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Humpback Whales in Tonga: An Economic Resource for Tourism

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The growth of whale-watching internationally has been spectacular. It now occurs in almost 100 countries and is estimated to be worth in excess of U.S.1billioneachyearinrevenue.Thus,whaleshavebecomevaluableasaresourcefortourism.TheVavauislandgroupinthenorthernpartoftheKingdomofTongaintheSouthPacificisanareawithagrowingreputationasawhalewatchingdestination.However,theindustryisrelativelynewthereandtheimpactsofwhalebasedtourismintheseislandsis,asyet,unknown.Inaddition,therehasbeenarecentconsiderationofareturntohuntingwhalesinTonga.Asaresult,concernsregardingthevalueoftheseanimalsfortourismandthepotentialimpactofareturntohuntinghavearisen.Consequently,astudywasdesignedtoprovideapreliminaryassessmentoftheeconomicimpactsoftheseanimalsfortheislandcommunity.ThisstudyestimatesthathumpbackwhalesmaybeworthinexcessofU.S.1 billion each year in revenue. Thus, whales have become valuable as a resource for tourism. The Vava'u island group in the northern part of the Kingdom of Tonga in the South Pacific is an area with a growing reputation as a whale-watching destination. However, the industry is relatively new there and the impacts of whale-based tourism in these islands is, as yet, unknown. In addition, there has been a recent consideration of a return to hunting whales in Tonga. As a result, concerns regarding the value of these animals for tourism and the potential impact of a return to hunting have arisen. Consequently, a study was designed to provide a preliminary assessment of the economic impacts of these animals for the island community. This study estimates that humpback whales may be worth in excess of U.S.700,000 annually as a tourism attraction and that there is significant potential for future growth. Furthermore, the study shows that current visitors are opposed to any resumption of whaling practices in the islands and that such a move would likely displace large numbers of tourists from Tonga. Thus, it is concluded that a resumption of whaling in Tonga would likely have a significant opportunity cost in terms of lost tourism revenues.
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Humpback Whales in Tonga:
An Economic Resource for Tourism
By
MARK B. ORAMS
Working paper series 2001-1
Paper is submitted to The Coastal Management Journal and is under review
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Humpback Whales in Tonga: An Economic Resource for Tourism
MARK B. ORAMS
Centre for Tourism Research
Massey University at Albany
Private Bag 102 904
North Shore MSC
New Zealand
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Humpback Whales in Tonga: An Economic Resource for Tourism
Abstract
The growth of whale-watching internationally has been spectacular. It now occurs in almost 100
countries and is estimated to be worth in excess of US$1 billion each year in revenue. Thus,
whales have become valuable as a resource for tourism. The Vava'u island group in the northern
part of the Kingdom of Tonga in the South Pacific is an area with a growing reputation as a
whale-watching destination. However, the industry is relatively new there and the impacts of
whale based tourism in these islands is, as yet, unknown. In addition, there has been a recent
consideration of a return to hunting whales in Tonga. As a result, concerns regarding the value of
these animals for tourism and the potential impact of a return to hunting have arisen.
Consequently, a study was designed to provide a preliminary assessment of the economic
impacts of these animals for the island community. This study revealed that humpback whales
are worth in excess of T$1 million ($US700,000) annually and that there is significant potential
for future growth. Furthermore, the study shows that current visitors are opposed to any
resumption of whaling practices in the islands and that such a move would likely displace large
numbers of tourists from Tonga. Thus, it is concluded, that a resumption of whaling in Tonga
would likely have a significant opportunity cost in terms of lost tourism revenues.
Keywords tourism, whale-watching, economic impacts, Tonga, Vava'u
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Introduction
Whales have a history of interaction with humans that goes back far beyond Herman Melville's
story of Moby Dick. They have been a source of fascination for peoples from coastal
communities throughout the world over the ages. Their images are found in paintings, on coins
and in early writings from as long ago as the first century (Lockyer, 1990). Over the past three
hundred years, human's involvement with large cetaceans has primarily been a commercial one
based upon their value as a source of products for human use (Samuels and Tyack, 2000).
Without doubt, this period of "lethal use" of whales has had the most significant impact on their
numbers and almost every large whale species was hunted resulting in a severe depletion in their
numbers, some species were reduced to the verge of extinction by the middle of the 20th century
(Bowen and Siniff, 1999). As a result of these unsustainable hunting practices and, perhaps, as a
result of a growing compassion and empathy for these animals, whales have become icons for
the environmental movement. Currently, there are significant debates at cultural, political and
scientific levels regarding the future management of whales (Aron et al, 1999). These debates
have, to a certain degree, become polarised. On one side are those who argue that whales should
be protected from any consumptive (lethal) use, on the other are those who argue that whales
should be hunted on a sustainable basis.
The international agency charged with management of large whales is the International Whaling
Commission (IWC). Established in 1946 by the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling, the IWC was charged with providing for the "conservation, development, and optimum
utilization of whale resources" (Article V of the Convention). While the role of the IWC was
clearly intended to be pro-whaling - in more recent times it has become a "battleground" for pro-
whaling and anti-whaling factions - so much so that some are becoming extremely critical of the
functioning of the IWC (for example, see Aron et al, 1999). An additional issue has further
complicated the controversy. In recent decades a further "value" for these animals has arisen -
they have become popular as a tourism attraction. This growing industry is dependent on large
numbers of whales easily accessible for observation and has placed an economic value on whales
alive (Hoyt, 2000). This value has, in some instances, been utilised as an argument against the
lethal use of whales as a consumable product (International Fund for Animal Welfare, 1998).
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The Growth of Whale-Watching
The rapid world-wide growth of whale-watching as a tourism activity over the past decade has
been widely reported in the literature. Whale-watching now takes place in every continent and
from countries as diverse as Argentina, South Africa, Japan, Norway, New Zealand and Tonga.
Hoyt (2000) estimated that the worldwide economic impact derived from whale-watching
activities in 1998 totaled more than US$1 billion. Hoyt's review of the industry worldwide
illustrates its spectacular growth. He claims that in 1983 whale-watching occurred in only 12
countries, by 1995 it had expanded to 295 communities and 65 countries and that in 1998 almost
100 countries or territories and nearly 500 communities were involved in whale-watching. There
is widespread optimism about the future potential of this industry predictions are that whale-
watching will continue this rapid growth rate (Hoyt, 2000).
Research on Whale-Watching
Internationally, research effort directed at understanding whale-watching has focussed almost
entirely on the behaviour of the whales as a result of the close approach of boats and aircraft
(Constantine, 1999). Related work has focussed on the impact of noise on cetaceans (Reeves,
1992; Norris, 1994; Richardson et al, 1995).
Despite the increasing amount of work directed at understanding the impacts of whale-watching
on whales, little effort has been directed at the impact of whale-watching on the watchers
themselves. In addition, work assessing the impacts of the industry on host communities has
been limited. This is surprising because it is obvious that whale-watching has become a
significant industry world wide with important social and economic impacts.
There have, however, been a number of notable studies that give some indication of the
economic impact of whales as a tourism attraction. Duffus (1988) reported the results of a study
on the economic impact of whale-watching on the Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada)
community in 1986. He found that whale-watchers spent an average of CAN$370 per trip.
Expenditure of whale tourists included $117 on travel, $59 on accommodation, $50 on the
whale-watch itself and $39 on other items such as souvenirs, camera film and so on. A further
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study of the same area by Duffus and Dearden (1990) found that the numbers of whale-watchers
had grown to around 10,000 annually and that the average per person spend had also increased to
CAN$400. Thus whale-watching had an estimated CAN$4 million input into the Vancouver
Island economy.
