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Leche materna: Composición y factores condicionantes de la lactancia

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... 10 La leche materna no tiene una composición estática, y sus constituyentes cambian durante el período de lactancia. 11 En el caso particular de la vitamina A, varios factores modulan su secreción en la leche humana, como la edad materna, el número de partos, la duración del embarazo, la ingesta de alimentos y el estado nutricional de la madre. 12 Dado que la vitamina A se encuentra en la fracción lipídica de la leche como retinil-éster, otro factor que influye en su concentración es el contenido de grasa de la leche, que varía con el grado de llenado y con el momento del día en que se vacía el pecho. ...
... Los niveles de vitamina A tienden a disminuir con el progreso de la lactancia. 11 Al categorizar los datos según el tiempo de lactancia, se observó que las leches de menor o igual a 90 días contenían mayor concentración de vitamina A y eran las que mejor se adecuaban a los requerimientos del lactante. La presente investigación revela la importancia de clasificar la leche donada según el estadio de lactancia cuando se suministra para la alimentación del bebé internado. ...
... -Contenido de vitamina A en leche materna madura después de la pasteurización: Requerimientos nutricionales del lactante rev argent salud Pública, 2014; 5(19): [11][12][13][14][15][16] de la leche para evitar pérdidas de este nutriente, que es particularmente sensible a la luz. ...
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Introducción: La leche materna proveniente de los Bancos de Leche Humana (BLH) es el mejor sustituto cuando la lactancia no es posible, sin embargo la pasteurización puede disminuir el contenido de vitamina A. Objetivos: Comparar el contenido de vitamina A en leche madura de BLH pre y post pasteurización y analizar si la leche pasteurizada se adecua a los requerimientos nutricionalesdel lactante. Métodos: Las muestras de leche fueron colectadas por las madres donantes. Se analizó la vitamina A por Cromatografía Líquida y se calculó la media de concentración pre y post pasteurización. Se compararon los resultados usando la prueba de Student. Se analizó la adecuación de esta vitamina a los requerimientos nutricionales del lactante. Resultados: Se analizaron 53 muestras de leche de madres donantes cuya edad promedio fue 31,3 ± 4,4 años. La media del tiempo de lactancia fue 91 ± 59 días. La concentración media de vitamina A en leche antes y después de la pasteurización fue 36,6 ± 13,5 μg/dL y 30,5 ± 12,8 μg/dL respectivamente (p<0.001). Se observó una disminución media de concentración de 6,1 μg/dL(16,7%) de vitamina A en la leche luego de la pasteurización. El porcentaje de adecuación de la vitamina A en la leche pasteurizada fue 59,6 %. Conclusiones: La disminución de vitamina A en leche madura de BLH luego de la pasteurización fue del 16,7 %. La concentración de vitamina A hallada en la leche pasteurizada fue insuficiente para cubrir los requerimientos del lactante.
... Desde la placenta son utilizados para el desarrollo del cerebro, para su incorporación a los lípidos estructurales de los tejidos, para su almacenamiento en forma de triacilglicéridos en el tejido adiposo, especialmente durante el último trimestre de la gestación y para su utilización como fuente de energía (Campoy et al., 2010;Makrides et al., 2011). LA IMPORTANCIA DE LOS áCIDOS GRASOS EN LA LECHE MATERNA y EN LAS FóRMULAS LáCTEAS días postparto, a la leche producida se le denomina calostro, el cual destaca por su alto contenido en proteínas como factores inmunológicos, llegando tener hasta 23 g/L de proteínas totales; 1400 mg/L de caseína; 2180 mg/L de alfa lactoalbúmina; 3300 mg/L de lactoferrina y 3640 mg/L de IgA (Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011). Después de la primera semana, la leche va cambiando su composición y dos a tres semanas después tiene las características de la leche madura (Mena y Milad, 1998;Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011). ...
... LA IMPORTANCIA DE LOS áCIDOS GRASOS EN LA LECHE MATERNA y EN LAS FóRMULAS LáCTEAS días postparto, a la leche producida se le denomina calostro, el cual destaca por su alto contenido en proteínas como factores inmunológicos, llegando tener hasta 23 g/L de proteínas totales; 1400 mg/L de caseína; 2180 mg/L de alfa lactoalbúmina; 3300 mg/L de lactoferrina y 3640 mg/L de IgA (Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011). Después de la primera semana, la leche va cambiando su composición y dos a tres semanas después tiene las características de la leche madura (Mena y Milad, 1998;Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011). A la luz de la ciencia se ha demostrado que la composición de la leche humana varía según la edad de gestación (Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011;Valenzuela et al., 2011). ...
... Después de la primera semana, la leche va cambiando su composición y dos a tres semanas después tiene las características de la leche madura (Mena y Milad, 1998;Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011). A la luz de la ciencia se ha demostrado que la composición de la leche humana varía según la edad de gestación (Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;García, 2011;Valenzuela et al., 2011). La leche prematura tiene mayor cantidad de proteínas (23 g/L) y menor cantidad de lactosa (55 g/L) que la leche madura (10 g/L proteínas y 73 g/L lactosa), como si se adaptara a las condiciones fisiológicas del recién nacido (Vásquez, 2005;Macías et al., 2006). ...
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The best choice for feeding the newborn child is breast milk, and when it is not possible to breastfeed a baby, the breast milk is replaced by lacteal formula, which is why numerous studies focus their attention on the analysis of the diverse components of baby formula as well as functions in the breastfed baby. Fatty acids are components of great nutritional importance in the fetus and in the newborn child. Nowadays it is estimated that the fetus, during the last trimester of the gestational period and the newborn child, during the first six months of life, need a great contribution of araquidonic and docosahexaenoic acids, due to the fact that the speed of transformation of the predecessors to the hepatic level are not sufficient to cover the metabolic requirements of these fatty acids and it is the mother who contributes them through placental transport during gestation and her milk during lactation. The Organization of Food and Agriculture (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Society of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Pediatric Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that lacteal formula imitate the composition of the breast milk, especially in the fatty polyunsaturated acids (PUFA). El alimento natural por excelencia para el recién nacido es la leche materna, cuando no es posible darla se sustituye por fórmulas lácteas, por lo que numerosos estudios enfocan su interés en el análisis de los diversos componentes de éstas, y sus funciones en el lactante. Los ácidos grasos son componentes de gran importancia nutricional tanto en el feto como en el recién nacido. Actualmente se estima que el feto, durante el último tercio del periodo gestacional y el recién nacido, durante los primeros seis meses de vida, requieren un gran aporte de ácidos araquidónico y docosahexaenoico, debido a que la velocidad de transformación de los precursores a nivel hepático no son suficientes para cubrir los requerimientos metabólicos de éstos ácidos grasos y es la madre quien los aporta a través del transporte placentario durante la gestación y a través de la leche durante la lactancia. La Organización para Alimentación y Agricultura (FAO), la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) y la Sociedad Europea de Gastroenterología, Hepatología y Nutrición Pediátrica (ESPGHAN), así como la Academia Americana de Pediatría recomiendan que las fórmulas lácteas deben ser inocuas y similares a la composición de la leche humana y muy especialmente en los ácidos grasos poliinsaturados (PUFA).
... En relación a los carbohidratos en la leche humana se han identificado más de 50 oligosacáridos de diferentes estructuras, sin embargo, la lactosa es el carbohidrato principal presente en la leche materna en una proporción del 98% y se sintetiza en la glándula mamaria a partir de glucosa y galactosa. Aporta, junto con la grasa, la energía necesaria para el normal crecimiento y desarrollo del bebé, favorece la implantación de una flora acidófila y promueve la absorción del calcio (2,3). ...
... El tercero en abundancia es el ácido linoléico (13,6%) (3). En los últimos años se ha destacado el rol de los ácidos araquidónico y docosahexaenóico en el desarrollo del cerebro y la retina del neonato (3). ...
... Dentro de la fracción de proteínas con funciones biológicas, inmunológicas o fisiológicas tenemos la lactoferrina, la cual en el tracto intestinal del bebé compite con algunas bacterias por el hierro, ejerciendo un efecto bacteriostático, en sinergismo con la IgA secretoria. También se le conoce propiedad bactericida (3,4). ...
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This is a comparative, prospective and non-experimental study that evaluated the level of macronutrients in teenage mothers'mature breastmilk. The sample was represented by mature milk of 52 healthy and eutrophic mothers, divided in two groups: A n = 24 constituted by adolescent mothers's milk among 10 and 18 years and B n = 28 formed by adult mothers's milk among 19 and 35 years who accompanied their children 1-6 months of age hospitalized, from august 2009 to august 2010. The samples were analyzed to determine concentrations of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The maternal characteristics of group A and B respectively were: mestizo ethnicity 59.4% and 39.9%, average BMI: were 23.55 +/- 1.01 kg/m2 and 24.2 +/- 0.38 kg/m2. Primiparous were 87.5% in A and 35.7% in B. Age of children aged 1-2 months was 66.6% (A) 71.4% (B). Maternal age: group A 75% had between 16 and 18 years and group B 28.5% were between 19 and 21 years. About macronutrient concentrations, median protein level in A was 1.8 +/- 0.7 g/100 ml and 1.9 +/- 0.7 g/100 ml for B median fat concentration in teenage group was 3.8 +/- 1.5 g/100 ml and in adults 3.9 +/- 1.3 g/100 ml. Median carbohydrates level in teenage was 6.8 +/- 0.8 g/100 ml and in B Group was 6.6 +/- 0.9 g/100 ml, being non statistically significative in all three cases. The macronutrient concentrations and energetic value in teenage mothers's mature breastmilk were similar than the adult mother's milk.
... En las primeras dos semanas del recién nacido, la leche adquiere un color más blanco, con más grasa y vitaminas liposolubles. 26 La leche materna se clasifica según sus características de composición, puesto que esta sostiene modificaciones durante las diferentes etapas, ver Tabla 2. La leche humana es un alimento que contiene un rico grupo de compuestos como; proteínas, lípidos, carbohidratos y vitaminas, para el buen desarrollo del neonato. ...
... Tabla 3. Componentes de la leche materna para el adecuado crecimiento y desarrollo del lactante. 27,26,28,29,30 Proteínas Produciéndose dos tipos de proteínas. Caseínas: Estas son proteínas transportadoras de calcio, fosforo y aminoácidos para fines estructurales a nivel celular. ...
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Introduction: Nowadays breastfeeding has become a taboo for society, since there are many social, economic and cultural factors that have changed the perspective of mothers about this practice. Currently it is no longer recognized as natural food, due to the rise of formulas and advertising, among other factors. A good diet for the mother aims to protect her state of health and nutrition, to increase the chances of a better quality of life for the new human being and to reduce the chances of maternal and infant morbidity and mortality, since, by having a deficiency of some macronutrients and micronutrients, some important functions can be compromised.
... En las primeras dos semanas del recién nacido, la leche adquiere un color más blanco, con más grasa y vitaminas liposolubles. 26 La leche materna se clasifica según sus características de composición, puesto que esta sostiene modificaciones durante las diferentes etapas, ver Tabla 2. La leche humana es un alimento que contiene un rico grupo de compuestos como; proteínas, lípidos, carbohidratos y vitaminas, para el buen desarrollo del neonato. ...
... Tabla 3. Componentes de la leche materna para el adecuado crecimiento y desarrollo del lactante. 27,26,28,29,30 Proteínas Produciéndose dos tipos de proteínas. Caseínas: Estas son proteínas transportadoras de calcio, fosforo y aminoácidos para fines estructurales a nivel celular. ...
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El presente trabajo de revisión tiene como objetivo principal, dar a conocer que los componentes de la leche humana dado que tienen una estrecha relación con el estado nutrimental de la madre, ya que la mala nutrición o ciertos trastornos metabólicos que presente la madre conllevan a diferentes consecuencias en la composición de la leche que provee la madre a su hijo y, por lo tanto, traen diferentes trastornos para el desarrollo del infante. Por lo tanto, es importante dar a conocer todos los beneficios de la práctica de la lactancia materna exclusiva, puesto que, la leche humana favorece notablemente el sistema inmunológico del niño. Así pues, el conocimiento que nos proporciona saber el estado antropométrico de la madre y su relación con su estado nutrimental, traen como consecuencia que la leche secretada que proporciona a su hijo está directamente relacionada con la mejora en la composición de todos los nutrimentos y el aporte calórico, así como, inmunoglobulinas y flora bacteriana normal que ayuden al buen estado de salud del infante.
