create
direct abstract mappings of quite complex controls. Single-purpose devices such
as data gloves or steering wheels allow for simulated control.
The classic videogame Pong places itself in the extreme transformation corner
by transforming the complex realities of tennis or table tennis into the simple task
of moving a bat to the right position by turning a knob. On the other hand, Wii
Golf (a part of Wii Sports) can serve as an example of high abstraction. The
delicate and complicated act of hitting a golf ball is effectively reduced to a "flick"
with the Wii Remote that essentially stands for the amount of energy put into the
swing. All further qualities of striking like player positioning, the point where the
club hits the ball and spinning are reduced or eliminated.
The large gap between Gran Turismo and all other games can be attributed to
the fact that in racing games the player controls not the driver, but the car itself.
As such, the mapping is not between the movements of a human being and the
controller, but between the interface of the car and the controller - essentially a
controller-to-controller mapping. This of course is much easier to accomplish
realistically, making racing games bound for the lower left corner. All other
games, where essentially human beings are controlled, are on the other hand
restricted to areas sufficiently far away from realism.
This gap is often bridged with a mechanism best termed "illusion of control". In
every videogame where you control a human being (and even more so in team
sports videogames), the lack of direct influence in the game is substituted with
very indirect forms of control that, in the ideal case, can still feel like direct
control. This "illusion of control" is supported by the fact that many of the players
goals can be predicted (e.g.. running after a loose ball in football) and thus
anticipated. Using this mechanism, controls can be significantly simpler and at
the same time much more powerful than direct control.
The concept of "illusion of control" explains what Church (1999) describes as the
gap between intention and consequence:
“In sports games, you direct players, select an action, and watch something
happen in response to that action, which gives you feedback about what you
tried to do. The player does direct the action — a cross-check missed, a slap
shot deflected, a pass gone wrong — but one level removed. While watching the
action on screen, one sees everything that happens, but can't be sure exactly
why it happened. This is because the basis of most sports games is a statistical
layer, and thus the same actions with the controller can lead to different results.
When you combine the different player ratings with the die-rolling going on
behind the scenes, the probabilities make sense, but may not be apparent to the
player. The intention is still there, but the perceived consequence is much less
immediate. This removal of direct control (and the entire issue of directing action)
through a statistical layer, which the player can intuit but not directly see, is often
present in RPG combat. Thus, in Tekken, I can't say, "Man, bad luck, if only I'd
rolled better," or "Yeah, now that I'm a tenth-level ninja, I can do that move," but
in NBA Live or an RPG, I often do.”
Seeing beyond the illusion of control often allows skillful players to reach new
levels of mastery of such games. Mechanisms such as the "super cancel" of Pro
Evolution Soccer break through the "anticipation" feature of the game and let the
player do things that are unexpected as well as unpredictable. Such features are
of core value for a game to make it suitable for "deep" competition and e-sports.
CONCLUSION
Sports videogames, be they statistically accurate management games or very
simplified casual games, always contain elements of simulation. Their design
process involves creating a model of the sport. But modeling for videogames is
very different from modeling for computer simulation. To create an accurate
representation of reality is only important as far as presentation and game results
are concerned at the most. Even more, some aberrations from reality might be
necessary in order to make the game appear more real than it would.
For example, the "willing suspension of disbelieve" of the user gives the designer
certain freedom to deviate from perfect simulation. Also, some aspects of reality
cannot be reproduced in a game where the user only has a limited amount of
control over the course of action. Thus, we have to fill in, giving the player an
"illusion of control" that makes her believe in much more possibilities than are
actually there.
The methodology suggested in this paper helps in the understanding of trade-offs
in this specific design space. It offers a way to understand differences in genres
and types of sports games. By suggesting a terminology for the types of
deviation from pure simulation, it also helps us talk about sports games and
simulations in a more productive way.
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GAMES
Games are cited using the following format: Developer (year): Title, Publisher,
Platform.
Alcorn, A. (1972): Pong, Atari, Arcade.
EA Black Box (2007): Skate, Electronic Arts, multi-platform.
EA Canada (1997-2007): NCAA March Madnesss (series), EA Sports, multi-
platform.
EA Canada (2003): SSX 3 EA Sports Big, multi-platform.
EA Sports (2003-2007): FIFA Manager (series), Electronic Arts, multi-platform.
EA Tiburon (2005): Madden NFL 06, EA Sports, multi-platform.
Higinbotham, W. (1958): Tennis For Two, Available from:
<http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/history/higinbotham.asp>. [Accessed 11 February
2008].
Image Space Incorporated (2003): F1 Challenge '99-'02, EA Sports, multi-
platform.
Konami (2001-2007): Pro Evolution Soccer (series), Konami, multi-platform.
Midway (1993): NBA Jam, Acclaim, multi-platform.
Neversoft (1999-2007): Tony Hawk's (series), Activision, multi-platform.
Nintendo (2006): Wii Sports, Nintendo, Wii.
Nintendo (2007): Mario Strikers Charged, Nintendo, Wii.
Polyphony Digital (1997-2007): Gran Turismo (series), Sony, Playstation.
Team Vortex (2002): Deathball, Available from: <http://www.deathball.net/>
[Accessed 11 February 2008], PC.
Visual Concepts (2007): NBA 2K8, 2K Sports, multi-platform.
Zaccaria (1986): Mexico 86, Available from:
<http://www.ipdb.org/machine.cgi?id=3382> [Accessed 11 February 2008].
