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P300 Scalp Distribution as an Index of Deception: Control for Task Demand

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... On the other hand, psychophysiologists know much less about how to influence the scalp distribution of P300, and so we have extensively studied P300 scalp distribution across actual electrode sites as a dependent variable possibly capable of indexing deception (Miller & Rosenfeld, 2004;Miller, Rosenfeld, Soskins, & Jhee, 2002;Rosenfeld et al., 1998Rosenfeld et al., , 1999Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, & Miller, 2002, 2003. However, these successful studies were based largely on group data, and unfortunately, on the two previous occasions in which we examined individual detection accuracy based on standard techniques of ERP scalp distribution analysis, results were modest, with hit rates never higher than 73% (Lui & Rosenfeld, in press;Rosenfeld, 2002b). ...
... The spatial temporal components were first analyzed by multivariate repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) on group data. In group data analysis, interaction effects were assessed to see whether there was a scalp distribution difference among different stimuli (see Rosenfeld et al., 2002). ...
... One of the major reasons for performing this study was the possibility of using the ERP scalp distribution as a countermeasure-resistant, dependent index of deception. As noted above, this index has worked satisfactorily in revealing group effects (Miller & Rosenfeld, 2004;Miller et al., 2002;Rosenfeld et al., 1998Rosenfeld et al., , 1999Rosenfeld et al., , 2002Rosenfeld et al., , 2003. In previous studies with 30-32 scalp electrodes and without ST-PCA, only 73% detection of individuals obtained, and the present study, with ST-PCA, did no better with two spatial components extracted. ...
Article
Three groups, two-probe (2PG), three-probe (3PG), and control (CG), performed a mock crime. 2PG and 3PG stole two and three items, respectively, after a baseline "truth block"; the CG stole nothing. Subjects all completed a second "lie block" after the mock crime. There were four stimuli in truth and lie blocks: truth probe (TP), truth irrelevant (TI), lie probe (LP), and lie irrelevant (LI). Stolen items were probes; other items were irrelevants. Spatial-temporal PCA was applied. For the 2PG, subjects' frontal-central component amplitudes in the 520-644-ms temporal component were significantly more positive for LP than for LI stimulus. Individually, 12 of 14 subjects (far better detection than results [72% hits] with non-PCA analyses methods) in the 2PG were detected, with a false positive rate of 4 of 14 in the CG. No difference between LP and LI was found in 3PG data. In summary, spatial-temporal PCA improves detection of concealed information.
... Most recently, we have been able in two studies to obtain response-specific profiles during 50% lie blocks (Miller, 1999b, Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, & Miller, 2002. In the first of these studies (Miller, 1999b), a novel feature was the addition of four different recording sites on the scalp to add to the three midline sites (Fz, Cz, Pz) we used previously in all studies. ...
... We believe it was important for us to have shown that it was ultimately possible to observe different profiles for honest and dishonest trials within one trial block for both theoretical and practical reasons: theoretically, this demonstration even more strongly supports the notion that the profile measure may be a direct index of deception. (This is discussed fully in Rosenfeld et al., 2002.) The good theoretical point turns out to have an important practical implication: if there is a direct index of deception, one need not infer deception from the inconsistency of P300 amplitude and behavioral response as one does in the paradigm in which P300 amplitude at one site is used as indirect recognition index and thus deception indicator (e.g., . ...
Article
Three studies were performed. The first two dealt with countermeasures to brain wave-based detection of deception in concealed information test protocols. There are two kinds of such protocols extant. One, the "6-probe" protocol utilizes multiple different crime details whose brain responses are averaged together. This protocol was easily defeated in the first study, as the detection rates dropped from 82% detection in the simple guilty group to 18% in the guilty group using a countermeasure. Although the average reaction time distinguished these two groups, there was enough overlap in their reaction time distributions such that in any individual case, one could not use reaction time to infer deception. The second protocol, the "1-probe" protocol uses one crime detail as a probe in each of as many runs as one wishes. One group was run in three successive seeks as 1) a guilty group, 2) a countermeasure group, and 3) finally without the explicit use of the countermeasure. In the first week, 92% of the subjects were detected. The countermeasure dropped this rate to 50%. In the final third week, without explicit use of countermeasure, only 58% were detected. There was no overlap in the reaction time distributions of the first two weeks, suggesting that the explicit countermeasure use could be detected with reaction time. In the third week, the reaction time distributions looked like those of the first week, so that test beaters would not be detected with reaction time. Other matters examined were 1) a comparison of individual brain wave analysis methods; 2) a comparison of naive versus sophisticated subjects, and 3) a comparison in terms of workload between the 1-probe and the 6-probe protocols.