... The composition of breast milk varies from one mother to another, the full reasons are still unknown, but they could be explained at first by diet and second by the environment. Therefore, a series of relationships and changes that are explained below: (36) -The fatty acid profile is modified with the maternal diet, in such a way that the composition of the ingested fat is reflected in the milk fat (36). ...
... The composition of breast milk varies from one mother to another, the full reasons are still unknown, but they could be explained at first by diet and second by the environment. Therefore, a series of relationships and changes that are explained below: (36) -The fatty acid profile is modified with the maternal diet, in such a way that the composition of the ingested fat is reflected in the milk fat (36). ...
Article
Breastfeeding provides all the energy that the child needs in the form of nutrients in the first months of life. The components cover the nutritional needs in all stages, including colostrum and final or mature milk. It must also be taken into account that the composition of milk varies from one woman to another, between both breasts, between feedings and in the different stages in the same mother. It can be said that variation is an active mechanism to perfectly adjust to the nutritional and immunological needs of each child. Components of breast milk can exert beneficial non-nutritional functions. Breast milk also has bioactive factors, which affect biological processes and, therefore, have an impact on health. In the nutrition of premature babies, parenteral nutrition is carried out first, which later becomes enteral through different strategies, such as early minimal enteral nutrition. Despite this, they still present postnatal growth restrictions, which is associated with adverse neurocognitive outcomes. Breast milk achieves multiple benefits in both preterm and term births. Digestion and absorption in the stomach and intestines follow circadian rhythms in mammals, and these rhythms are regulated by rhythmically expressed clock genes in the intestine, as well as by daily food intake.
... Dentro de los propósitos para el 2025 que marca la OMS, se encuentra reducir en un 40% el retraso en el crecimiento, conseguir que no aumente el sobrepeso y aumentar a un 50% la lactancia materna mantenida como mínimo hasta los 6 meses, aunque lo ideal sería hasta los 2 años o más 8, 9 . Esta controversia, así como la falta de consenso entre los profesionales sanitarios y de estudios sobre cómo hay que pasar de la teoría a la práctica, hace que los padres desconfíen de los profesionales sanitarios y que al final decidan seguir sus instintos y escojan el método que mejor se adapte a su hijo y familia, en función de una serie de factores como: crecimiento, sueño, felicidad, edad, familia, economía, cultura, publicidad, etiquetado de alimentos, etc. 19 . Hasta que la ciencia avance, nuestra intención es aportar información sobre el debate existente y hacer una revisión sobre los hitos del desarrollo más importantes del bebé, para poder clasificar las texturas que se usan en todos los métodos según las edades y que al mismo tiempo no fomenten el atragantamiento. ...
... Digestión de las grasas [19][20][21][22][23][24][25] El bebé obtiene un aporte calórico del 40-55% proveniente de la grasa láctea, lo que supone consumir unos 4,6-6g de grasa láctea/kg peso/día. ...
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En la actualidad, existe un debate sobre el mejor método a elegir para iniciar la alimentación del lactante. Los modelos analizados para llevar a cabo la alimentación son: la alimentación con textura modificada dirigida por los padres o cuidadores y la alimentación con textura mínimamente modificada y dirigida por el bebé como los métodos baby-led weaning (BLW) y baby lead introduction to solids (BLISS). Este documento, tiene como finalidad ayudar, desde el punto de vista teórico, en el debate sobre las posibles texturas a utilizar en cada momento, atendiendo a diferentes factores, como son: el desarrollo digestivo, el ritmo de dentición, la evolución de la masticación, las habilidades psicomotoras y la prevención de asfixia o atragantamiento. En el texto, se clasifican las texturas que se usan en todos los métodos, según los ítems que se han estudiado, para que posteriormente puedan ser usadas como una guía orientativa según edades en bebés sanos y con un crecimiento dentro de los percentiles. Teniendo como base la evidencia científica más actual encontrada y primando el principio de precaución, el acercamiento teórico al problema añade matices a tener en cuenta en la evaluación empírica. Se requieren más estudios y de mayor calidad para identificar diferencias en el impacto del uso de diferentes texturas y prácticas alimentarias.
... También puede tener efecto bactericida al actuar en las paredes de los microorganismos, causando su desestabilización y su muerte. Esta se encuentra elevada en el calostro y se mantiene, aunque en (28, menores cantidades a lo largo de toda la lactancia 29) . Tiene actividad contra bacterias Gram-negativas (6) incluyendo el Streptococcus mutans . ...
... Las menores concentraciones de minerales tienen un fundamento, el aporte total de minerales de la leche materna es bajo porque favorece el funcionamiento renal del lactante ya que le permite conservar el agua disponible para otras funciones como el control de la (29) temperatura, sin eliminar orina . ...
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RESUMEN La leche materna es el alimento que provee al niño desde su nacimiento de todos los nutrientes que necesita para su crecimiento y desarrollo físico y psicológico. Su efecto sobre el tejido dental ha sido objeto de controversias, ya que se ha visto que actúa sobre la mineralización del esmalte y se ha asociado a caries de la infancia temprana. La leche humana tiene diversos componentes protectores para el esmalte dental pero al mismo tiempo contiene factores que pueden generar la pérdida de minerales. El propósito de esta revisión es exponer los elementos que producen la desmineralización y la remineralización del esmalte y proponer algunas medidas que apoyen la integridad de este tejido, así como recomendar la lactancia materna como la alimentación principal que el infante debe recibir durante el primer año de vida. La leche humana tiene diversas proteínas y elementos que ayudan en el proceso de desmineralización y remineralización del esmalte dental de la primera dentición. Se puede concluir que, la leche materna es el alimento ideal para los niños en los primeros años de vida. Por lo que hay que promover la lactancia materna como el método preferido para alimentar a los bebés. Se debe implementar la higiene desde que el primer diente erupciona en boca. Esta medida evitará que el posible efecto desmineralizante de la leche ejerza un efecto irreversible sobre el esmalte dental. Es conveniente orientar a las madres sobre el almacenamiento de la leche materna de tal manera que al ser consumida por el niño, no se encuentre acidificada, y no produzca un efecto dañino sobre el esmalte.
... El entorno psicosocial y económico de los últimos años ha promovido la disminución de la lactancia humana y el reemplazo de esta práctica costo-efectiva que incrementa el vínculo entre madre e hijo y disminuye las tasas de morbimortalidad infantil relacionadas con anemia, procesos infecciosos y desnutrición (1). Algunos de los factores que afectan la lactancia humana y aumentan la alimentación artificial en neonatos y lactantes han sido descritos mundialmente y se relacionan con la difusión de fórmulas lácteas, la disponibilidad de biberones y la incorporación de la mujer al ambiente laboral (1). ...
... El entorno psicosocial y económico de los últimos años ha promovido la disminución de la lactancia humana y el reemplazo de esta práctica costo-efectiva que incrementa el vínculo entre madre e hijo y disminuye las tasas de morbimortalidad infantil relacionadas con anemia, procesos infecciosos y desnutrición (1). Algunos de los factores que afectan la lactancia humana y aumentan la alimentación artificial en neonatos y lactantes han sido descritos mundialmente y se relacionan con la difusión de fórmulas lácteas, la disponibilidad de biberones y la incorporación de la mujer al ambiente laboral (1). ...
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p>Este es un estudio cualitativo de tipo fenomenológico para determinar las percepciones sobre la lactancia humana en mujeres gestantes que asisten al Hospital San Martín de Porres en Chocontá (Cundinamarca). Algunas han experimentado esta práctica y otras son primigestantes y nunca lo han hecho. La población fue seleccionada por efecto de bola de nieve y la muestra por medio del efecto de saturación. Se realizó una entrevista estructurada a los dos grupos. Los datos se analizaron definiendo categorías y codificando las respuestas y hallazgos. La asistencia juiciosa de estas mujeres embarazadas a sus controles prenatales y cursos psicoprofilácticos incide en la decisión y motivaciones para la lactancia humana de manera positiva. Se concluye que la implementación de políticas hospitalarias permite que los profesionales de salud y otros agentes comunitarios emitan conocimientos claros y sencillos acerca de la lactancia para las familias gestantes con el fin de garantizar como mínimo la lactancia humana exclusiva durante los seis primeros meses de vida.</p
... Aunque los requerimientos de proteína del neonato son elevados, una ingesta de proteína mayor a sus necesidades puede dar lugar a problemas metabólicos que llegarían a generar graves daños, ya que no poseen una maduración completa de muchos órganos. Estos problemas no se dan en la lactancia materna siempre que se sigan correctamente las (39) indicaciones de dosificación . En cuanto al porcentaje de calorías aportados por las proteínas en las muestras de leche analizadas, éste varió de 6,16 kcal/100 ml en la leche recién extraída (día 0) hasta un 6,44 kcal/100 ml al final del almacenamiento bajo congelación (día 90), con un promedio total de 6,39 kcal/100 ml. ...
... El otro grupo son las proteínas del suero, donde lalactolbúmina es la mayoritaria, con una secuencia de aminoácidos que responde adecuadamente a los requerimientos del lactante. Presenta apropiada concentración de cistina y triptófano, limitantes en fórmulas a base de leche bovina, interviene en la síntesis de lactosa, aunque no existe una relación directa con su (39) contenido . ...
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Introduction: Breast milk is the ideal food for children from birth to age six months. For various reasons many mothers stop breastfeeding early, for which reason supply of breast milk from milk banks is an alternative that should be evaluated. Objective: To determine variations in protein composition of breast milk during frozen storage. Materials and Methods: We collected 31 samples of mature milk of women between ages 17 and 35. Samples were stored frozen (-20° C) for periods of 15, 30, 60, and 90 days. An aliquot of each sample was analyzed for baseline control. Total protein concentration (g/dl) was determined by Lowry method and protein calories as g/day were calculated based on a consumption of 850 ml of milk. Protein fractions of milk were determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Results: Results showed a protein concentration of 1.58 g/dl at baseline and 1.61 g/dl at 90 days. Comparison found no significant differences in protein content or protein and calorie value of the milk during frozen storage (P>0.05). The electrophoretic profile showed changes only in low molecular weight protein fractions. Conclusions: The stability of the protein components demonstrates safe storage of frozen human milk in milk banks for a period of 3 months.
... Diferentes estudios han evaluado los conocimientos de las madres sobre LM, y propuesto y validado diferentes intervenciones en ese sentido. [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] El abandono del amamantamiento, como forma habitual de alimentación de los lactantes, es un problema con importantes implicaciones personales, sociales y sanitarias. En España una Encuesta Nacional de Salud de 2006 identifica la prevalencia de LME al inicio del 68,4 %, 52,48 % a los 3 meses de edad, y 24,27 % a los 6. 4 En 8 localidades argentinas en 1996 Macias y otros plantean que la persistencia de la LME hasta el cuarto mes de vida osciló solo entre el 18,2 y el 44 %, y en otro estudio posterior, en el año 2003, en la capital federal, en Pilar, y en Mar del Plata obtuvieron resultados del 37,4 y 34 % respectivamente. ...
... En España una Encuesta Nacional de Salud de 2006 identifica la prevalencia de LME al inicio del 68,4 %, 52,48 % a los 3 meses de edad, y 24,27 % a los 6. 4 En 8 localidades argentinas en 1996 Macias y otros plantean que la persistencia de la LME hasta el cuarto mes de vida osciló solo entre el 18,2 y el 44 %, y en otro estudio posterior, en el año 2003, en la capital federal, en Pilar, y en Mar del Plata obtuvieron resultados del 37,4 y 34 % respectivamente. 5 En una encuesta nacional realizada en Brasil en 1999 se expresa que ya al mes de nacidos poco más del 50 % de los niños conserva la LM. 6 Foster y otros publicaron en 2006 un estudio de Australia, en el que refieren que solo el 47 % de las mujeres logran una LM, ya sea exclusiva o parcial, al sexto mes de vida. 7 En Cuba, la LME, tal como está planteado en el Plan de Acción de la Cumbre Mundial en Favor de la Infancia, debe ser un elemento de extraordinaria importancia para mantener la tendencia descendente de la mortalidad y la morbilidad en el niño menor de 5 años. ...