Forestell and Kaufman (1996) estimated in 1990 that in Hawaii whale-watching fares alone were
worth in excess of US$3.9 million. The overall expenditure of whale related tourists in Hawaii is,
of course, significantly higher because these "whale tourists" also spend money on
accommodation, transportation, food, souvenirs and other attractions in the area. Work
conducted by Lincoln University has also identified the significant economic impacts of whales
as a tourism attraction in the New Zealand town of Kaikoura (Horn et al, 1998).
It is clear, therefore, that the value of whales alive as a tourism resource has become an
important issue in discussions regarding future utilization of these animals. This is certainly the
case with regard to the Kingdom of Tonga in the South Pacific where a push to resume whale
hunting has been argued against by those who consider the whales of greater value alive as a
tourism attraction.
The Kingdom of Tonga and Whales
The sheltered, warm waters of the Vava'u island group in the Kingdom of Tonga (figure 1) have
been an important breeding ground for humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) for
centuries. It seems likely that these islands are an important breeding area for the population of
humpbacks that once migrated close to the shores of New Zealand (Baker et al, 1998). This
group of humpbacks sustained a significant whaling industry in New Zealand, which between
1911 and 1963 killed over 3,600 humpbacks. Many thousands more were killed on the Antarctic
feeding grounds, including 48,000 illegally taken by the former Soviet Union in the 1950s and
1960s (Donoghue, 2000). By 1964 numbers of the New Zealand/Tonga humpbacks had been
reduced from an estimated 10,000 to less than 250 whales (Donoghue, 2000). This "collapse" of
the population reflected a worldwide trend in humpback numbers as a result of whaling
activities. Despite dwindling numbers, whaling practices continued on a small scale in Tonga
until 1978 when the King of Tonga imposed a prohibition on whaling. The protection provided
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by that decision probably saved the humpbacks from complete extinction in Tongan waters.
However, despite two decades of protection the numbers of whales breeding in Tonga are still
extremely low and concern remains over the survival of this group. In contrast to the humpbacks
that migrate up the east and west coast of Australia, where a steady recovery in numbers is
occurring (Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, 1993), there is no evidence of
a similar recovery in the New Zealand/Tonga group.
The South Pacific Humpback Whale Project, a group of scientists examining population and
genetic issues in the Tongan humpbacks, have been conducting field studies in Vava'u since
1993. Broad population estimates from this research show that the Tongan humpback population,
an unknown proportion of which visits Vava'u, may number around 500, but could be as low as
300 or as high as 700 (Baker et al, 1998). The Tongan humpback population is therefore
endangered and is a small fraction of the original numbers.
In the past five years a small scale whale-watching industry has developed in Vava'u. This
industry has received considerable attention and appears to have significant potential given the
worldwide growth of whale-watching and the recognition of the opportunities which exist in the
Vava'u island group.
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Study Objectives
It is clear that humpback whales are an important and growing tourism resource for Tonga, and
particularly for Vava'u. They are heavily utilized in promotional material for the islands and
local operators report a growing number of "whale-tourists" visiting the area. The tourism
industry, while small, is an important one for Vava'u. The community in the Vava'u area is a
small one, with only around 16,000 people. In addition, its economy is fragile; it has
significantly less agricultural production and virtually none of the manufacturing, forestry and
service industries of the larger island of Tongatapu to the south. As a result, tourism is an
economic activity that is extremely important in Vava'u. Furthermore, the potential for growth in
tourism to the area has long been recognized. One of the greatest potential contributors to that
growth is whale-watching. Whale-watching's spectacular growth world wide over the past
decade reveals the high demand for the activity. The natural marine environment of Vava'u and
the presence of humpbacks has resulted in the establishment of five whale-watching businesses
in the area. There is, however, no specific information regarding the state of the whale-watching
industry in Vava'u. This information would be useful in quantifying the economic influence of
the whales as a tourism attraction and identifying future management strategies for the industry.
In addition, consideration is being given in Tonga of a return to whaling activities. Despite the
royal decree protecting whales in Tongan waters, a female humpback whale was butchered near
the capital Nuku’olofa and the meat distributed for local consumption in July 1999. Thus, an
important issue for Tonga is the potential future utilization of whales. Questions regarding the
value of these whales alive as a tourism attraction have arisen and concerns exist about the
potential impact on tourism that could result from a return to whaling in the Kingdom.
As a consequence a study was developed to examine the impact of whale-watching on the
Vava'u community. In particular, the economic influence of the whales' as a tourism resource
was tested and additional information on tourists' characteristics, behavior and attitudes was
obtained. Specifically the following objectives formed the basis for this research.
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1. To estimate the economic impacts of the whale-watching industry to the Vava'u
community.
2. To consider those impacts in the context of the historical growth of tourism in Vava'u
and whale-watching elsewhere.
3. To estimate the future economic potential of the whales as a tourism attraction in the
area.
4. To consider the potential impacts on tourism of a resumption of whaling in Tonga.
Background
Tourism in Tonga
Tonga is a relatively small nation with a modest economy. GDP for Tonga was estimated at
T$231 million in 1996/97 (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1997). The 1996 census in the
Kingdom reported a population of 97,446. The great majority of these people (68%) reside on
the island of Tongatapu. The Vava'u island group has around 16% of the nation's people with a
population of around 16,000. Tongan society is characterized by several important features. First,
it is a constitutional monarchy. King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV is the current head of state in Tonga.
He represents a long history of ruling monarchs who can be traced as far back as the tenth
century. Political rule in Tonga is conducted through a Legislative Assembly which consists of
nine democratically elected "people's representatives", however, a majority is always held by
royally appointed representatives and "nobles" - members of the extended royal family. Second,
Tonga is an intensely religious society. Christianity is enshrined in the laws and constitution of
Tonga - the most obvious outward expression of this is the prohibition of commercial activities,
work and organized sport on Sundays. Third, the influence of the large number of Tongans who
live outside Tonga (approximately 60,000) is important economically and socially. In particular
the sending home of income from family members working overseas - payments that are termed
"remittances" - form an extremely important source of income for Tonga.
In addition to remittances, agricultural production of produce such as pineapples, papayas, kava,
taro, bananas, yams, coconuts and especially of late, pumpkins and squash are an important
source of food for locals and income as some of these crops are exported. Fishing and forestry
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also contribute to the economy. It is, however, tourism that is often referred to as the "economic
star on the horizon" for Tonga (Keller and Swaney, 1997).
Currently it is estimated that tourism brings in around T$12.3 million (1997/98) in foreign
exchange earnings. Total international visitor arrivals for 1998 were 29,281 (Tonga Visitors
Bureau, unpublished data). The great majority of visitors to Tonga come by aircraft (80%) and
land at Fua'amotu International Airport on Tongatapu, however, cruise ship passengers (10%)
and cruising yachts (10%) also contribute significantly to visitor arrivals (table 2). It is however,
important to note that over half of the aircraft arrivals are expatriate Tongans returning to the
islands to visit friends and relatives. Only 45% of visitors who arrive by air classify themselves
as on holiday and it is thought that a number of these may also be overseas based Tongans
visiting "home" (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1997). Thus, the actual number of
vacationing tourists visiting Tonga is actually quite small, probably around 16,000 in 1998.
Tourism has, however, been identified as an important potential growth area for Tonga.
Government policy is to further support and promote tourism as a
major earner of foreign exchange and to play an expanded role in
sustainable economic development (Tourism Council of the South Pacific,1997).
The Tonga Visitors Bureau and the Tongan Government has made significant investment in
recent years to support the development of tourism in the Kingdom through promotional
campaigns, the establishment of Royal Tongan Airlines, the extension of airport runways and the
upgrading of airport facilities.
Tourism in Vava'u
The Vava'u island group consists of around 50 small islands surrounding Vava'u island, the
largest of the group. It is located in the northern part of the Kingdom of Tonga lying 160 miles
north of Tongatapu (figure 1). The main town in Vava'u is Neiafu located on the shores of the
Port of Refuge harbor. A large number of small villages on both Vava'u and other islands exist,
however, many islands are uninhabited.