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Introduction: the virtues of breast feeding are worldwide known. Although the females are physiologically fitted for breastfeeding their children and a high number of international health organizations have designed policies to adequately promote this practice, there are still many obstacles that hinder its successful adoption and the long-term results are unsatisfactory. Objective: to evaluate the information that the pregnant women in their third trimester of gestation had about breastfeeding. They were all tended in "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinic in San Jose de las Lajas municipality. Methods: a cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out to find out the level of information about breastfeeding in 114 pregnant women in their third trimester of pregnancy from "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinics in San Jose de las Lajas. Their individual and family health antecedents were assessed in addition to the administration of a 22-question inquiry that was qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated. Results: just one fifth of the participating pregnant females were well-informed about breastfeeding, although the majority of them had assumed to be so. More than half of the 17 screened aspects were inadequate in over 50 % of the participants. The most common mistakes included the best time to give water to a child under exclusive breastfeeding, when to provide another type of food, how long the breastfeeding should be kept, what food the mother should eat, the rotation and cleaning of the breasts, and the difficulties for the mother to breastfeed her child. Conclusions: a high number of pregnant women showed lack of appropriate knowledge or adopted wrong attitudes with respect to exclusive breastfeeding, although they believed they were really proficient in this subject. In addition to knowledge about breastfeeding, other aspects affecting its successful adoption must be addressed.
... Para lactar de forma exitosa son necesarias una madre apta física y psíquicamente, que tenga una actitud positiva hacia la lactancia materna, que posea los conocimientos necesarios y manejo de la técnica adecuada (2). Los cuidados generales del niño/a deben contribuir a una succión eficaz, que establezca una producción abundante de leche materna, que por su composición y características no son equiparables (3). Para que este proceso sea exitoso, se debe considerar: posiciones cómodas de la madre e hijo/a para facilitar la alimentación, aprendizaje de la toma correcta del pezón para que agrade la succión, patrón de succión y deglución del niño/a, transferencia de la leche entre madre y niño/a, oportunidad y frecuencia de las tomas para el bebé alimentado al pecho, alimentación a libre demanda, estimulación para despertarlo y calmarlo ante el llanto en el período de amamantamiento (4). ...
Article
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Objetivo: Identificar la estructura factorial y confiabilidad de un instrumento para medir la adecuada práctica de lactancia materna en puérperas inmediatas. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal en 422 puérperas <24 horas atendidas en el Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia de Lima, Perú, con recién nacido vivo, que aceptaron participar, excluyéndose aquellas de partos múltiples y patologías de impedimento de lactancia, entre julio y diciembre de 2016. Se confeccionó una lista de observación de 7 ítems (Si=1, No=0), puntaje de 0 a 7, aplicando análisis factorial exploratorio con rotación varimax, Chi-cuadrado de Bartlett y KMO (validez de constructo), curva ROC (validez de criterio) y KR-20 (confiabilidad). Resultados: El 76,5% tenían entre 20 a 35 años. El puntaje fue 5,0±1,4 puntos (rango 0-7 puntos). Se identificaron dos dimensiones KMO=0,751 p<0,001 (validez de constructo), curva ROC=0,697 IC95% 0,55-0,84 (validez de criterio) y KR-20=0,720 (confiabilidad). Puntajes mayores de 5, resultaron sensibles para la práctica adecuada de lactancia materna (sensibilidad= 86%, especificidad=51%). Conclusiones: La lista de observación resultó adecuada para la identificación de práctica adecuada de lactancia materna en el puerperio inmediato.
... The composition of breast milk undergoes variations both within lactation, during the day and even presents differences in the composition between both breasts, between different women and within a population (26,27). It has multiple components: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, cells, water, vitamins, among others ( Fig. 5) (5,(11)(12)(13)15,21,23,25,(27)(28)(29)(30). ...
Article
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Breast milk is the most complete food for feeding neonates. In addition to its nutritional richness, it has multiple immune components that will participate both in the passive and active responses of the newborn and in the proper development and maturation of the immune system. Milk banks are institutions for collection, processing, and distribution of breast milk voluntarily donated to be used in cases where newborns cannot be fed by their own mother, at least during hospitalization period. This review aims to highlight the benefits of breast milk on the nutrition and maturation and functioning of the infant's immune system and therefore highlight the role of milk banks. The pasteurization process produces a decrease in the milk immune components, which is why these are kept in lower concentrations and still fulfill their functions in the newborn's immune system. The effect of this process on the cells of breast milk in newborns are not yet known.
... La leche humana es el mejor alimento para los recién nacidos, siendo, hasta los seis meses de edad, el único alimento exclusivo recomendado por reconocidas organizaciones como la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS, 2013). Además, está bien documentado en la bibliografía que la alimentación del neonato con leche materna, más aún del neonato pretérmino, ofrece distintas ventajas desde las económicas y psicológicas (relación madre-hijo), a las nutricionales, por su mayor digestibilidad, composición química balanceada, proteínas biológicamente activas, factores inmunes y ausencia de alérgenos, contribuyendo al desarrollo y la protección contra las infecciones, hasta pasado el año de vida (Vincenza Trombino et al., 2003;Macías et al., 2006; Section on Breastfeeding, 2012; Mehta y Petrova, 2011). ...
Article
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El objetivo del presente estudio es determinar la composición de proteínas, de grasas y el perfil lipídico de la leche materna donada en el lactario de la Unidad Médica Educativa de la Universidad Nacional del Chaco Austral. Para lograr este se analizó la leche materna proveniente de madres seleccionadas, que se recolectó entre los 1 a 3 días posparto. Se determinó el contenido proteico, grasa total, y perfil lipídico mediante técnicas estandarizadas, para determinar si existen variaciones en su composición. Los valores mínimos y máximos de proteínas fueron de 2,37 ± 0,32 y 3,46 ± 0,86, y de grasas totales 4,50 ± 0,33 y 6,20 ± 0,86 g/100 ml, siendo los ácidos grasos mayoritarios el mirístico, palmítico, esteárico, oleico y linoleico. Si bien es un estudio inicial, la composición nutricional de las muestras coincide con lo reportado en la bibliografía, destacándose los contenidos de ácidos grasos detectados.
... The fat present in breast milk is the infant's main source of energy (50% of total energy) (Marín et al., 2009;Vásquez-Garibay, 2016;Wan et al., 2010). This fat consists primarily of saturated (42%-47%) and unsaturated (53%-58%) fatty acids (Macías et al., 2006;Marín et al., 2009). While 60%-70% of the fat in milk is the result of tissue synthesis and maternal fat deposits, approximately 30% of the fat in breast milk is derived from her diet (De Souza Santos da Costa et al., 2016;Deng et al., 2018). ...
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Breast milk may contain industrially produced trans fatty acids (TFAs), which can affect the content of essential fatty acids (EFAs). This could have significant implications for the child's development. The fatty acids present in breast milk can be modified by adjusting the mother's diet. The objective of this study was to determine the content of industrially produced TFAs present in colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk produced by mothers between 18 and 45 years of age in the state of Querétaro, Mexico, based on a longitudinal observational study. The TFA content in the breast milk of 33 lactating women was analyzed using gas chromatography. The mothers’ consumption of TFAs was also estimated by analyzing a log prepared through 24-hr dietary recall (24HR) obtained in each period. The TFA content in the mothers’ diet was similar across the colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk phases: 1.64 ± 1.25 g, 1.39 ± 1.01, and 1.66 ± 1.13 g, respectively. The total TFA content was 1.529% ± 1.648% for colostrum; 0.748% ± 1.033% for transitional milk and 0.945% ± 1.368% for mature milk. Elaidic acid was the TFA in the highest concentration in all three types of milk. No correlation was found between the content of industrially produced TFAs in breast milk and the anthropometric measurements of the mother or between the estimated consumption of TFAs and the content of TFAs in breast milk. Elaidic acid and total content of TFAs were negatively correlated (p <.05) with the content of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (0.394 ± 0.247) (R = −0.382) in colostrum. The concentration of TFAs was found to correlate with the composition of EFAs in milk. © 2022 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.
... By protecting the child from infections during the first year of life, breast milk can have an impact on the morbidity and mortality caused by diseases. Children fed exclusively with breast milk have fewer infections than do those who were never breastfed (Field, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;Parker, 2001;Reverón, 1995). These epidemiological findings are supported by several case-control studies which showed that breastfeeding plays an important role in reducing the risk for developing AL during infancy, as breastfeeding can influence the immune response to an infection, modulating the system's response to a challenge (Altinkaynak et al., 2006;Bener et al., 2001;Beral et al., 2001;Davis, 1998;Field, 2005;Guise et al., 2005;Infante et al., 2000;Ip et al., 2007;Kwan et al., 2004;Perillat et al., 2002a;Shu et al., 1995Shu et al., , 1999Stuebe, 2009). ...
Chapter
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Down syndrome (DS), or trisomy 21, is a genetic alteration caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21. In different parts of the world, the incidence of DS varies from 0.3 to 3.4 per 1000 births, with a ratio of 1:1000 births being reported principally in America and Europe (Canfield et al., 2006; Hassold et al., 1996; Wahab et al., 2006; Webb et al., 2007). DS is associated with cardiovascular diseases; deficiencies of the digestive, immune, and endocrine systems; hematological problems; and also early onset of Alzheimer disease (Freeman et al., 2008; Holland et al., 2000; Linabery et al., 2008; Van Cleeve & Cohen, 2006; Wiseman et al., 2009). Compared to children without this syndrome, children with DS have ten- to twenty-fold higher risk of developing acute leukemia (AL) (Fong & Brodeur, 1987; Malinge et al., 2009; Ross et al., 2005a; Taub, 2001); it is estimated that approximately 1–2% will develop leukemia (Hasle et al., 2000; Malinge et al., 2009; Taub, 2001). Of those children with DS who develop leukemia, 60% is classified as having acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and 40%, with acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML).
... An approximation of energy content and lipid content can be performed by creamatocrit (10,(27)(28)(29)(30) . In this study, the range of lipid content is between 20 and 67 g/l, mainly owing to the variations during the day and during lactation (30)(31)(32) ; we tried to minimise this effect by taking the samples at three times of the Nutritional status of breast-fed infants day, analysing samples twice and by mixing samples to obtain averages over 24 h. Our results are close to the 'normal' lipid content ranges reported from 35 to 45 g/l (33)(34)(35) . ...
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Breast-feeding habits are related to the nutritional status and the risk of illness and death in children under 2 years of age. For the first 6 months, infants should be exclusively breast-fed. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between the infant’s nutritional status and human milk intake by breast-fed infants at high altitude. A quantitative, descriptive, correlational study was conducted including mother/baby pairs of infants aged 2–6 months. The amount of human milk consumed by the infants was assessed by the deuterium oxide dose-to-mother technique. The lipid content of human milk was measured by creamatocrit, and anthropometric measurements were performed. A total of eighteen mother/baby pairs were assessed. The mean human milk intake was 888 ( sd 149) g/d, and the intake of water from other sources was 24·3 ( sd 29·8) g/d. The lipid content in human milk was 41 ( sd 12) g/l. The infant’s nutritional indicators were normal in all cases. A moderate positive correlation was found between milk volume and z scores weight-for-length r 0·58 ( P =0·01), BMI-for-age r 0·56 ( P =0·01) and weight-for-age r 0·45 ( P =0·05). There was no correlation with length-for-age z score. The mean of breast milk intake in this study was similar to that found in other studies in the world. The lipid content is comparable to similar studies and was within the normal range. Children older than 3 months showed signs of stunting despite adequate volume and lipid content of breast milk.
... La lactancia natural es el alimento ideal para el crecimiento y el desarrollo del lactante sano, también es parte integrante del proceso reproductivo, con repercusiones importantes en la salud de las madres, indicándose actualmente que debería ser la alimentación exclusiva hasta los seis meses manteniéndose hasta los dos años con alimentación complementaria (OMS, 2001) y que presentan beneficios en la maternofiliales (UNICEF, 2009) (Macías, Rodríguez, & Ronayne de Ferrer, 2006). Durante muchos años de historia, la leche materna ha sido la única alimentación que el recién nacido podía tomar para sobrevivir, siendo la lactancia materna un proceso influenciado por, creencias, clase social, el tipo de etnia y el nivel educativo (Hernández Gamboa, 2009) y que ha sido objeto en diferentes momentos diferentes recomendaciones dentro de las políticas sanitarias (Fuentes Caballero, 1996). ...
... La leche materna (LM) es el alimento idóneo para el bebé por sus ventajas psicológicas, afectivas, económicos, sociales, inmunológicas, protectoras (contra enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles y alergias), además facilita el desarrollo de los sistemas neurológico, inmune y gastrointestinal [1][2][3][4][5] . Por los efectos positivos de la LM en el lactante, la Organización Mundial de la Salud 6 y la Academia Americana de Pediatría 2 , la recomiendan exclusivamente hasta los seis meses y complementaria mínimo hasta el año 7 . ...