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Vava'u has, for many decades, been an important stop-over for cruising yachts making their way
through the South Pacific. Particularly those coming and going from the Panama canal to New
Zealand and Australia via the South Pacific islands. More recently Vava'u has also become well
known as a specific tourist destination for visitors who travel via aircraft. Unfortunately specific
data on tourism numbers are not available for Vava'u. However, in 1997 Vava'u received 7,266
air arrivals, 345 cruise ship passengers and 844 yacht based visitors (Tonga Visitors Bureau,
unpublished data). It is reasonable to assume that the proportion of air arrivals who were actually
vacationers (as opposed to visiting friends and relatives) would be greater than that for
Tongatapu as Vava'u is more well known as a "tourist destination" and its local population is
small. Thus an estimate of 60% of visitors who traveled by aircraft as vacationers is reasonable.
Consequently, a total of 4,460 aircraft based vacationers are estimated for Vava'u in 1997.
Conversely, the numbers of yacht based visitors is likely to be an underestimate as the official
figures report only those yachts who actually check in with customs in Vava'u. Many yachts,
particularly those travelling north from New Zealand and Australia check in at Nuku'alofa and
possibly a small number in the Ha'apai island group. It also seems likely that some yachts that
spend only a few days in the Vava'u area may not bother to check in with customs. Thus, it is
reasonable that the figures for yacht based visitors to Vava'u may underestimate actual visitation
by around 25%. Consequently, the estimate of yacht based visitors to the area in 1997 is adjusted
upwards to 1,055. The total number of vacationers to Vava'u in 1997 is therefore estimated to be
5,860 (table 1).
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Table 1: Estimated Numbers of Vacationers to Vava'u 1997
(Source: Tonga Visitors Bureau unpublished data)
Actual 1997
(TVB Figures)
Adjustment Estimated number of
vacationers
Visitors via aircraft 7,266 60% holiday
40% VFR, business and
other reasons
4,460
(75%)
Visitors via yacht 844 +25% who cleared
customs elsewhere
1055
(20%)
Visitors via cruise ship 345 - 345
(5%)
TOTAL 8,455 5,860
An important issue with regard to tourism in Vava'u (and Tonga as a whole) is that the visitation
is highly seasonal. In Vava'u in particular, the June to October period is the peak. Almost all
yacht based visitors are confined to this period (table 2). Vacationers who come via aircraft are
more evenly distributed throughout the year, however peaks also occur over the June to October
period (table 3).
Table 2: Number of Yachts and Visitors to Vava'u 1994-1998
(only includes those yachts that checked in with Customs in Vava'u)
(Source: Tonga Visitors Bureau unpublished data)
Month 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Yachts Visitors Yachts Visitors Yachts Visitors Yachts Visitors Yachts Visitors
January 0 0 0 0 2 7 0 0 4 14
February 1 1 2 11 3 17 1 3 2 11
March 0 0 1 4 2 5 0 0 1 2
April 7 25 1 4 2 5 0 0 1 2
May 56 189 38 160 38 123 24 58 16 68
June 110 323 66 232 87 317 24 66 52 264
July 84 264 76 198 72 214 35 112 52 167
August 93 297 82 222 58 162 61 181 98 265
September 72 186 86 226 74 198 79 205 70 201
October 71 174 66 185 71 210 50 179 53 144
November 12 31 10 30 8 26 4 10 8 25
December 4 17 4 18 7 16 3 7 1 2
TOTAL 510 1507 432 1290 429 1320 288 844 362 1183
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Table 3: Estimated Number of Vacationers to Vava'u arriving by aircraft 1995-1998
(Source: Estimates derived Tonga Visitors Bureau data and from interviews with Vava'u tourism operators)
Month 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Visitors % Visitors % Visitors % Visitors % Visitors %
January 280 5 260 4 290 7 220 5 300
February 270 5 190 3 180 4 240 6 320
March 230 5 270 5 175 4 230 6 320
April 260 5 200 3 230 5 210 5 370
May 490 9 390 7 460 10 290 7 420
June 520 9 600 11 520 12 340 8 470
July 740 13 800 14 525 12 340 8 520
August 900 16 960 17 680 15 810 19 990
September 750 14 640 11 620 14 630 15
October 620 11 780 14 370 8 560 13
November 300 5 390 7 210 5 180 4
December 180 3 220 4 180 4 170 4
TOTAL 5,540 100 5,700 100 4,460 100 4,220 100
The estimates shown in table 3 are consistent with the impressions of tourist business operators
in the Vava'u area who stated that tourism numbers had been slowly declining in the area since
1995, but that the first half of 1999 had shown a marked "up-swing" in visitor numbers.
There are currently 53 officially licensed tourism operators in the Vava'u area (table 4). A
number of these operators offer more than one service (for example, accommodation, restaurant
and bar). In addition, there are many operators who could only be classified as part time. In fact,
around half of the operators with licenses maintain extremely small operations which run on an
"on demand" basis. Thus, the tourism infrastructure is modest in Vava'u. Other operations
significantly supported by tourism are the Royal Tongan Airlines staff who maintain an office in
Neiafu and at the airport, local taxi drivers - all of whom utilize their own vehicles on an "on
demand" basis. Approximately 50 vehicles are registered as being able to be used as taxis in
Vava'u. Additionally, the Tonga Visitors Bureau maintains an office in Neiafu.
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Table 4: Licensed Tourism Operations in Vava'u 1999
(Source: Tonga Visitors Bureau unpublished data)
Type of Operation Number
Resort/Hotel 8
Guest House/Motel/Lodge 12
Restaurant/Bar/Cafe 8
Craft/Souvenir 6
Charter Yacht 5
Charter Fishing 5
Other Charter Boat 1
Whale-watch 5
SCUBA Diving 2
Tours 3
Kayak 1
Feast/Cultural Performance 3
Vava'u has been identified by many as the destination with the greatest potential for tourism in
Tonga. For example, the Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1997) claim that "Vava'u is a
world class attraction able to be promoted as a 'must see'". The natural attractions of Vava'u and
indeed Tonga as a whole are those of a marine nature; coral reefs, islands, beaches and wildlife;
fish, birds, whales and dolphins. Other important attractions are the climate, the geographical
location for yachts cruising the South Pacific (and safe anchorages and relatively easy
navigation), the local people and culture. The tourism industry in Tonga and especially in Vava'u
is, therefore, primarily a location where vacationers visit for nature based marine attractions and
activities. The Tonga Visitors Bureau and the tourism industry recognize this and utilize images
associated with these attractions to promote the area.
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Methods
Estimating the Economic Impacts of Whale-watching
The prime objective of this study is to "estimate the economic impacts of the whale-watching
industry to the Vava'u community". Consequently, this study differs from an assessment of the
"economic value" of whale-watching. This is an important distinction because a calculation of
economic value would include a consideration of costs and, additionally it would include an
estimate of consumer and producer surplus and the "non-use" value of the resource. Resources
have value to people that go beyond their current "use". For example, many people place value
on the simple "existence" of a resource (Freeman, 1993). This concept is quite important with
regard to natural, cultural and historical resources. For instance, many people value the existence
of the Egyptian Pyramids irrespective of whether they have "used" them as a tourism attraction
or not. Values such as these are termed "non-use values". Further non-use values include "option
values" - the value one places on the future ability to use a resource and "bequest values" - the
value one places on the ability of future generations or others in current generations to use a
resource (Randall, 1991). The whales that visit Tongan waters have, therefore, value independent
of and in addition to the income they generate as a tourism resource (or as a source of food). This
study, however, does not measure those values, it simply provides an assessment of the amount
of additional expenditure that the whale watching industry brings into the Vava'u community and
considers the additional "downstream" impacts of that expenditure. Alternatively, this study can
be said to estimate the expenditure that would be lost if whale watching no longer occurred in the
area.