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Introduction: When breastfeeding is not feasible, other sources to provide the required nutrients to babies are sought, such as infant formulas that comply with current regulation and with the baby's growth requirements. Objective: To design two liquid infant formulas that provide daily macronutrients and some micronutrients (folic acid, zinc, calcium, and iron) requirements, based on low-cost pasteurized cow milk in order to be more affordable for vulnerable babies and to contribute with their growth. Materials and Methods: Exploratory study developed in two phases: Formulation and preparation of the infant formula and verification of its efficacy in terms of babies' growth. Results: The infant formulas comply with all manufacturing requirements, are inexpensive, and appropriate to sustain normal growth, according to WHO. Conclusion: The two infant formulas developed have adequate macronutrient and micronutrient contribution with sensorial and microbiological characteristics that comply with local and foreign regulations, are inexpensive, and appropriate to sustain babies' normal growth.
... By protecting the child from infections during the first year of life, breast milk can have an impact on the morbidity and mortality caused by diseases. Children fed exclusively with breast milk have fewer infections than do those who were never breastfed (Field, 2005;Macías et al., 2006;Parker, 2001;Reverón, 1995). These epidemiological findings are supported by several case-control studies which showed that breastfeeding plays an important role in reducing the risk for developing AL during infancy, as breastfeeding can influence the immune response to an infection, modulating the system's response to a challenge (Altinkaynak et al., 2006;Bener et al., 2001;Beral et al., 2001;Davis, 1998;Field, 2005;Guise et al., 2005;Infante et al., 2000;Ip et al., 2007;Kwan et al., 2004;Perillat et al., 2002a;Shu et al., 1995Shu et al., , 1999Stuebe, 2009). ...
... La leche materna (LM) es el alimento idóneo para el bebé por sus ventajas psicológicas, afectivas, económicos, sociales, inmunológicas, protectoras (contra enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles y alergias), además facilita el desarrollo de los sistemas neurológico, inmune y gastrointestinal [1][2][3][4][5] . Por los efectos positivos de la LM en el lactante, la Organización Mundial de la Salud 6 y la Academia Americana de Pediatría 2 , la recomiendan exclusivamente hasta los seis meses y complementaria mínimo hasta el año 7 . ...
Article
Introducción: Cuando la lactancia materna no es posible, se recurre a otros alimentos que brinden los nutrientes necesarios a los bebés, como las fórmulas infantiles, con características nutricionales que cumplan con la reglamentación actual y permitan un adecuado crecimiento al lactante. Objetivo: Diseñar dos fórmulas líquidas para lactantes que aporten los requerimientos diarios de macronutrientes y algunos micronutrientes (ácido fólico, zinc, calcio y hierro), con leche de vaca, higienizada por pasteurización, de bajo costo para que sea más asequible para la población lactante vulnerable a la vez que contribuye con su crecimiento. Materiales y métodos: Estudio exploratorio desarrollado en dos fases, formulación y elaboración de los productos y verificación de su eficacia en el crecimiento de lactantes. Resultados: Los productos cumplen con los requisitos de fabricación exigidos, de bajo costo y son capaces de sustentar un crecimiento normal, según clasificación de OMS. Conclusión: Las fórmulas desarrolladas tienen un adecuado aporte de macro y micronutrientes con características sensoriales y microbiológicas bajo los criterios exigidos por la reglamentación internacional y nacional, de bajo costos, permitiendo un adecuado crecimiento al lactante. AbstractIntroduction: When breastfeeding is not feasible, other sources to provide the required nutrients to babies are sought, such as infant formulas that comply with current regulation and with the baby’s growth requirements. Objective: To design two liquid infant formulas that provide daily macronutrients and some micronutrients (folic acid, zinc, calcium, and iron) requirements, based on low-cost pasteurized cow milk in order to be more affordable for vulnerable babies and to contribute with their growth. Materials and Methods: Exploratory study developed in two phases: Formulation and preparation of the infant formula and verification of its efficacy in terms of babies’ growth. Results: The infant formulas comply with all manufacturing requirements, are inexpensive, and appropriate to sustain normal growth, according to WHO. Conclusion: The two infant formulas developed have adequate macronutrient and micronutrient contribution with sensorial and microbiological characteristics that comply with local and foreign regulations, are inexpensive, and appropriate to sustain babies’ normal growth.
... En cuanto a la salud del recién nacido, previene de múltiples infecciones, obesidad y alergias. También se reconocen beneficios a nivel emocional como el fortalecimiento del vínculo madre-hijo y ventajas económicas como el ahorro de dinero en fórmulas artificiales, biberones y gastos asociados a la atención médica (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
Article
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Objective: Characterizing breastfeeding in Puerto Carreño and identifying factors associated with providing breast-milk for the newborn, exclusive breastfeeding and total breastfeeding. Methods: This descriptive, cross-sectional study, using structured individual and non-random surveys, involved 609 mothers. The statistical analysis methods included univariate and bivariate analysis, survival curves, binary logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models. Results: The duration of total and exclusive breastfeeding was higher than reported times at national and regional level in most cases. The main factors associated with breastfeeding were related to occupation, family background, Indigenous status, previous maternal experience and access to healthcare services. Conclusions: Exclusive breastfeeding was influenced more by the mother'’s occupation, while the total duration of breastfeeding was influenced by home-based family support network. The results are significant regarding planning intervention measures addressed towards improving breastfeeding habits in the target municipality.
... En cuanto a la salud del recién nacido, previene de múltiples infecciones, obesidad y alergias. También se reconocen beneficios a nivel emocional como el fortalecimiento del vínculo madre-hijo y ventajas económicas como el ahorro de dinero en fórmulas artificiales, biberones y gastos asociados a la atención médica (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective Characterizing breastfeeding in Puerto Carreño and identifying factors associated with providing breast-milk for the newborn, exclusive breastfeeding and total breastfeeding. Methods This descriptive, cross-sectional study, using structured individual and non-random surveys, involved 609 mothers. The statistical analysis methods included univariate and bivariate analysis, survival curves, binary logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models. Results The duration of total and exclusive breastfeeding was higher than reported times at national and regional level in most cases. The main factors associated with breastfeeding were related to occupation, family background, Indigenous status, previous maternal experience and access to healthcare services. Conclusions Exclusive breastfeeding was influenced more by the mother’s occupation, while the total duration of breastfeeding was influenced by home-based family support network. The results are significant regarding planning intervention measures addressed towards improving breastfeeding habits in the target municipality.
... Breast milk is considered the best food for preterm newborn infants, not only for its nutritional value but also for its capacity to provide protection from infections. 1,2 Part of this protective effect would be given by the natural microflora present in milk, an important factor in the development and composition of the newborn infant's intestinal microflora. Staphylococci ( capitis), streptococci (salivarius, mitis, parasanguis and peroris), lactobacilli (gasseri, rhamnosus, acidophilus, plantarum and fermentum) and enterococci (faecium) are bacteria commonly isolated in breast milk that can be considered part of the natural flora instead of contaminating microorganisms. ...
... La leche materna es considerada el mejor alimento para los recién nacidos prematuros, no sólo por su valor nutricional, sino por su capacidad para proveer protección contra las infecciones. 1,2 Parte de este efecto protector se debería a la microflora natural presente en la leche, un factor importante en el desarrollo y la composición de la microflora intestinal del recién nacido. Estafilococos (epidermidis, hominis y capitis), estreptococos (salivarius, mitis, parasanguis y peroris), lactobacilos (gasseri, rhamnosus, acidophilus, plantarum y fermentum) y enterococos (faecium) son bacterias comúnmente aisladas en la leche materna y pueden considerarse flora natural más que gérmenes contaminantes. ...
Article
Introduction. Breast milk is the best food for preterm infants. Due to their inadequate suction- swallowing action, the administration of expressed breast milk should be done with an orogastric tube. There is little information available regarding the microbiological safety of expressed breast milk. The aim of this article was to evaluate if there were any differences regarding the contamination of breast milk obtained at a healthcare facility versus at home.Methods. Cross-sectional study that analyzed pairs of breast milk samples (one obtained at home and the other one at a healthcare facility, the same day) from mothers of hospitalized newborn infants with a gestational age ≤35 weeks. Samples with over 105CFU/mL of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, or with the presence of Escherichiacoli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcusfaecalis, enterobacterias, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, fungi, and yeast were considered contaminated.Results. A total of 280 breast milk samples (140 pairs) from 53 mothers were analyzed; 139 samples (49.6%; 95% CI: 43.6 to 55.6) were contaminated; contamination was significantly more frequent in the samples obtained at home than in those obtained at a healthcare facility (59.6% versus 39.6%; p = 0.0008; OR 2.25; 95% IC: 1.36 to 3.7).Conclusion. Half of the breast milk samples had bacterial growth, which was more frequent in the samples obtained at home than those obtained at a healthcare facility.
... Por ejemplo no tiene las mismas características durante el transcurso de la mamada. Al principio, la leche es más acuosa y calma la sed del niño y es rica en proteínas, minerales, vitaminas hidrosolubles y lactosa; al finalizar es de color más blanco, con más grasa y vitaminas liposolubles (4). ...
Article
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Estudio prospectivo y comparativo, realizado con el objetivo de determinar las concentraciones de grasas, proteínas y carbohidratos de la leche de 20 madres en relactancia y 20 madres con lactancia exclusiva, de niños hospitalizados en el Servicio de Emergencia Pediátrica del Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Venezuela, entre Septiembre 2006 y Septiembre 2007. En la leche de las madres en relactancia la concentración de grasas fue de 3,6±1,5 g/dl y en las del grupo control de 5,5±1,0 g/dl, estadísticamente significativo (p = 0,0001). La concentración de carbohidratos en la leche de madres en relactancia fue de 6,4±1,7 g/dl y de 5,7±0,8 g/dl en la del grupo control, estadísticamente significativo (p = 0,0001). La concentración de proteínas en la leche de madres en relactancia fue de 2,1±1,2 g/dl y de 2,4±0,3 g/dl en la leche del grupo control, estadísticamente no significativo (p>0,05). La leche de las madres en relactancia tuvo un valor calórico de 66,7±17,8 cal/dl y la de las madres del grupo control 83,2±9,4 siendo estadísticamente significativo (p = 0,0001). En conclusión, en este estudio se evidenciaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre la concentración de grasas, carbohidratos y valor calórico en la leche de madres en relactancia y en lactancia exclusiva.In a prospective, randomized and comparative trial the milk of 40 lactating mothers of hospitalized children at the Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital in Maracaibo, Venezuela was analyzed in a year period. They were divided in two groups of 20 mothers each: Group A, mothers in a relactation situation, and Group B (Control): Exclusive breastfeeding. Both types of milk were analyzed in a blind fashion to determine fat, proteins and carbohydrates. Results show that fat concentration (g/dL) was significantly more concentrated in Group B than in A, from 3.6 ±1.5 to 5.5 ±1.0 (p < 0.001), while in contrast, the carbohydrates concentration (g/dL) was decreased from 6.4 ± 5.7 to 5.7 ± 0.8 (p < 0.001). Moreover, proteins concentration (g/dL) was not significantly modified, since in group A it was 2.1 ± 1.2 as compared to group B (2.4 ± 0.3.) Caloric value was also significantly decreased from the control value of 83.2 ± 9.4 to 66.7 ± 17.8 in the relactation group (p < 0.001). In conclusion, it a clear difference between the two types of milk in this study.
... Sin embargo, muchos factores han llevado a la disminución de la lactancia materna. Entre ellos, la gran difusión de fórmulas lácteas que acompañaron el crecimiento de la industria, la gran disponibilidad de biberones y tetinas, la introducción temprana de otros alimentos, la administración de líquidos azucarados, los que facilitaron la incorporación de la mujer al ambiente laboral (3). ...
Article
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In Argentina the information about the characteristics of complementary feeding is scarce. The objective of the present study was to determine the age of incorporation and type of complementary foods in the diet of infants from a population of low economic resources. The study was carried out at the Forres District Hospital, Santiago del Estero, Argentina, using a structured questionnaire. Breastfeeding mothers were interrogated during the children's periodic control visits. A total of 240 surveys at 5, 6 and 7 months post-partum were made. The average age of incorporation of foods was of 4.4 months. The first introduced foods were purée (potato and pumpkin, with broth or soup), soup (with wheat grits) and apple. The percentage of children consuming some type ofgruel at 5 months was of 51%. At 7 months, 94% consumed gruels and 62.5% had milk bottles. About 40% ate the family stew (vegetables, noodles and meat) and 30%, a "mate" (Ilexparaguariensis) infusion with bread. An early incorporation of foods with inadequate energy and nutrients densities was observed. There was also an early ingestion of gluten and a high proportion of cow's milk consumption. This situation could affect the normal development of these children.
... Breast milk is considered the best food for preterm newborn infants, not only for its nutritional value but also for its capacity to provide protection from infections. 1,2 Part of this protective effect would be given by the natural microflora present in milk, an important factor in the development and composition of the newborn infant's intestinal microflora. Staphylococci ( capitis), streptococci (salivarius, mitis, parasanguis and peroris), lactobacilli (gasseri, rhamnosus, acidophilus, plantarum and fermentum) and enterococci (faecium) are bacteria commonly isolated in breast milk that can be considered part of the natural flora instead of contaminating microorganisms. ...
Article
Introduction: Breast milk is the best food for preterm infants. Due to their inadequate suction- swallowing action, the administration of expressed breast milk should be done with an orogastric tube. There is little information available regarding the microbiological safety of expressed breast milk. The aim of this article was to evaluate if there were any differences regarding the contamination of breast milk obtained at a healthcare facility versus at home. Methods: Cross-sectional study that analyzed pairs of breast milk samples (one obtained at home and the other one at a healthcare facility, the same day) from mothers of hospitalized newborn infants with a gestational age =35 weeks. Samples with over 105CFU/mL of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, or with the presence of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, enterobacterias, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, fungi, and yeast were considered contaminated. Results: A total of 280 breast milk samples (140 pairs) from 53 mothers were analyzed; 139 samples (49.6%; 95% CI: 43.6 to 55.6) were contaminated; contamination was significantly more frequent in the samples obtained at home than in those obtained at a healthcare facility (59.6% versus 39.6%; p = 0.0008; OR 2.25; 95% IC: 1.36 to 3.7). Conclusion: Half of the breast milk samples had bacterial growth, which was more frequent in the samples obtained at home than those obtained at a healthcare facility.
... Por ejemplo no tiene las mismas características durante el transcurso de la mamada. Al principio, la leche es más acuosa y calma la sed del niño y es rica en proteínas, minerales, vitaminas hidrosolubles y lactosa; al finalizar es de color más blanco, con más grasa y vitaminas liposolubles (4). ...
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In a prospective, randomized and comparative trial the milk of 40 lactating mothers of hospitalized children at the Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital in Maracaibo, Venezuela was analyzed in a year period. They were divided in two groups of 20 mothers each: Group A, mothers in a relactation situation, and Group B (Control): Exclusive breastfeeding. Both types of milk were analyzed in a blind fashion to determine fat, proteins and carbohydrates. Results show that fat concentration (g/dL) was significantly more concentrated in Group B than in A, from 3.6 +/- 1.5 to 5.5 +/- 1.0 (p < 0.001), while in contrast, the carbohydrates concentration (g/dL) was decreased from 6.4 +/- 5.7 to 5.7 +/- 0.8 (p < 0.001). Moreover, proteins concentration (g/dL) was not significantly modified, since in group A it was 2.1 +/- 1.2 as compared to group B (2.4 +/- 0.3.) Caloric value was also significantly decreased from the control value of 83.2 +/- 9.4 to 66.7 +/- 17.8 in the relactation group (p < 0.001). In conclusion, it a clear difference between the two types of milk in this study.
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Objective: To determine the effect of pasteurization and freezing on the content of IgA1 and IgA2 in breast milk. Methods: Observational, retrospective study, carried out in women who had been breastfeeding their newborn for more than 30 days, and could donate 50 mL of milk. The concentration of IgA1 and IgA2 was determined by turbidimetry, before and after being subjected to pasteurization and freezing, every 15 days for 2 months. Freezing was at -20°C. A total IgA content of 1598.5 mg/dL was found. Results: 10 breast milk donors were selected. The initial concentration of IgA1 and IA2 was 651 and 945.7 mg/dL, respectively; At the end of the freezing times, the content of both immunoglobulins decreased: IgA1 of 74% and IgA2 of 86%. After the treatments, the immunoglobulin content decreased dramatically, with a significant difference of p < 0.05. Conclusions: Pasteurization and freezing significantly affect the content of IgA1 and IgA in breast milk; therefore, breast-feeding remains the best way to offer full immunological protection to the infant.
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Introduction: breastfeeding is the only natural way of feeding the baby and an unparallel form of providing him with the ideal food for adequate growth and development. Methods: A cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted to evaluate the desires, the aptitudes and the knowledge about breastfeeding of 114 women in their third trimester of pregnancy from "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinics in San José de las Lajas. From March 2010 to March 2011, their individual and family health histories were assessed through a 22-interrogation questionnaire. Results: Data were introduced in a database and chi square statistic was used for statistical analysis, the level of significance was p< 0,05. All the participants expressed their desire to breastfeed their offspring. Two thirds were considered prepared or wellprepared to do so, with the required knowledge to attain this objective; but just over one fifth did prove that they had it. Most of the future mothers aged 20 to 35 years; the schooling was mostly technician or high school education (60 for 52.6 %); the marital status of 45.6 % was cohabitation, 40.3 % were married and 13.2 % (15) were singles. These are aspects that undoubtedly influence the results. Conclusions: In addition to other results, the research study yielded that even though all the pregnant women in their third trimester expressed their desire of breastfeeding their future baby and two thirds considered themselves prepared or well-prepared to do so, with enough knowledge in this regard, just one fifth did prove that they really had the necessary preparation and knowledge.
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INTRODUCTION: The progressive neglect of breastfeeding has been considered a "new disease own of XX and XXI centuries"where a series of very diverse factors have been influenced. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the behavior of biosocial factors related to breastfeeding in babies aged less than 1 year. METHODS: A cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted in 158 births occurred in 2008 in "Aleida Chardiet"health area. Authors used the bibliographic, documentary study and the criteria contrast from different authors as a theoretical procedure, in addition to the empirical ones. RESULTS: Only in the 55.7% of study infants it was possible to achieve a successful breastfeeding, figures under the international recommendations. The early wean occurred in the 44.3% and the more frequent reason was the mother hypogalactia. CONCLUSIONS: The more frequent reason for the early wean was supported by the mother criterion related to a insufficient milk production and obtaining.
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Introduction: the virtues of breast feeding are worldwide known. Although the females are physiologically fitted for breastfeeding their children and a high number of international health organizations have designed policies to adequately promote this practice, there are still many obstacles that hinder its successful adoption and the long-term results are unsatisfactory. Objective: to evaluate the information that the pregnant women in their third trimester of gestation had about breastfeeding. They were all tended in "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinic in San Jose de las Lajas municipality. Methods: a cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out to find out the level of information about breastfeeding in 114 pregnant women in their third trimester of pregnancy from "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinics in San Jose de las Lajas. Their individual and family health antecedents were assessed in addition to the administration of a 22-question inquiry that was qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated. Results: just one fifth of the participating pregnant females were well-informed about breastfeeding, although the majority of them had assumed to be so. More than half of the 17 screened aspects were inadequate in over 50% of the participants. The most common mistakes included the best time to give water to a child under exclusive breastfeeding, when to provide another type of food, how long the breastfeeding should be kept, what food the mother should eat, the rotation and cleaning of the breasts, and the difficulties for the mother to breastfeed her child. Conclusions: a high number of pregnant women showed lack of appropriate knowledge or adopted wrong attitudes with respect to exclusive breastfeeding, although they believed they were really proficient in this subject. In addition to knowledge about breastfeeding, other aspects affecting its successful adoption must be addressed.
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Investigations indicate the existence of changes in micronutrient concentrations in human milk, regardless, most of the time, of the nutritional state of the nursing mother. The objective of this study was to determine mature milk calcium and magnesium concentration in a population of nursing women from Carabobo State. Methods: 10-15 ml of milk samples from each of 82 nursing and apparently-healthy women were evaluated. Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) concentration were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometrics. Physical examination was done. Anthropometric nutritional diagnosis (AND) by body mass index (BMI), pattern of food consumption with frequency questionnaire, and socioeconomic data according to Graffar were obtained. Results: Average age 24.9 ± 5.8 years; socioeconomic levels were in strata IV and V. BMI: 25,0 ± 3.7 kg/m2; AND: 75.6%, within normal values; 8.5% with nutritional deficit; and 9% above-normal values. Calcium and magnesium average concentrations were within normal values (CA, 334,70 ± 76,10 μ g/mL, and Mg, 24,80 ± 6,61 μ g/mL). Calcium and magnesium values in milk samples from mothers of stratum IV were low: 329,51 ± 77,67 and 24,36 ± 6.55 μ g/mL, respectively, with no significant difference regarding average values of the same minerals for stratum V. Frequency of food consumption: 77% had white cheese daily; 99% a corn patty, and 89% oat flakes. Conclusion: Milk samples had normal average concentrations of calcium and magnesium, which indicates that concentration of these minerals is not dependent upon socioeconomic stratum.
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Introduction: breastfeeding is the only natural way of feeding the baby and unique for his/her growth and development. There are a lot of factors that have been associated to the application of successful breastfeeding or not.
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La leche materna es una fuente natural de micronutrientes indispensables para la vida, ya que participan en muchas reacciones del metabolismo. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar el contenido de Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe y Zn en leche materna madura de mujeres de la etnia Bari. Se colectaron 68 muestras de leche materna de mujeres Bari y como grupo control, se tomaron 76 muestras de leche de mujeres no indigenas. Las concentraciones de minerales fueron determinadas mediante Espectrometria de Absorcion y Emision Atomica. Considerando la recomendacion para la poblacion venezolana se estimo el porcentaje de adecuacion (%ADE) para estos nutrientes. Se aplico estadistica descriptiva. El contenido de minerales en leche materna Bari fue: Na 3,47�}0,54 mg/100ml; K 36,56�}2,95 mg/100ml; Ca 11,78�}1,24 mg/100ml; Mg 3,08�}0,26 mg/100ml; Fe 53,52�}16,93 �Êg/100ml y Zn 95,92�}27,63 �Êg/100ml, mientras que en los controles se encontraron niveles de Na 7,34�}0,99 mg/100ml; K 50,45�}2,53 mg/100ml; Ca 10,88�}0,93 mg/100ml; Mg 3,32�}0,19 mg/100ml; Fe 26,73�}5,10 �Êg/100ml y Zn 254,72�}31,98 �Êg/100ml. Se observaron diferencias significativas para Na, K y Zn entre los dos grupos (p
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Background: Preterm infants require special considerations than term infants to obtain adequate growth. Objective: The aim was to evaluate human milk (HM) in low birth weight premature newborn (LBW-PN) and very low birth weight (VLBW-PN) during hospitalization, maternal factors, and the relationship with nutritional parameters. Material and methods: 87 LBW-PN and 82 VLBW-PN), admitted in a public hospital in Córdoba, Argentina, were included. Anthropometry, food and biochemical parameters, and child and maternal history were registered. HM contribution was calculated. Anthropometric and biochemical values, days of hospitalization and maternal factors by HM intake were analyzed. Results: Only 36,36% of VLBW-PN and 31,02% of LBW-PN had more than 20% of their diet with HM. The hemoglobin concentration at discharge was higher in VLBW-PN group with more HM (p=0,01). There was a statistically significant association between HM amount and height at discharge in the PN with less than 20% of their diet with HM. A high prevalence of cesarean delivery was observed, related to lower HM. Conclusions: HM contributes to hemoglobin stabilization. Cesarean delivery may be associated with lower contribution of HM to newborn infants.
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Introduction: breastfeeding is the only natural way of feeding the baby and an unparallel form of providing him with the ideal food for adequate growth and development. Methods: a cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted to evaluate the desires, the aptitudes and the knowledge about breastfeeding of 114 women in their third trimester of pregnancy from "Martires del 9 de Abril" polyclinics in San José de las Lajas. From March 2010 to March 2011, their individual and family health histories were assessed through a 22-interrogation questionnaire. Results: data were introduced in a database and chi square statistic was used for statistical analysis, the level of significance was p
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La leche materna constituye el alimento ideal para el recién nacido y el lactante en forma exclusiva hasta los 6 meses de edad; y hasta los 2 años con alimentos complementarios. El destete precoz es de causa multifactorial: falta de control prenatal, desconocimiento de los beneficios de la leche materna, hipogalactia, prácticas hospitalarias inadecuadas, publicidad de alimentos infantiles, incorporación de la madre al trabajo y como desconocimiento sobre la extracción y preservación de la leche humana. El objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar el efecto del tiempo y temperatura de almacenamiento a corto plazo, sobre el contenido de proteínas en la leche humana madura de madres que asistieron a la consulta del Hospital “Dr. Jorge Lizárraga”, Valencia, Estado Carabobo, Venezuela. Método: Investigación experimental, correlacional, cuantitativa y aplicada. Fueron analizadas 20 muestras de leche, de mujeres sanas, con amamantamiento en forma exclusiva, obtenidas por extracción manual. Cada una de ellas se separó en 2 la alícuotas: 1. Para analizar en fresco, 2 tras almacenamiento a 15˚C durante 24 horas. La determinación de proteínas se realiz según las normas industriales Covenin. Resultados: La concentración de proteínas fue de 1,53 gr/dl en leche recién extraída y 1,50 gr/dl en leche almacenada a 15 ˚C por 24 horas. No hubo diferencia significativa entre los valores de proteínas en leche materna recién extraída y almacenada. Conclusión: En la leche humana almacenada a 15 ˚C durante 24 horas, las concentraciones de las proteínas no se modifican comparándola con la leche recién extraída.