Economists recognize that the economic impacts of a particular industry extend beyond the
expenditure of customers on products and services produced by that industry (Leeworthy and
Vanasse, 1999). The initial spending of tourists (in this case) supports businesses. These
businesses "re-spend" this money on employees, goods and services and so on - the costs of
production for their business (some is retained as profit and investment). These employees and
other businesses also "re-spend" this additional money. This "ripple effect" is termed the
"multiplier". The calculation of multipliers for specific resources and in specific communities has
17
been somewhat controversial because it is not an exact calculation (Hvenegaard, 1997). It does,
however, provide an indication of the economic impact of a particular industry.
The total economic impact of additional expenditure in a community is viewed as the sum of the
direct, indirect and induced effects. Direct effects are the initial spending of tourists on the goods
and services associated with whale watching (in this case). The indirect effects are the
expenditure of whale watching businesses on good and services they need to operate. The
induced effects are related to the businesses and employees that receive additional income as a
result of the direct and indirect expenditure. The total economic impact of a particular industry
therefore, is the sum of the direct, indirect and induced expenditure on that industry (Leeworthy
and Vanasse, 1999).
While this study is limited to an evaluation of the economic impacts of whales as a tourism
resource in Vava'u it is important to acknowledge that there may be a number of "costs"
associated with whale-watching. While "production" of the whales themselves is not a cost,
whale-watching businesses sustain "production costs" such as the cost of boats, fuel, safety
equipment, marketing material and staff.
Further potential costs are those caused as an outcome of the operation of the business. It is
widely understood that tourism businesses can have significant negative impacts - "costs" - for
host communities and environments (Orams, 1999). However, a 1997 study commissioned by
the Tourism Council of the South Pacific claimed that negative forces associated with tourism
"are avoided in Tonga because of the strong community, religious and cultural beliefs" (Tourism
Council of the South Pacific, 1997, 2). While this claim is not substantiated through any
empirical research, it is reasonable to conclude that tourism at its current level is a strong
positive economic influence for Vava'u and Tonga and that is has few costs currently. However,
in the case of an assessment of the economic impacts of whale-watching there are a number of
potential "costs". Examples could be potential pollution of the Vava'u environment through such
things as whale-watch boat fuel spillage or litter from whale tourists, demand induced inflation
in Vava'u as a result of increased tourism or a distortion of patterns of investment in the area.
However, the chances of these kinds of "costs" occurring are currently small in the Vava'u
18
situation. The level of tourism in Vava'u is not high, the isolation of the area means that
"economic leakage" is relatively low and additionally, Tongan law does not permit foreign
ownership of land and it requires the involvement of local Tongans in tourism businesses
(Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1995).
Research Instruments
In order to allow a calculation of economic impacts a number of research instruments were
needed. Each of these instruments provided information that permitted a calculation of the
economic impact associated with each component of the use-value of the resource. This is
reflected in figure 2.
Figure 2: Components of the Economic Impacts of Whale-watching
Note: The use of employee spending is but a small part of induced expenditure.
This category is, as a consequence, an under-estimate of the true induced effect.
Economic
Impacts of
Whale
Watching
Expenditure
on whale-
watching
Direct (Step 1)
Indirect (Step 2)
Induced (Step 3)
Visitor
spending
Business
spending
Employee
spending
Interviews of
tourism
b
usinesses
Self reply
questionnaire
for tourists
Estimation of
"leakage"
Estimation of
multiplier
Estimation of
total economic
im
pact
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Two main data gathering instruments were utilized in this study. In addition, data from the
Tonga Visitors Bureau were used to check the validity of the sample and to extrapolate results
from the sample. The instruments designed to collect primary data were:
1. A sample of all vacationing tourists to Vava'u were given a self-reply questionnaire.
Responding to these questionnaires was voluntary and they were written in English.
Questionnaires used a combination of closed and open-ended questions to elicit responses on
matters of expenditure, motivation, satisfaction and socio-demographic information.
2. Business operators where whales form an important attraction for clients were surveyed. A
structured interview was undertaken with each of the five permitted whale-watch operators.
This interview ascertained information regarding business finances, including annual
turnover, wages and expenditure. Information on employee numbers, years of operation,
growth rates and attitudes were also obtained. Additionally, interviews with the seven major
tourism operators in the area were conducted. This was undertaken to obtain representation in
the sample from businesses whose clients may have been, in part, participants in whale-
watching.
Sample Structure and Representation
The time available for fieldwork in Vava'u was limited for this study. As a result, a multi-
instrument approach was used. First secondary data were obtained from the Tongan Visitors
Bureau. These data provided information on visitor arrivals in Vava'u over the past five years.
This was used to structure the sample for the fieldwork. Furthermore, this overall annual
information was applied to the results of the week's fieldwork so that an extrapolation to annual
figures could be made. As a consequence, it is assumed that the data gathered from the fieldwork
is an accurate representation of all tourists visiting Vava'u. This assumption is fundamental, for if
the sample collected during fieldwork is not representative or typical then the inferences made
from this sample are invalid.
Every effort was made to ensure that the sample was representative. Self-reply questionnaires
were administered to visitors waiting to board aircraft at Lupepau'u Airport. All air visitors exit
20
Vava'u via this airport. Additionally, self-reply questionnaires were also administered to tourists
at three waterfront restaurant/cafes (Ana's, The Mermaid and The Bounty Bar) that were popular
with tourists. Finally, approaches were made to yachts moored/anchored at four popular
anchorages close to Neiafu. In each situation every tourist available was asked to participate in
the study. A total of 51 questionnaires were completed by yacht based visitors and 85 by aircraft
vacationers resulting in a total sample of 136 questionnaires. Five tourists declined to participate
in the study, two were the result of language (they did not speak English) and three were refused
because of time constraints (tourists in a hurry and late for the plane). One respondent self-
selected and six questionnaires handed out to yacht based visitors were not returned. This
refusal/non-completion rate is small and not likely to affect the validity of the sample.
Specific data on the composition of the tourist population visiting Vava'u are not available and
therefore it is difficult to conduct tests regarding the validity of the sample. However,
information is available for Tonga as a whole. A comparison of the country of origin for
vacationers to Tonga and in the sample is provided in table 5. The distribution of the sample for
Vava'u approximates the distribution for Tonga as a whole and differences observed could be
explained by differences between Vava'u and other Tongan destinations. For example, it is likely
that Vava'u would attract smaller numbers of vacationers from Asian countries (included in the
"other" category) as this market is dominated by package tours that frequent the more developed
destinations surrounding Tongatapu, rather than the more remote and less developed Vava'u
area. The brief comparison shown in table 5 provides evidence that suggests the sample obtained
in Vava'u is representative of the population of vacationers that visit Vava'u.
Table 5: Country of Origin of Vacationers to Tonga and from the Sample
Airline
vacationers to
Tonga 1997
Airline
vacationers in
Vava'u sample
Yacht visitors
to Tonga 1998
Yacht visitors
in Vava'u
sample
Oceania 36% 42% 35% 38%
Americas * 23% 28% 24% 29%
Europe 31% 27% 23% 16%
Other 10% 3% 18% 17%
* Yacht based visitors only includes USA in "Americas" category, Canada etc included under "Other"
21
An additional issue relevant to an analysis of the sample is the composition relative to access
mode. Table 6 provides an overview of the proportion of vacationers who arrive in Vava'u via
aircraft and via yacht for the months of July through until October. The sample closely matches
this proportion and this provides further evidence that the sample provides a valid representation
of the population of vacationers visiting the area during the whale-watching season.