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Objective To analyze the applicability of the universal breast feeding recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) in distinct regional contexts in relation to maternal and infant nutritional status.
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Macronutrients in milk of undernourished mothers. In a prospective, no experimental and comparative analy- sis, the relationship between the mother's nutritional conditional and their macronutrient's concentrations was evaluated in 40 samples from mothers who had children 15 days to 6 months old, in a hospi- tal setting at the Emergency room of the Pediatric Ward of Maracaibo's University Hospital in Maracaibo, Venezuela in one year period. Milk from two groups of 20 mothers each was ana- lyzed: Group A (Experimental), mothers with undernourishment and Group B (Control), mothers with adequate nutritional status. Fat content was 3.8 ± 0.32 g/dl and 5.5 ± 1.08 g/dl respectively (p = 0.0001); proteins were 1.8 ± 0.21 g/dl and 2.4 ± 0.32 g/dl respec- tively (p = 0.0001), and carbohydrates were 6.06 ± 0.43 g/dl and 5.7 ± 0.45 g/dl respectively (p = 0.0136). In addition, caloric value was also different: 65.92 ± 15. 16.68 kcal/l and 83.25 ± 9.4 kcal/dl (p = 0.0002). The undernourished were in the range of group V Graffar Méndez-Castellano, confirming the relationship between un- dernutrition and poverty. It is concluded that the proteins, fat con- centrations and the caloric value in the breast milk from undernour- ished mothers are of lower value than the nourished well mothers.
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Adverse reactions to food are defined as any abnormal reaction to the ingestion of foods or food additives. Food allergy or hypersensitivity may be IgE-mediated or non-IgE-mediated. As is the case for other allergic diseases, over the last decades the prevalence of food allergy has been increasing, a fact possibly due to an interaction between genetic, environmental and dietary factors in view of the increasingly earlier introduction of solid foods and heterologous proteins in the infant’s diet. This fact has motivated the early implementation of preventive strategies. The article presents a review on food allergy addressing conceptual aspects, epidemiology, risk factors, clinical and treatment, highlighting cow's milk protein allergy, the role of breastfeeding on food allergies and strategies for prevention.
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The composition of human milk is the main base for the development of infant formulas concerning its macronutrients and micronutrients contents and bioactive compounds. Technological advances in the composition of human milk have identified a great number of bioactive compounds such as prebiotics which are responsible for immunological protection and the prevention of different pathologies. In order to achieve similar benefits, they are part of the contents of infant formulas.
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In a prospective, no experimental and comparative analysis, the relationship between the mother's nutritional conditional and their macronutrient's concentrations was evaluated in 40 samples from mothers who had children 15 days to 6 months old, in a hospital setting at the Emergency room of the Pediatric Ward of Maracaibo's University Hospital in Maracaibo, Venezuela in one year period. Milk from two groups of 20 mothers each was analyzed: Group A (Experimental), mothers with undernourishment and Group B (Control), mothers with adequate nutritional status. Fat content was 3.8 +/- 0.32 g/dl and 5.5 +/- 1.08 g/dl respectively (p = 0.0001); proteins were 1.8 +/- 0.21 g/dl and 2.4 +/- 0.32 g/dl respectively (p = 0.0001), and carbohydrates were 6.06 +/- 0.43 g/dl and 5.7 +/- 0.45 g/dl respectively (p = 0.0136). In addition, caloric value was also different: 65.92 +/- 15. 16.68 kcal/l and 83.25 +/- 9.4 kcal/dl (p = 0.0002). The undernourished were in the range of group V Graffar Méndez-Castellano, confirming the relationship between undernutrition and poverty. It is concluded that the proteins, fat concentrations and the caloric value in the breast milk from undernourished mothers are of lower value than the nourished well mothers.
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Dietary factors are suspected to play an aetiological role in the development of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). We analysed cow's milk formula, betalactoglobulin, and bovine serum albumin antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunoassay in unselected children with newly diagnosed IDDM and in their non-diabetic siblings and enquired about infant feeding practices by questionnaire. Among 410 diabetic sibling pairs matched for age and sex, by logistic regression analysis – including overall duration of breast-feeding, age at introduction of dairy products, recent consumption of cow's milk and HLA-DQB1 genotype (“high/moderate” vs “low/decreased” risk of IDDM) – bovine serum albumin IgG antibody levels (OR 2.12, 95 %CI 1.25–3.57) and genetic risk (OR 3.81, 95 %CI 2.43–5.17) were positively associated with IDDM; cow's milk formula IgM antibodies were inversely associated with the risk of IDDM (OR 0.50, 95 %CI 0.29–0.87). Of the diabetic sibling pairs, 42 were identical for HLA-DQB1 alleles associated with IDDM risk or protection (DQB1*0201, *0301, *0302 and *0602/03). In these 42 pairs, children with IDDM had higher median levels of bovine serum albumin IgG, of betalactoglobulin IgG, and of cow's milk formula IgG and IgA antibodies than the non-diabetic siblings (p < 0.05). In conclusion, children with IDDM have higher levels of cow's milk protein antibodies than their HLA-DQB1-matched sibling controls, and these high levels of antibodies are independent risk markers for IDDM. [Diabetologia (1998) 41: 72–78]
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The effects of an experimental reduced-protein (13 g/L), milk-based formula with a whey-casein ratio of 40:60 and added tryptophan (Trp) (490 mumol/L, or 100 mg/L; EF) were measured by growth and protein biochemistry in term infants from 0 to 12 wk postnatally. Newborn infants (n = 95) were randomly assigned to receive EF or conventional formula (15 g protein/L, whey-casein ratio of 60:40; CF) and compared with 58 breast-fed infants (BF). Growth velocity for weight, length, and head circumference was similar between groups. In 79 infants, blood was sampled preprandially at 4, 8, and 12 wk. For all times, plasma Trp was similar in BF and EF infants (58.4 +/- 10.4 vs 59.5 +/- 14.7 mumol/L, mean +/- SD) but lower in CF infants (53.4 +/- 8.4, P < 0.05). The plasma Trp-large neutral amino acid (AA) ratio was higher with EF than with CF, as was prealbumin (P < 0.05). Formula-fed infants had higher (P < 0.05) plasma urea, prealbumin, total essential AA, branched-chain AA, and threonine than did BF infants. A reduced-protein formula with added Trp resulted in Trp status similar to that in BF infants, without compromising growth or protein biochemistry compared with CF infants.
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Iron-deficiency anemia has been associated with lowered scores on tests of mental and motor development in infancy. However, the long-term developmental outcome of infants with iron deficiency is unknown, because developmental tests in infancy do not predict later intellectual functioning. This study is a follow-up evaluation of a group of Costa Rican children whose iron status and treatment were documented in infancy. Eighty-five percent (163) of the 191 children in the original group underwent comprehensive clinical, nutritional, and psychoeducational assessments at five years of age. The developmental test battery consisted of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, the Spanish version of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery, the Beery Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, the Goodenough-Harris Draw-a-Man Test, and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. All the children had excellent hematologic status and growth at five years of age. However, children who had moderately severe iron-deficiency anemia as infants, with hemoglobin levels less than or equal to 100 g per liter, had lower scores on tests of mental and motor functioning at school entry than the rest of the children. Although these children also came from less socioeconomically advantaged homes, their test scores remained significantly lower than those of the other children after we controlled for a comprehensive set of background factors. For example, the mean (+/- SD) adjusted Woodcock-Johnson preschool cluster score for the children who had moderate anemia in infancy (n = 30) was 448.6 +/- 9.7, as compared with 452.9 +/- 9.2 for the rest of the children (n = 133) (P less than 0.01); the adjusted visual-motor integration score was 5.9 +/- 2.1, as compared with 6.7 +/- 2.3 (P less than 0.05). Children who have iron-deficiency anemia in infancy are at risk for long-lasting developmental disadvantage as compared with their peers with better iron status.
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The effects of a zinc supplement on maternal zinc status and milk zinc concentrations through > or = 7 mo of lactation were examined. Seventy-one lactating women received either a daily 15-mg zinc supplement (ZS, n = 40) or placebo (NZS, n = 31) started by 2 wk postpartum in a double-blind, randomized design. Overall mean zinc intakes were 13.0 +/- 3.4 mg/d for the NZS group and 25.7 +/- 3.9 mg/d (including supplement) for the ZS group. Plasma zinc concentrations of the ZS group were significantly higher than those of the NZS group (P = 0.05). Milk zinc concentrations declined significantly over the course of the study for all subjects but were not affected by zinc supplementation. The mean dietary zinc intake observed in the nonsupplemented group was adequate to maintain normal maternal zinc status and milk zinc concentrations through > or = 7 mo lactation. Similar controlled intervention trials in less well-nourished populations will be required to assess the impact of lower zinc intakes on milk zinc concentrations.
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Studies have demonstrated that a fecal flora with a predominance of bifidobacteria develops in infants fed a nucleotide-supplemented commercial formula, closer to that in breast-fed infants. In contrast, enterobacteria predominate in the fecal flora of infants fed an unsupplemented formula. When given parenterally, nucleotides promote recovery from injuries caused by hepatotoxic agents. These results suggest that dietary nucleotides may potentially play a significant role in nutrition.
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The requirements for zinc during lactation are greater than those during pregnancy, especially during the early weeks postpartum. Therefore, lactation poses a significant threat to maternal zinc homeostasis, particularly in populations with chronically low dietary zinc intakes. The current knowledge of maternal zinc status in lactation, particularly in developing countries, is reviewed herein with emphasis on the effects of zinc supplementation trials. The studies that have examined the zinc status of breast-fed infants are also reviewed.
Article
Human and bovine milk differ substantially in the ratio of whey to casein protein (≈ 60:40 in human milk and ≈ 20:80 in bovine milk) and in the proportions of specific proteins. Although current infant formulas closely mimic the ratio of total whey to casein in human milk, the concentration of α-lactalbumin (the dominant protein in human milk) is relatively low in formula, whereas β-lactoglobulin, a protein not found in human milk, is the most dominant whey protein in formula. Because of the differences in the protein profiles of human milk and infant formula, amino acid profiles also differ. To meet all essential amino acid requirements of infants, formula concentrations of protein must be higher than those in human milk. Recently, whey sources with elevated concentrations of α-lactalbumin have become available, which permitted the development of formulas with increased concentrations of this protein and decreased concentrations of β-lactoglobulin. α-Lactalbumin is rich in tryptophan, which is typically the limiting amino acid in formula, and as a result, formulas have been developed with lower protein but higher tryptophan concentrations. This type of formula may offer a number of advantages to the neonate, which include producing plasma tryptophan concentrations equal to those found in breastfed infants and obviating the need for the body to dispose of excess nitrogen loads.
Article
Breast-feeding is the optimal mode of feeding for the normal full-term infant. Human milk composition knowledge has been basis for recommended dietary allowances for infants. Few studies about human milk carbohydrates have been done until the last decade. However, carbohydrates provide approximately 40-50% of the total energy content of breast milk. Quantitatively oligosaccharides are the third largest solute in human milk after lactose and fat. Each individual oligosaccharide is based on a variable combination of glucose, galactose, sialic acid, fucose and N-acetylglucosamine with many and varied linkages between them, thus accounting for the enormous number of different oligosaccharides in human milk. The oligosaccharides content in human milk varies with the duration of lactation, diurnally and with the genetic makeup of the mother. At present, a great interest in the roles of human milk oligosaccharides is raising. They act as a the soluble fibre in breast milk and their structure is available to act as competitive ligands protecting the breast-fed infant from pathogens and act as well as prebiotic. They may also act as source of sialic acid and galactose, essential for brain development. This is why today there is an increasing health and industrial interest in human milk oligosaccharides content, with the main purpose of incorporating them as new ingredients in infant nutrition.
Article
La composicion de la leche materna es la optima para la nutricion del nino en los primeros meses de vida y es por lo general bastante estable. Sin embargo existen variaciones en el volumen y la composicion de macronutrientes y micronutrientes en diferentes circunstancias que pueden hacer variar el importe nutricional de la leche materna, las que que deben conocerse pues, ocasionalmente, pueden producir problemas clinicos. Un ejemplo de estas variaciones son las diferencias de composicion despues del parto prematuro y el efecto de la inhalacion de humo de tabaco sobre la produccion de leche
Article
El zinc es un elemento esencial, muy importante para el crecimiento y desarrollo temprano y para una adecuada inmunocompetencia, cuya deficiencia puede ser especialmente crítica en neonatos prematuros. Algunos estudios han hallado valores anormalmente bajos de zinc en leche pretérmino. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar si los niveles de zinc en leche de término y pretérmino en nuestra población presentaban valores normales y si se observaban diferencias entre ambos tipos de leche, durante el primer mes de lactancia. Para ello, se analizaron muestras obtenidas de madres de 24 neonatos pretérmino y 20 de término (edad gestacional 30,9+0,5 y 39,5+0,2 semanas, respectivamente). Se mantuvieron a -20°C hasta su análisis por espectrometría de absorción atómica, previa digestión con ácido nítrico. Tanto en la leche de término como en la pretérmino, los niveles de zinc estuvieron dentro de valores normales, sin que se registraran diferencias significativas entre estos dos tipos de leche. Se observó una tendencia decreciente en el tiempo, que fue significativa entre las muestras de calostro y las de leche madura (ANOVA, p
Article
PIP A review of various studies on breast milk suggests the need for more coordinated comparative studies into all aspects of human lactation in well-nourished and poorly nourished communities using similar sampling methods and analytic techniques. The following generalizations were also drawn from the review for practical action: 1) unsupplemented human milk is all that is required to nourish babies of well-nourished mothers for the 1st 6 months of life; 2) although the volume and composition of human milk in poorly nourished women is surprisingly good, it is often suboptimal in quantity and quality with lower values of fat, H20 soluble vitamins, vitamin A, and somewhat lower calcium and protein; 3) limited studies with supplementary feeding of poorly nourished lactating women (and common sense probabilities) have suggested the feasibility of improvement in volume of output and in nutritional quality of breast milk; 4) adequacy of breast milk as sole food for the baby is related to the mother's diet in pregnancy, to maternal puerperal calorie reserves, to fetal stores, to birthweight, and to iron obtained from placental transfusion. Breast milk produced in the so-called "late lactation' (e.g., 7 months to 2 years or more) is insufficient by itself for the rising nutrient needs (and declining stores) or the rapidly growing infant. The 2 main forms of interference with lactation performance (maternal reflexes and maternal nutrition) are also discussed.
Article
This chapter reviews the nutritional roles, recommended intakes, and hazards of deficiency or excess of the 20 minerals and trace elements that are considered to be nutritionally essential for man, all of which occur in both human and cow milk. The content, chemical form, bioavailability, and nutritional significance of these minerals in both human and cow milk are considered together with comparative aspects of human and cow milks. In view of the widespread use of infant formulas based on cow milk, some nutritional aspects of minerals in these formulas are discussed. The chapter discusses some of the more recent findings in relation to the nutritional significance of minerals, particularly calcium and trace elements, in milk. Although the minerals are treated separately, it is important to realize that interactions of minerals with each other, with other constituents of milk, and with other food constituents occur, and such interactions are assuming an increasing importance in nutrition.
Article
The effect of a low milk fat yield was assessed in a blinded prospective study of healthy term infants and mothers encouraged to breast-feed. Fat yield index was calculated as milk volume collected by Egnell pump multiplied by the "creamatocrit." Two weeks after delivery mothers who had a relatively low fat yield index (less than or equal to 30th percentile) were matched with mothers with a higher fat yield index and with formula-feeding mothers. Between 2 and 6 weeks the low fat yield group had a marginally lower weight gain but similar growth in length and head circumference to that of the higher fat yield group. The low fat yield group spent more time per feeding and had more complete breast emptying, resulting in a fat yield index comparable with the higher fat yield group for the mean milk volume ingested by the infant at 6 weeks. A low fat yield had no adverse effect on maternal satisfaction or maternal-infant interaction during feeding. Formula feeders spent the least time in feeding and en face gazing. Adaptation of breast-feeding to a low fat yield sustains infant intake and growth, maternal-infant interaction, and maternal satisfaction. However, there is little reserve if milk production diminishes. Further study is needed to define the limits of adaptation and effective interventions if fat yield is inadequate.
Article
The ideal "humanization" of milk substitutes should include the creation of an amino acid pattern closely resembling that of human milk. Because the mixture of proteins in human milk is particularly rich in tryptophan and cysteine and low in methionine, this pattern is difficult to achieve with commercially available proteins. Even whey-predominant formulas only approximate human milk. Human milk has a high concentration of whey protein (70% of total protein). Of this, alpha-lactalbumin, a component of the lactase synthetase complex, accounts for 41% of the whey and 28% of the total protein. Only 3% of the protein in bovine milk is alpha-lactalbumin. Human and bovine alpha-lactalbumin share a 72% amino acid sequence homology. Both proteins contain (wt/wt) 6% tryptophan and 5% cysteine but only 0.9% methionine. Thus the differences in the amino acid compositions of bovine and human milks are largely attributable to differences in their alpha-lactalbumin contents. Commercial availability of bovine alpha-lactalbumin would allow the construction of infant formulas with amino acid compositions that are very close to that of human milk. alpha-Lactalbumin would also be a valuable constituent of diets for patients whose protein intake must be restricted.
Article
Taurine was long considered an end product of the metabolism of the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cyst(e)ine. Its only clearly recognized biochemical role had been as a substrate in the conjugation of bile acids. Taurine is found free in millimolar concentrations in animal tissues, particularly those that are excitable, rich in membranes, and generate oxidants. Various lines of evidence suggest one major nutritional role as protecting cell membranes by attenuating toxic substances and/or by acting as an osmoregulator. The totality of evidence suggests that taurine is nonessential in the rodent, it is an essential amino acid in the cat, and it is conditionally essential in man and monkey. Absence from the diet of a conditionally essential nutrient does not produce immediate deficiency disease but, in the long term, can cause problems. Taurine is now added to many infant formulas as a measure of prudence to provide improved nourishment with the same margin of safety for its newly identified physiologic functions as that found in human milk. Such supplementation can be justified by the finding of improved fat absorption in preterm infants and in children with cystic fibrosis, as well as by salutary effects on auditory brainstem-evoked responses in preterm infants. Experimental findings in animal models and in human cell models provide further justification for taurine supplementation of infant formulas.
Article
These investigations suggest potential host protection for the VLBW infant who is fed fortified human milk. Specific functional benefits, either in host protection, gastrointestinal maturation, or nutrient availability, warrant further investigation. The special properties of human milk have a dual role: to provide nutrients and to provide factors whose concentrations are tailored to the infant's developing capabilities. Not only does human casein, for example, have nutritional importance, but it also modulates calcium and phosphorus concentrations and aids in host defense. Not only do the whey-proteins provide nutritional benefits, but they also are major participants in host defense.
Article
Maternal colostrum and milk, the earliest food of the newborn, should not only be considered as supplying nutrients, but also as agents providing protection against aggressions from the new environment. Indeed by enzymatic digestion of the main milk proteins, the caseins, biologically active peptides are released; they may be implicated in the stimulation of the newborn's immune system. From this point of view a 'strategic active zone' has been characterized in beta-casein. A possible role of casein as a 'prohormone' for the newborn is suggested.
Article
The composition of human milk can be affected by the diet consumed by the lactating woman. The influence of the maternal diet on milk composition varies in magnitude between nutrients; for some nutrients no effect at all has yet been documented. Concentrations of fatty acids, fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins in milk are, in general, significantly affected by the levels of these nutrients in the diet. Protein concentration may be affected under some conditions, although the magnitude of this change appears relatively limited. Lactose, mineral, trace element and electrolyte concentrations seem comparatively resistant to varying maternal intakes. Although there has been significant progress in this research area in the past decade, many early studies are difficult to interpret due to limitations in the study design and analytical methods. This review demonstrates a distinct need for carefully controlled studies on the effects of both nutrient deficiencies and supplements on milk composition. Interactions among nutrients, homeostatic mechanisms and energy balance (weight loss) are factors that need to be studied further. Information from such research will suggest strategies for nutrition intervention in areas of poor nutrition and provide dietary guidelines for lactating women.
Article
Human milk is a highly complex fluid with a nutrient balance and an array of functional properties that may promote a level of metabolic efficiency that is not attainable when a cow milk-based formula is fed. This is not a novel idea. Mitchell in 1933 proposed that the level of efficiency of energy use is determined by the nutrient "balance" in the diet. Nonetheless, difficulties remain in the attempt to reconcile the low levels of intake with established estimates of energy needs. If the amount of energy that appears necessary for growth and maintenance of a 4-month-old infant is compared with that from his or her intake of an exclusive human milk diet, the infant should have little or no energy left for activity. Do metabolic economies contribute to more efficient uses of energy for growth and maintenance in breastfed infants? Are there differences in body composition? Does more efficient use of energy occur as a result of a decrease in clinical and subclinical infections? Is efficient energy utilization accomplished by significant curtailment in activity? If an excess level of energy is consumed by bottlefed infants, what are the positive or negative short-term or long-term consequences? These questions are the focus of research in numerous laboratories. Field and clinical studies of breastfed infants and in vitro studies of human milk offer unique opportunities to understand basic mechanisms of human adaptations to nutrient intake and environmental challenges.
Article
Human milk has many unique properties that benefit the breast-fed infant. Several of these properties reside in the protein fraction of human milk; eg, host defense factors (such as immunoglobulins, lysozyme, and lactoferrin), digestive enzymes (lipases, proteases, amylase), specific binding proteins, and growth factors. Increased knowledge of human milk proteins and their biochemistry will aid our understanding of their physiological significance in the infant.
Article
We showed previously that nonimmune human milk (NHM) kills Giardia lamblia trophozoites in vitro and presented evidence that killing requires the bile salt-stimulated lipase of milk. Since this enzyme is activated by bile salts, killing should be dependent on the presence of bile salts. We now show that killing by fresh NHM or NHM stored at -70 degrees C is totally dependent on sodium cholate (a bile salt). With less than 0.4 mM cholate, no parasites were killed, whereas with 1 mM cholate, greater than 99.7% were killed by 5% NHM in 30 min. Moreover, killing activity was completely heat labile. The G. lamblia-killing activity of human milk was greatly altered by storage at -10 or -20 degrees C. In less than 23 days, the 50% lethal dose decreased, cholate dependence was lost, and killing activity became heat stable. In contrast, the activity of milk stored at -70 degrees C remained unchanged. Milk lipase activity, like killing activity, became cholate independent during storage at -10 or -20 degrees C. On the basis of these results, we hypothesize that killing of G. lamblia by fresh NHM or NHM stored at -70 degrees C depends on bile salt-stimulated lipase, which must be activated by bile salts. In contrast, NHM stored at -20 degrees C accumulated free fatty acids which kill G. lamblia. In support of this thesis, milk stored at -10 degrees C had a concentration of 18.7 mM free fatty acids compared with only 1.1 mM in an identical sample stored at -70 degrees C.
Article
To assess the long-term impact of nutritional supplementation on bone mineralization during adolescence, we studied 356 Guatemalan adolescents who participated from birth to 7 y of age in a controlled supplementation trial. Bone mineralization of the distal radius was assessed using single photon absorptiometry. Children who consumed more cumulative energy from the supplement during childhood had greater bone mineral content, bone width and bone mineral density during adolescence than those who consumed less energy. The associations remained after controlling for each subject's age and gender, and for the type of supplement consumed, but became statistically nonsignificant after adjusting for weight and stature. Because intake of supplement also was associated positively with weight and stature during adolescence, it is concluded that supplementing malnourished children can have a demonstrable long-term impact on bone mineralization, but that the effects are probably not beyond those due to improvements in overall somatic growth associated with supplementation.