Table 6: Proportion of Vacationers to Vava'u arriving by Aircraft and Yacht
July - October
Vava'u
(1998 figures)
Sample
Via aircraft: 1534 = 60% Via aircraft: (n=51) = 62%
Via yacht: 1041 = 40% Via yacht: (n=85) = 38%
Total vacationers = 2,575 Total sample =136
(sample = 5.3% of population)
Two cruise ships visited Vava'u in 1998 with a total of 473 visitors. No cruise ships were visiting
Vava'u during the fieldwork for this study and therefore this group is not represented in the
sample. Despite this omission, it seems reasonable to accept the assumptions regarding the
representation of the sample. While the sample is relatively small and the study was conducted
over a short time frame, an analysis of the sample with the limited data available of tourists to
Vava'u shows that the sample is not dissimilar from the population targeted for this study.
Confidentiality and Ethical Issues
Because this study solicited financial information that could be of a sensitive commercial nature
to businesses and individuals it was important that anonymity and confidentiality was assured.
An introductory letter assuring respondents of these ethical policies was attached as a cover to
each questionnaire. In addition, a similar letter was handed to business interviewees and a letter
of consent was signed by each before the interview commenced.
As a result of these assurances given to respondents it is not possible to report individual's nor
specific businesses' information. Thus, aggregated results are all that are presented in this paper.
In addition, some of the specific data utilized to arrive at economic benefit calculations such as
22
business annual turnover, wages and spend in the community are not presented here. The
business community in Vava'u is small and, as a consequence, it is relatively easy to identify
data from individual businesses even if it is presented via categories. Therefore, only overall,
aggregated data is presented here to protect the confidentiality of the businesses interviewed.
Results and Discussion
Calculation of Economic Impacts (Note: All financial data are reported in Tongan dollars - equivalent to US 70c)
The model presented earlier in (figure 2) was used as the basis for calculating the economic
impacts of whale-watching in Vava'u. The self-reply questionnaire distributed to yacht based
visitors and air vacationers solicited information on respondents' expenditure on whale-watching
and on other aspects of the stay in Vava'u. These data were utilized to calculate an average
expenditure per person per day for whale-watching across variables such as the whale-watch
fare, the amount spent on food, film for cameras, specific whale related souvenirs associated
with the trip and "other" items such as sea-sickness medication and sun-screen. These data were
calculated separately for air vacationers and yacht based visitors and a summary is presented in
table 7. Calculations are based on a conservative estimate of 1,500 air vacationers to Vava'u
during the whale-watching season (July - October) 60% of whom (900) went commercial whale-
watching. In addition, four per cent of 800 yacht based visitors (32) are estimated to have
participated in a commercial whale-watch. A conservative estimate is also made regarding the
expenditure of those who went whale-watching from private and charter yachts, only expenditure
on specific whale related souvenirs and fuel (private yachts only) are included in the calculation.
The results of this calculation estimate that direct expenditure on whale-watching each season in
Vava'u totals around T$78,000, $51,740 of which is receipts from whale-watch fares. However,
it seems likely that respondents may have under-reported their expenditure on whale-watching.
This is common when tourists are asked to recall expenditure that may have occurred many days
earlier. Interviews with the five whale-watch operators provided estimates of expenditure on
whale-watch fares alone of a minimum of T$90,000 per season. Consequently, a range from
$78,000 (tourists own estimates) to $116,000 (operator's estimates) is adopted as a reasonable
23
estimate of the direct expenditure of yacht based visitors and air vacationers to Vava'u each
season.
Table 7: Direct Expenditure on Whale-watching by Visitors to Vava'u
(all figures in Tongan dollars and average per person unless otherwise specified)
Whale-watch
fare
Food Film Souvenirs Other
Commercial
whale-watching by
air vacationers $55 $7.20 $5 $7.40 $2.40
Sub-total
for season
60 per cent
of air vacationers =
0.6 x 1500 = 900
whale-watchers x
$55 per trip
= $49,500
900 whale-
watchers x 7.2
= $6,480
900 whale-
watchers x 5
= $4,500
900 whale-
watchers x 7.4
= $6,660
900 whale-
watchers x 2.4
= $2,160
Commercial
whale-watching by
yacht visitors $70 $8.40 $9 $12 0
Sub-total
for season
4 per cent of yacht
visitors = 0.04 x 800
= 32 whale-watchers
x $70 per trip
= $2,240
32 whale-
watchers x 8.4
= $268.80
32 whale-watchers
x 9
= $288
32 whale-watchers
x 12
= $384
0
Whale-watching
onboard private
yachts n/a 0
(included as part
of overall
provisions for
yacht)
0
(film bought
outside Vava'u)
$3 $10
(per trip on fuel)
Sub-total
for season
46 per cent of yacht
visitors = 0.46 x 800
= 368 whale-
watchers
0 0 368 whale-
watchers x $3
= $1,104
368 whale-
watchers x $10
= $3,680
Whale-watching
onboard charter
yachts n/a 0
(included as part
of overall
provisions for
yacht)
0
(film bought
outside Vava'u)
$3 0
(fuel included as
part of overall
charter cost)
Sub-total
for season
22 per cent of air
vacationers watch
whales from charter
yachts = 0.22 x 1500
= 330
0 0 330 whale-
watchers x $3
= $990
0
SEASON
TOTAL $51,740 $6,748.80 $4,788 $9,138 $5,840
TOTAL DIRECT EXPENDITURE ON WHALE-WATCHING PER SEASON:
$78,000 - $116,000
Assumptions: 50% of those who stated that they intended to go whale-watching actually do.
Those who stated they went whale-watching only went whale-watching once during their stay in Vava'u.
Notes: Results reported in this table are data taken from the visitor questionnaire.
The estimate provided above is a minimum figure. Respondents tended to underestimate their spend while in Vava'u. In addition,
whale-watch operators report greater numbers of clients spending a minimum of $90,000 on whale-watch fares per season. As a result
a range is reported for the total direct expenditure calculation
Final total rounded to nearest thousand.
24
A similar approach to that shown in table 7 was used to estimate the expenditure of tourists who
went whale-watching whilst in Vava'u (table 8). This calculation is not a representation of the
economic impact of whale-watching in Vava'u as much of this expenditure may have occurred
irrespective of the presence of whales and a whale-watching industry there. Nevertheless, it
provides an indication of the potential opportunity cost of a loss of all tourists in Vava'u who
went whale-watching. This loss could be substantial, totaling in excess of T$2.3 million.
Table 8: Other Expenditure by Visitors to Vava'u Who Went Whale-watching
(all figures in Tongan dollars and average per person per day unless otherwise specified)
Accommodation Food Transport Souvenirs Other
Air vacationers
$110.32 $35.55 $3.30 $2.30 $4.97
Per day
Sub-total
1,230 whale-
watchers x $110.32
= $135,693.60
1,230 whale-
watchers x 35.55
= $43,726.50
1,230 whale-
watchers x 3.3
= $4,059
1,230 whale-
watchers x 20.3
= $2,829
1,230 whale-
watchers x 4.97
= $6,113.10
Multiplied by
average stay in
Vava'u of 9.7
days
= Sub-total for
season
$1,316,227.90 $424,147.05 $39,372.30 $27,441.30 $59,297.07
Yacht Visitors $4.61 $23.50 $0.77 $1.16 $6.31
(mainly fuel and
boat parts)
Per day
Sub-total
400 whale-watchers
from yachts x $4.61
= $1,844
400 whale-watcher
from yachts x 23.5
= $9,400
400 whale-
watchers from
yachts x 0.77
= $308
400 whale-
watchers from
yachts x 1.16
= $464
40 whale-watchers
from yachts x 6.31
= $2,524
Multiplied by
average stay in
Vava'u of 33
days
= Sub-total for
season
$60,852 $310,200 $10,164 $15,312 $83,292
SEASON
TOTAL
$1,377,079.90 $734,347.05 $49,536.30 $42,753.30 $142,589.07
TOTAL INDIRECT EXPENDITURE IN VAVA'U BY VISITORS WHO GO WHALE-
WATCHING EACH SEASON: $2,346,306
Assumptions: 50% of those who stated that they intended to go whale-watching actually do.
Notes: Accommodation includes yacht charter costs.
"Other" includes costs of other attractions.
Food also includes beverages.
Final total rounded to nearest dollar.
25
Table 9 provides an important indication of the value of whale-watching in Vava'u. Calculations
are based on those "whale tourists" who specifically visit Vava'u to watch the whales. This
provides important information for estimating the value of whale-watching in Vava'u because it
is that expenditure which would be lost if whale-watching did not occur in the area. Those air
vacationers and yacht based visitors who indicated that whales were "extremely important" in
their choosing to visit Vava'u were deemed to represent this group of "hard core whale tourists".
The expenditure of these whale tourists while in Vava'u (table 9) together with the actual
expenditure on whale-watching (table 7) constitutes the category of "direct expenditure". This
figure is T$648,000 - T$686,000 per season and constitutes Step 1 of the calculation of the
economic impacts of whale-watching outlined in figure 2. It can be argued that the expenditure
of "whale tourists" on their travel to and from Vava'u (air-fares etc.) could also be included as
part of this calculation. However, it has been decided to exclude it as the great majority of this
money is spent outside Vava'u. It could also be argued that this figure is an underestimate of the
potential opportunity cost of whale-watching activities in Vava'u (the amount of revenue that
would be lost if whale-watching did not occur in the area). It is likely that a portion of other
tourists visiting Vava'u in addition to those who visited there specifically for the whales would
also be lost to the area without whale-watching as an attraction for Vava'u.
26
Table 9: Other Expenditure by Whale Tourists Visiting Vava'u
(all figures in Tongan dollars and average per person per day unless otherwise specified)
Accommodation Food Transport Souvenirs Other
Air vacationers
$110.32 $35.55 $3.30 $2.30 $4.97
Per day
Sub-total
22 % of air
vacationers visit
Vava'u specifically
for the whales = 0.22
x 1500 = 330 whale
tourists $110.32
= $36,405.60
330 whale tourists
x 35.55
= $11,731.50
330 whale
tourists x 3.3
= $1,089
330 whale tourists
x 2.3
= $759
330 whale tourists
x 4.97
= $1,640.10
Multiplied by
average stay in
Vava'u = 9.7
days
= Sub-total for
season
$353,134.32 $113,795.55 $10,563.30 $7,362.30 $15,908.97
Yacht Visitors $4.61 $23.50 $0.77 $7.16 $6.31
(mainly fuel and
boat parts)
Per day
Sub-total
8% of yacht visitors
go to Vava'u
primarily for the
whales = 0.08 x 600
= 48 whale visitors
on yachts x $4.61
= $221.28
48 whale yachties
x 23.5
= $1,128
48 whale yachties
x 0.77
= $36.96
48 whale yachties
x 7.16
= $343.68
48 whale yachties
x 6.31
= $302.88
Multiplied by
average stay in
Vava'u = x 33
= Sub-total for
season
$7,302.24 $37,224 $1,219.68 $11,341.44 $9,995.04
SEASON
TOTAL
$360,436.56 $151,019.55 $11,782.98 $18,703.74 $25,904.01
TOTAL INDIRECT EXPENDITURE IN VAVA'U BY WHALE TOURISTS PER
SEASON: $567,847
Assumptions: 22% of air vacationers visit Vava'u primarily to watch whales.
8% of yacht visitors visit Vava'u pimarliy to watch whales.
Notes: Final total rounded to nearest dollar.
Step 2 of the calculation of the economic value of whale-watching (figure 2) requires an
estimation of the expenditure of whale-watching businesses. Interviews were conducted with
each of the five permitted whale-watch operators in Vava'u and general estimates (specific
information was not requested for ethical reasons) were obtained. As a result of these interviews
27
an overall business expenditure estimate of T$56,160 was calculated. However, an important
issue with regard to economic impacts on a local community is the amount of this expenditure
that is made outside the area. This "economic leakage" was estimated by asking interviewees to
estimate the percentage of each expenditure item made in the local community. As a result, an
overall estimate of T$47,120 business spend in the local community was calculated (table 10).
Table 10: Expenditure in Vava'u by Whale-watch Businesses
(all figures in Tongan dollars and average per week unless otherwise specified)
Wages Fuel Boat
Maintenance
Supplies Other
Estimated
totals for all
permitted
whale-watch
operators
$2,800 $510 $100 $50 $50
% spent in
Vava'u
98% 10% 90% 90% 30%
Multiplied by
% spent in
Vava'u and by
16 week
whale-watch
season
= Sub-total for
season
$43,904 $816 $1440 $720 $240
TOTAL SEASONAL EXPENDITURE IN VAVA'U BY WHALE-WATCH OPERATORS = $47,120
Notes: Totals are rounded estimates to protect confidentiality of operators.
Estimates are on conservative side and take into account weather related cancellations.
"Supplies" category includes safety equipment, ice, administration equipment (paper, printer ink etc.).
100% of fuel is purchased locally - however, this fuel is imported so the net benefit is estimated at 10%.
"Other" category includes marketing costs, postage, mooring fees.
Step 3 in calculating the economic value of whale-watching is to estimate the expenditure
"induced" in the local community due to the wages paid to employees of whale-watch
businesses. This estimate was arrived at as a result of the whale-watch business interviews, an
overall estimate of the wage bill for each business and an estimate of proportion of the
expenditure of those wages in the local community totaled $43,904 per season (table 10). The
total of each of these estimates - the direct expenditure on whale-watching, the other expenditure
28
of "whale tourists", the local expenditure of whale-watch businesses and the local expenditure of
whale-watch business employees is the estimate of the "use value" of whale-watching in Vava'u
(table 11). Rounded to the nearest thousand this is T$739,000 - T$777,000 per season.
Table 11: Calculation of Economic Benefit of Whale-watching in Vava'u
(all figures in Tongan dollars per season)
Direct
Expenditure of
Visitors on
Whale-watching
Other
Expenditure of
Whale
Tourists
Whale-watch
Operators
Expenditure
in Vava'u
Whale-watch
Business
Employees
Expenditure in
Vava'u
TOTAL
Estimated
totals for all
permitted
whale-watch
operators
$78 - 116,000 $570,000 $47,000 $44,000
$739,000 -
$777,000
Notes: Totals are rounded to nearest thousand.
Whales are, therefore, worth around T$750,000 in revenue to the Vava'u community each year.
This economic impact is significant for a small economy. The annual foreign exchange earnings
of Vava'u from tourism were estimated to be T$2.5 million in 1997. While this figure is likely to
be an underestimate, it does place the economic value of whale-watching in Vava'u in context.
This calculation of the economic benefit of whale-watching in Vava'u only takes into account the
first (expenditure of whale tourists) and second round (expenditure of whale-watch businesses
and their employees) of spending of whale-watching related income. It does not incorporate the
spending of other businesses supported by whale tourists (for example, accommodation
providers, restaurants, transportation businesses and their employees), nor does it account for the
subsequent rounds of re-spending of whale-watch related income. Thus, the true multiplier effect
of whale tourists' expenditure is not calculated. Consequently, the calculation of whale-watch
revenue of T$750,000 is an underestimate of the total economic benefit of whale-watching to the
Vava'u community. The total economic benefit of whale-watching in Vava'u would exceed
T$1,000,000 each year.
29
Other Impacts
It is important to recognize that there are a number of other impacts which accrue to Vava'u and
to Tonga as a result of the presence of whales and the existence of a whale-watching industry
there. While these have not been included in the above calculation of economic impacts there is
no doubt that these other impacts do have economic as well as other less tangible impacts for the
area.