Article
We studied zinc nutrition in exclusively breast-fed infants whose growth deviated from the norm. Their number fell from 200 at birth to 116 at the age of 6 months and 36 at the age of 9 months. The mothers received 0, 20, or 40 mg Zn++ as sulfate daily. Breast milk intake and concentrations of zinc in milk as well as in maternal and infant serum were measured. Individual zinc concentrations in milk showed channeling. The 20-mg supplement had no effect on the parameters measured. In contrast, 40 mg increased the maternal serum zinc concentration by 2 months and slowed the normal decline of milk zinc concentration by 6 months. Maternal supplementation had no effect on infant serum concentrations; they remained lower than adult levels throughout the 1st year of life. Zinc intake was low (about one-tenth of RDA), but it seemed to be adequate; the serum concentrations of the infants were stable after the age of 2 months. Low zinc concentrations in serum were not associated with impaired growth. On the contrary, the infants with the highest rates of growth had the lowest zinc concentrations. The infant serum zinc concentrations were channeled, but they were also influenced by the zinc intake. Reference values for breast-fed infants are given.
Article
Recommendations for calcium intakes during pregnancy and lactation differ around the world, reflecting the inadequacy of knowledge about calcium requirements in human reproduction. In theory, insufficient calcium supply during pregnancy and lactation could result in maternal bone loss, reduced breast-milk calcium secretion or impaired infant bone development. However, although calcium intakes vary widely, no specific problems associated with dietary calcium deficiency have been identified. Alterations in absorption, metabolism, and excretion may conserve calcium when requirements increase. Bone changes have been observed in pregnancy and lactation, but the relationship with diet is unknown. Similarly, the effects of maternal calcium intake on breast-milk calcium and infant bone growth are not understood. Calcium salts (1-2 g Ca/d) may reduce hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, but the role of dietary calcium needs exploration. More research is required before we can be confident about advising women to increase their calcium intakes during pregnancy and lactation.
Article
Maternal diet may affect milk composition quantitatively and qualitatively. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of different dietary protein quality and quantity on total milk protein concentration and on possible changes in casein:whey protein ratio as a result of differences in maternal nutritional status. Milk samples were obtained from Wistar rats fed either wheat gluten or supplemented casein at different percentages. A similar analytical scheme was applied to milk samples from lactating women belonging to different socioeconomic classes. Total milk protein in rat milk was related closely to protein quality and, to a lesser extent, to protein quantity, showing significant differences among treatment groups. Relative proportions between milk proteins were significantly affected by diet: casein: whey protein ratio was related positively to protein quality and quantity. In human milk, even though total protein content did not differ, the relative proportions between milk proteins were altered, but in a way opposite to that observed in rat milk: the whey protein:casein ratio was related positively to maternal protein intake. These modifications might influence the nutritive value or anti-infectious properties of the milk ingested by the neonate.
Article
During early life, infants usually consume a diet that is heavily dominated by milk. It is generally believed that breast-fed infants absorb adequate quantities of minerals and trace elements, whereas there is some concern about how well infants can utilize these nutrients from cow's milk formula and other infant diets. Therefore, most infant formulas contain much higher concentrations of minerals and trace elements than those of breast milk. Our knowledge of how infants can utilize these nutrients from different diets is very limited. This paper critically reviews the effects of various components in breast milk, cow's milk, and infant formula and how they either facilitate or inhibit the absorption of minerals and trace elements. Particular emphasis is put on milk proteins such as lactoferrin, casein, and whey proteins, but phytate in soy formula is also discussed. Competition among minerals for absorptive pathways as well as other nutrient-nutrient interactions are considered in the context of infant nutrition. The difficulties involved in assessing mineral and trace element status in infants, as well as the potential consequences of suboptimal and excessive intakes of calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and selenium are also discussed, particularly in the light of infant requirements.
Article
The literature on the relationship between early infant feeding and growth shows that after the first 3 or 4 months, breast-fed infants in the developed world are lighter than formula-fed infants with markedly lower adiposity. There is some evidence of a slightly lower rate of linear growth over the first year or so. These differences in weight and length do not apparently persist beyond the first few years of life. In the developing world the situation is very different. The growth curves of breast-fed infants of malnourished mothers may falter between the third and sixth month of life. However, the generally poor quality of the supplementary foods offered in the developing world and the increased risk of diarrhoeal infections mean that supplementary feeding before the age of 6 months is unlikely to lead to a growth advantage and may well lead to growth faltering.
Article
Full-term human infants are believed to possess adequate copper stores to last through weaning regardless of the copper content of the diet they are fed. This may not be generally true, however; a combination of low copper intake and low bioavailability from the diet may lead to copper deficiency. More information is needed on the bioavailability of copper from different infant diets, but it appears that copper is well absorbed from breast milk compared with infant formula. Several dietary factors that may affect copper absorption in infants, such as protein sources, amino acids, phytate, ascorbic acid, and other essential cations, need to be evaluated further. Studies in human infants evaluating these factors through use of stable isotope methods, as well as better indicators of copper status, are needed before the copper requirements of infants can be established. This is particularly important for premature infants who, born with inadequate copper stores, are prone to develop copper deficiency unless given higher provisions of copper. The possibility of copper excess also needs to be considered because there are limited opportunities to diagnose copper toxicity. Finally, the role of homeostatic regulation of copper metabolism in infants needs to be evaluated.
Article
Unlabelled: The present state of knowledge and controversies about the etiopathogenesis of tyep 1 diabetes can be summarized as follows: Genetics: MHC class II genes (IDDM1) confer the strongest susceptibility with a hierachy DQ > DR; more than ten other chromosome regions (IDDM2 to IDDM13) have been identified as candidates for linkage with type 1 diabetes: currently, there is consensus for insulin (IDDM2) and a few other loci, while the remainder await confirmation. Environment: The role of milk as a trigger is debated. In fact, the protective effect of breast feeding is marginal, while the immune response to milk proteins in type 1 diabetics is very heterogeneous; moreover, the putative autoantigens showing sequence homology with milk proteins have been questioned. With regard to viruses, seasonal variations of incidence have been confirmed, although not uniform across countries; serological studies are controversial, while isolation of viruses from diabetic pancreases remains anecdotal; very interesting is the demonstration of enteroviral infection in pregnant mothers of future diabetic children, although this does not prove a causal role; a new frontier of investigation could be that of endogenous retroviruses acting either as autoimmune genes or infectious agents. Autoimmunity: GAD65, IA2 and insulin are at present the only established autoantigens; autoantibodies to these molecules, used in combination with ICA, can accurately predict type 1 diabetes; B-lymphocytes and autoantibodies might play a pathogenetic role; autoantigen targets of T-lymphocytes are yet to be characterized; assays for measuring autoreactive T-lymphocytes require standardization; antigen-specific Th1/Th2 relationship in type 1 diabetes remains controversial.
Article
Human milk provides the infant with protection against infectious diseases. This protection is conferred through several mechanisms: specific antibody targeted protection against pathogens in the infant's environment (through milk IgA, IgG, and IgM) and broad-spectrum, nonspecific protection provided through several distinct mechanisms. These are: bactericidal effects (lactoferrin), bacteriostatic action (lactoferrin, lysozyme), lysis of microorganisms (lysozyme), antiviral effects (lactoferrin, products of milk fat digestion), antiprotozoan activity (free fatty acids produced during gastric and intestinal digestion of milk fat), and ligand action (inhibition of Helicobacter pylori adhesion to gastric mucosa by kappa-casein). In addition to these protective functions of the proteins and lipids of human milk, several enzymes present in human milk might provide protection by generating components that are bactericidal (bile salt dependent lipase, peroxidase), prevent inflammatory reactions (platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase), or protect the integrity of milk proteins (antiproteases).
Article
Nonimmunological components in human milk can protect breast-fed infants against infection by microorganisms. The structural and functional characteristics of four such components are discussed. The mucin inhibits binding of S-fimbriated Escherichia coli to bucal epithelial cells; lactadherin prevents symptomatic rotavirus-induced infection; glycoaminoglycans inhibit binding of human immunodeficiency virus gp120 to its host cell CD4 receptor, and oligosaccharides provide protection against several pathogens and their toxins.
Article
Human milk contains a very large number of specific and non-specific immunologic and nonimmunologic factors who provide passive and active protection to the newborn. The immunologic factors are either immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive. The immunostimulatory ones increase host defense mechanisms mainly against infective illness, and the immunosuppressive ones downregulate inflammation and the development of allergies. Furthermore, human milk has been found to promote intestinal growth and maturation and to have immunomodulating effects beyond infancy, later on in life. In conclusion, human milk represents a very valuable weapon for enhancing the immature immunologic system of the newborn and for strengthening its deficient host defense mechanisms against infective or other foreign agents.
Article
During the last decade, the physiological functions of lipids in human milk have received great attention. Some areas of recent investigation are the role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the mental and visual development of neonates and the relevance of the triglyceride structure in fat absorption. Human milk also contains essential micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins that have relevant function in the neonate. Moreover, the wide spectrum of bioactive factors, such as enzymes, growth factors, and hormones, which confer uniqueness to human milk, have a relevant role in protecting the infant against infections and other diseases. The amounts of these components in human milk, the factors that affect their concentration, and their biological effects in the neonate infant are reviewed in this article.
Article
Human milk provided by healthy and well-nourished mothers is believed to cover the infant's nutrient requirements during the first half year of life. It is composed of a mixture of nutritive components as well as other bioactive factors with relevant physiologic effects in the neonate infant. Human milk composition has a dynamic nature and varies with time postpartum, during a nursing, and with the mother's diet and certain diseases. The changes of human milk composition with time of lactation seem to match the changing needs of the growing infant over time. Human milk proteins are a source of peptides, amino acids, and nitrogen for the infant, but also in the protein fraction reside other properties of human milk that may benefit the breastfeeding infant. Specific whey proteins are involved in the development of the immune response (immunoglobulins), whereas others participate in the nonimmunologic defense (lactoferrin). In addition, human milk contains a complex mixture of oligosaccharides that are present only in minute amounts in other mammal's milk. They may act as inhibitors of bacterial adhesion to epithelial surfaces, and thus play an important role in preventing infectious diseases in the newborn infant. Oligosaccharides may also promote the development of a so-called bifidus flora. In the next years, future research will lead to improved characterization of human milk components and elucidation of their individual mechanisms of action, which will increase our knowledge about the properties of human milk and the benefits of breastfeeding for the infant.
Article
To study, in healthy women, the correlation between the basal urinary zinc/creatinine ratio and dietary zinc intake. A group of 36 healthy female University students was evaluated. Mean age and body weight were, respectively, 25.6+/-3.3 years and 54.4+/-7.0 kg. Basal urine was collected; Zn was determined by AAS and Creatinine (Creat) by the Jaffe method. A nutritional survey of seven days was recorded. Mean daily dietary intake of energy (DE) and zinc (DZn) were calculated according to the INCAP and English or German Food Composition Tables, respectively. Mean dietary daily intake were as follows (x +/- SD): Energy (kcal): 1606+/-570; zinc (mg): 9.1+/-3.8; basal urine Zn/Creat ratio: 0.41+/-0.24. Individual values of the Zn/Creat ratio correlated with dietary Zn (r=0.481, p=0.0339); data grouped according to ranges of dietary Zn fit the following equation: Zn/Creat=0.160+/-0.034 DZn (mg/day); (r=0.870, p=0.00497). These results showed that the basal urinary Zn/Creat ratio could be a useful indicator of dietary Zn intake in healthy adult women.
Article
Human milk contains a wide variety of proteins that contribute to its unique qualities. Many of these proteins are digested and provide a well-balanced source of amino acids to rapidly growing infants. Some proteins, such as bile salt-stimulated lipase, amylase, beta-casein, lactoferrin, haptocorrin, and alpha1-antitrypsin, assist in the digestion and utilization of micronutrients and macronutrients from the milk. Several proteins with antimicrobial activity, such as immunoglobulins, kappa-casein, lysozyme, lactoferrin, haptocorrin, alpha-lactalbumin, and lactoperoxidase, are relatively resistant against proteolysis in the gastrointestinal tract and may, in intact or partially digested form, contribute to the defense of breastfed infants against pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Prebiotic activity, such as the promotion of the growth of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria, may also be provided by human milk proteins. This type of activity can limit the growth of several pathogens by decreasing intestinal pH. Some proteins and peptides have immunomodulatory activities (eg, cytokines and lactoferrin), whereas others (eg, insulin-like growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and lactoferrin) are likely to be involved in the development of the intestinal mucosa and other organs of newborns. In combination, breast-milk proteins assist in providing adequate nutrition to breastfed infants while simultaneously aiding in the defense against infection and facilitating optimal development of important physiologic functions in newborns.
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