Vava'u is becoming a favorite location for professional wildlife photographers, particularly those
specializing in whale photography. These people not only contribute to the local economy
through the hire of boats, payment for accommodation, food and supplies but also they provide
significant exposure for Vava'u as a tourism destination. Similarly, television and film crews
frequent Vava'u, also attracted by the spectacular scenery, the clear water and the ability to
capture spectacular images of humpback whales and their calves. Film crews from Television
New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), National Geographic (USA), The Discovery Channel (USA),
the British Broadcasting Corporation, Japanese and French crews and others have visited Vava'u
in the past three years. Magazine articles on the Vava'u humpback whales have also appeared
recently. New Zealand Geographic, New Zealand Dive Log, Pacific Wave (Air New Zealand
inflight magazine) and Lulu'tai (Royal Tongan Airlines inflight magazine) have all contained
feature articles in the past three years.
Advertising in the international community for a small nation such as Tonga is a challenge. It is
extremely expensive and difficult to access potential markets for tourism to Tonga. The work of
these photographers, the television documentaries and magazine articles provide significant and
free exposure for Vava'u and its attractions in a variety of important markets. It is the whales that
are the attraction for this publicity and, therefore, they have significant economic value for
Vava'u. For example, the 29 page article in New Zealand Geographic (No. 30, 1996) provided
free exposure for Vava'u and Tonga. Purchasing the equivalent space for advertising in this
publication would cost T$150,000.
A further issue that should be considered is the contribution that the protection of whales in
Tongan waters provides for the international image of Tonga. Tonga utilizes its image as a
30
religious, peaceful, friendly Kingdom as means of promoting itself internationally. Tongans
themselves draw much of their self-image and sense of pride in their country and their culture
from these characteristics. It is also an image attractive to the dominant tourism markets for
Tonga - Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe and North America. Protection of whales and
an enlightened approach to the promotion and management of a whale-watching industry is an
important contribution to this international image of Tonga.
Attitudes Toward Whaling
A series of attitudinal statements regarding whaling were presented to respondents in the
questionnaire and their level of agreement/disagreement solicited. The results are heavily skewed
indicating a high level of consistency across respondents. Both yacht based visitors (83%) and
aircraft vacationers (95%) are opposed or strongly opposed to the commercial hunting of whales.
Respondents were also asked to consider whether the hunting of whales in Vava'u would
influence their willingness to visit Vava'u. This also revealed a strong level of consistency across
respondents with 65% of yacht based visitors and 73% of aircraft borne vacationers agreeing that
they would be less likely to visit Vava'u if whales were hunted there.
These attitudinal tests show, not surprisingly, that the great majority of visitors to Vava'u are
opposed to any consumptive use of whales. This is important, because it reveals that any change
in the protected status of whales and resumption of whaling practices, even on a small scale,
might displace a large proportion of the current visitors to Vava'u. Thus, there is an opportunity
cost with regard to use of the whales in Vava'u. It appears unlikely that a whale watching
industry could co-exist with any lethal use of whales in Vava'u.
Conclusions
Tourism is an important industry for the Kingdom of Tonga. It has been clearly identified by the
Tongan government, and by previous research, that tourism has significant potential in
contributing to an improved future for the Tongan people. It is obvious that whale-watching is
already an important industry for Vava'u. However, in the context of the global growth of the
industry, Vava'u appears to be in its "infancy" as a whale-watching destination. It could
31
experience significant growth over the coming decade. The demand for high quality natural
experiences, particularly those based on large "charismatic" animals like whales appear to be
limitless (Shackley, 1996). Vava'u is well placed to cater to this demand. It is a location blessed
by a tropical climate, it has clear, clean water, it already has an established market in areas where
"ecotourism" experiences are popular (North America, Western Europe, Australia and New
Zealand) and it is fortunate to host one of the whale species most popular for tourism. The
competitive advantage that the humpback whales give Vava'u is significant. Tonga's main
competitors for tourism are other South Pacific islands, such as Fiji, Samoa, Rarotonga and
Norfolk. Each of these alternates possess similar qualities to Tonga - warm climates, high quality
marine environments and friendly Polynesian cultures - what Tonga has, which they do not, are
humpback whales easily accessible for tourism. This is a major attraction for visitors to Vava'u
and to Tonga. This competitive advantage is well recognized and utilized in promotional
campaigns for Tonga - over 80 % of all written publicity material on Tonga mentions whales.
Studies conducted on the tourism industry in Tonga refer to the importance of whales as a
tourism attraction for the area. For example, the Kingdom of Tonga Tourism Sector Review
completed in 1995 by the Tourism Council of the South Pacific identifies whale-watching as an
area with significant potential for Tonga. So while this study estimates that whale-watching in
Vava'u is currently worth around T$1 million each year, it has the potential to be worth
significantly more. Other small and remote locations have whale-watching industries estimated
to be worth many millions annually (Hoyt, 2000). The economic contribution of the whale-
watching industry to Vava'u and to Tonga could become even more important in the future.
It is important to recognize that while the demand for whale-watching opportunities is high
internationally, that demand does not automatically translate into ever increasing numbers of
whale tourists to Vava'u. Tourism development is constrained by many other factors, particularly
in remote locations such as Vava'u. Transportation, accommodation and other elements of the
tourism infrastructure in an area have a great influence on tourism numbers. Many tourism
business operators in Vava'u consider these aspects to be the most important issues with regard
to the future of tourism in the area. In particular, difficulties with convenient and reliable airline
connections was mentioned a number of times.
32
Experiences at other remote tourism destinations have shown that tourism destination choice is
very fickle. Changes beyond the control of the tourism industry can have a major detrimental
impact on tourism arrival numbers. For example, the political unrest in Fiji as a result of the
military coup in 1987 devastated the tourism industry in the area virtually overnight (Waters,
1990). Tourists who travel large distances for holidays have a wide variety of alternate
destinations and, as a result, they change their choice of holiday destination very quickly if there
is any perceived risk or problem in the area - or even in neighboring areas. This is an important
point, because it indicates that what happens elsewhere in Tonga, and indeed in other South
Pacific Islands, will influence tourism arrivals in Vava'u.
Many respondents, both visitors and business operators, felt that the way in which the whale-
watching is managed in Vava'u in the future will be important. These views are backed up by
experiences elsewhere. A major challenge for the future of whale-watching in Vava'u is to
minimize the negative consequences of tourism development and the difficulties in hosting large
numbers of tourists. Other locations have experienced conflict between operators, resentment in
the local community of increasingly large numbers of visitors, inflationary pressure in the local
economy and a loss of local control over local resources. These problems seem unlikely to occur
in the short term in Vava'u as a result of the isolation of the destination and the Tongan policies
of no foreign ownership of land and rules regarding Tongan involvement in tourism businesses.
However, it is important that the Vava'u community and the Tongan government remain aware
of the potential negative impacts of tourism development and that planning for future tourism
development considers the potential costs and well as the potential impacts.
A further issue in managing the future of whale-watching in Vava'u is the active promotion of
whale conservation and careful "use" of the whales. Forestell and Kaufman (1990, 401), for
example, observe that controversy has resulted from the rapid growth of whale-watching in
Hawaiian waters. They state that:
Concern has grown in every quarter that the cumulative
effect of this activity may threaten the recovery and survival
of this endangered species.
33
The humpbacks that visit Vava'u are an endangered remnant population that visit the area for
mating, birthing and raising young calves. As a result, the potential for harassment of these
whales is high. This is complicated by the promoted practice of swimming with the whales in
Vava'u. This opportunity is one which is highly valued by whale tourists to the area, however,
there is widespread agreement in the scientific community that the potential for harassment of
the whales, particularly mother and calf pairs, is high. This issue of sensitivity to potential
negative impacts is important because whale-watchers themselves consider it important. If
Vava'u were to develop a reputation as a destination where unethical whale-watching practices
were commonplace, this would likely have a detrimental impact on the tourism industry there.
Furthermore, the presence of increasing numbers of humpback whales, that are relaxed and
healthy in Vava'u waters, is pre-requisite for the future of the industry there. It is, therefore,
imperative that the careful approach currently being promoted in Vava'u (there is a code of
practice for whale-watching operators) is further developed and adhered to by all involved in the
industry.
Research elsewhere has shown that the kinds of tourists attracted to whale-watching are not only
motivated to view the whales but are also extremely interested in learning about whales and the
marine environment (Tilt, 1987; Forestell and Kaufman, 1990; Pearce and Wilson, 1995; Neil et
al, 1995; Orams, 2000). There is strong evidence that well structured education programmes add
significant value to whale-watching experiences
Consumers are attracted to those experiences which offer biological,
cultural, and conservation interpretation components. Consumers
generally seek to participate in more interactive experiences, and the
addition of a hydrophone (underwater microphone) to the onboard
equipment is often regarded with great interest. Sound systems, video
displays, educational resource materials are all of use to the consumer.
(International Fund for Animal Welfare, 1998)
34
It has also been pointed out that the selling of whale and marine "souvenirs" - photographs,
artwork, clothing, video and audio tapes and other such products can also "add value" to the
whale-watching product (International Fund for Animal Welfare, 1998).
The lessons from other whale-watching locations around the world are valuable for Vava'u. The
findings of this study are consistent with those other locations. Whale-watchers are typically well
educated, are from upper socio-economic groups and are strongly conservation minded (Tilt,
1987; Forestell, 1990; Forestell and Kaufman, 1990; Pearce and Wilon, 1995; Neil et al, 1995,
Orams, 2000). These tourists spend more on their holidays than most and are sensitive to
environmental and ethical issues. This study has shown that whale-watchers in Vava'u are
similarly inclined. This has important implications for Vava'u as a tourism destination. The great
majority of current vacationers to Vava'u are attracted by the pristine marine environment, the
relatively undeveloped nature of the area and the genuine natural experiences they can have
there. Experiencing whales is an important component of those experiences for many. It is,
therefore, important to recognize the environmentally sensitive paradigm of these visitors
because it indicates that any change in the protective status of whales and resumption of whaling
practices, even on a small scale, would likely displace a large proportion of the current visitors to
Vava'u. Thus, there is a likely "opportunity cost" with regard to any lethal use of the whales in
Vava'u. It appears unlikely that a whale-watching industry could co-exist with a lethal use of
whales in Tonga.
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... Interestingly, there are only positive words in the top 25 most frequently used words: good; great; friendly; beautiful and pretty all featured and no negative words were recorded. Church and Sunday were both frequently mentioned reflecting the widespread practice of the Christian faith observed on this day, with the result being that most tourism activities shut down on Sunday (Orams, 2002). Linkages formed between community and tourism via websites was poor, as evidenced by the very low frequency of words such as crafts, kava and culture. ...
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... New whales, though, prefer the boats to keep further away. Whale Watch skippers recognise individual whales and adjust operations to suit each whale (N.D., as cited in Spiller & Bhowmick, 2014, p. 148) The value of each whale was quantified by Orams (2002), estimating that one humpback whale, returning every year to breed in Tongan waters, would generate US$1 million in tourism revenue during its 50-year lifetime. ...
Technical Report
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... Initially, whale-watching development succeeded in promoting whales as icons for the international environmental movement and represented a viable alternative way of making a living for populations of whaling destinations (Lawrence & Phillips, 2004;Orams, 2002;Orams & Forestell, 1995). However, from this (socioeconomic) perspective, extensive debate regarding the sustainability of the activity has been prompted in the literature, sparking various currents of knowledge, as the following presents. ...
Article
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There is scientific consensus that human activity through whale-watching is causing an increasing amount of damage to the natural environment, which poses critical challenges to the goal of sustainability. Based on a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the scientific literature, this study calls for urgent rethinking in regards to whale-watching sustainability. A new, integrative framework for research actions built upon the concept of regenerative tourism is provided so as to lead to a more balanced evaluation of environmentally and socially responsible whale-watching tourism. The assessment of the literature review leads to three main research areas that have driven the research field in whale-watching tourism: the ecological responses of cetaceans due to human disturbance, the determinants of whale-watching tourism demand, and the impact of tourism on sustainability from macro-cultural and political perspectives. The new integrative framework, which additionally considers innovation and external drivers as prominent research areas, proposes future guidelines for studying the interplay between some of the more specific research topics: social change, economic drivers, gender perspective, co-creation, social responsibility, technology, climate change and long-term cumulative effects, among other issues of concern.
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Thesis
Le whale whatching, est une activité écotouristique qui consiste à observer des baleines dans leur milieu naturel. Aujourd’hui, le tourisme baleinier est pratiqué dans 119 pays et représente une véritable industrie, générant plus de deux milliards de dollars US dans le monde. À La Réunion, l’augmentation du nombre de baleines à bosse (Megaptera novaeangliae) observées a permis l’implantation de ce tourisme il y a une quinzaine d’année. Les îles situées dans la zone bénéficient d’une importante opportunité économique en développant ce secteur. Dans ce présent travail, nous cherchons à déterminer la structure du tourisme baleinier à La Réunion ainsi que l’opinion des touristes et des Réunionnais concernant cette activité. Pour ce faire, nous avons retracé d’abord l’évolution historique des relations Humains-Baleines et la représentation vis-à-vis des baleines à l’échelle internationale. Ensuite, nous avons étudié la croissance et les caractéristiques de ce secteur à Madagascar et l’île Maurice dans le but de comparer ces résultats avec ceux de La Réunion. Afin d’identifier le profil général des participants du whale watching à La Réunion, une enquête quantitative sous forme de questionnaires a été effectuée auprès de différents opérateurs. En essayant de comprendre plus profondément l’opinion des pratiquants et des non-pratiquants de cette activité, nous avons mené des entretiens semi-directifs. Sur l’île Sainte-Marie (Madagascar), où le Festival des Baleine est dédié à cet animal, à la culture locale et au whale watching, nous avons conduit une série d’entretiens semi-directifs avec les touristes. Nous avons tenté d’identifier leurs représentations du tourisme des cétacés. Par ce travail, nous apportons des premiers éléments de réponses sur le type de participants et leur perception du whale watching dans le sud-ouest de l’océan Indien.
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While the clash between whaling and anti‐whaling interests in international fora, especially the International Whaling Commission (IWC), has escalated over the last two decades, very little attention, if any, has been paid to the active participation of developing country representatives and agencies (both governmental and non‐governmental) in the issues surrounding whale conservation, research and sustainable use. The failure to recognize the interests of developing nations in non‐lethal use of whales, as well as their marginalization in the IWC decision‐making process, has contravened their sovereign rights and thwarted efforts to develop a solid consensus on many critical issues.
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Many marine mammals communicate by emitting sounds that pass through water. Such sounds can be received across great distances and can influence the behavior of these undersea creatures. In the past few decades, the oceans have become increasingly noisy, as underwater sounds from propellers, sonars, and other human activities make it difficult for marine mammals to communicate. This book discusses, among many other topics, just how well marine mammals hear, how noisy the oceans have become, and what effects these new sounds have on marine mammals. The baseline of ambient noise, the sounds produced by machines and mammals, the sensitivity of marine mammal hearing, and the reactions of marine mammals are also examined. An essential addition to any marine biologists library, Marine Mammals and Noise will be especially appealing to marine mammalogists, researchers, policy makers and regulators, and marine biologists and oceanographers using sound in their research.
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This article profiles wildlife-viewing tourists in New Zealand, establishing how their characteristics differ from other international visitors to that country and examining a range of behavioral and attitudinal factors. Results indicate that these tourists have above average total expenditure and lengths of stay and spread the expenditure more widely through New Zealand. The evidence also suggests that for most people engaging in wildlife-viewing tourism in New Zealand this activity is only one activity among many.