... For Bguilty^participants, however, it is a more difficult task because they know both the targets and the crimerelated probes, and have to discriminate within the set of known stimuli to make the correct categorization. This Boddball^variant is often used in reaction time-based CITs (e.g., Seymour & Kerlin, 2008;Seymour, Seifert, Shafto, & Mosmann, 2000;Verschuere, Crombez, Degrootte, & Rosseel, 2010) and P300-based CITs (i.e., CITs that focus on a specific ERP component that is evoked by meaningful or rarely presented items about 300 ms after stimulus onset, e.g., Farwell & Donchin, 1991;Rosenfeld et al., 1988;Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, & Miller, 2002) and has unveiled different patterns between probes and irrelevants. ...
Article
In three experiments, we investigated an early memory effect in eye fixations, namely increased durations of the second fixations to known relative to unfamiliar stimuli. This effect occurs even if knowledge of the stimulus is deliberately concealed. In Experiment 1, we found the early memory effect using object materials and a gaze-contingent stimulus presentation that controlled for parafoveal stimulus processing. In Experiment 2a, we looked for the effect under conditions commonly used in the concealed information test (CIT). To this end, participants encoded the “to-be-concealed” knowledge incidentally while doing a mock crime task, which was followed by a CIT. Beyond the control of parafoveal stimulus processing in Experiment 1, this procedure allowed to minimize influences of carry-over processes associated with the preceding stimulus. Experiment 2b replicated Experiment 2a but applied a one-week retention interval between the encoding of the to-be-concealed knowledge and the CIT. We observed an early memory effect in all experiments, suggesting that the effect is robust, irrespective of the paradigm, stimulus materials, and retention interval used.
... In other words: Results that were obtained in the context of the GKT literature can have direct practical implications (Matsuda, Nittono, & Allen, 2012), but they do not directly inform our theoretical understanding of dishonest behaviour. This is specifically true for early P300-based studies on lie detection with the GKT because these paradigms exploit recognition of meaningful items rather than studying active lying (e.g., Allen et al., 1992;Farwell & Donchin, 1991;Rosenfeld et al., 1988;Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, & Miller, 2002). Still, active lying might have a different electrophysiological signature than truthful responses and the current study investigates this signature in the absence of rare and personally significant information. ...
Article
Even though electroencephalography has played a prominent role for lie detection via personally relevant information, the electrophysiological signature of active lying is still elusive. We addressed this signature with two experiments in which participants helped a virtual police officer to locate a knife. Crucially, before this response, they announced whether they would lie or tell the truth about the knife's location. This design allowed us to study the signature of lie-telling in the absence of rare and personally significant oddball stimuli that are typically used for lie detection via electrophysiological markers, especially the P300 component. Our results indicate that active lying attenuated P300 amplitudes as well as N200 amplitudes for such non-oddball stimuli. These results support accounts that stress the high cognitive demand of lie-telling, including the need to suppress the truthful response and to generate a lie.
... Main effects of amplitude and site were expected in 2-Probe group, since probe amplitudes in the Lie block should have exceeded those in the Truth block inasmuch as only in the Lie blocks for 2-Probe group were the probes relatively rare and meaningful. We also anticipated a Condition by Site interaction in comparing scalp distributions on the expectation that lie distributions should look different than truth distributions (See Rosenfeld, Reinhart, Bhatt, Ellwanger, Gora, Sekera, & Sweet, 1998;Rosenfeld, Ellwanger, Nolan, Wu, Bermann, & Sweet, 1999;Miller, Rosenfeld, Soskins, & Jhee, 2002;Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, and Miller, 2002;Rosenfeld, Rao, Soskins, & Miller 2003;Miller & Rosenfeld, 2004). We expected site effects in 3-Probe group, but could not honestly anticipate other effects. ...
Article
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Previous tests of P300 in deception detection have focused mainly on amplitude analysis. Since countermeasures for such tests have been reported, we looked here at other possible variables as deception indices: P300 scalp distribution and amplitude variance, both across 30 sites. We were also concerned, for the first time, in testing for recognition of more than one guilty item in a mock crime scenario. There were three groups: (1) two-probe group, two of six items were guilty knowledge (GK) items; (2) three-probe group, three of six items were GK items; (3) control group, zero of six items were GK items. In group analyses, in the two-probe group, P300s for lies were significantly greater than P300s for truthful responses. There were significant interactions of condition (Lie vs Truth) by site, suggesting different scalp profiles for deceptive versus truthful responding. Amplitude variance across sites was also greater in Lie than in Truth blocks. These results did not obtain in the three-probe and control groups. In terms of amplitude variances in probe conditions across groups, two-probe group was larger than three-probe and control groups. Regarding individual diagnostics, the variance method yielded a greater-than-chance detection rate of 71% versus 28% false positives. Regarding amplitude at multiple nonfrontal sites, 71% of guilty subjects were detected versus 14% false positives. Grier's (1971) A' indices of various test discrimination efficiencies varied from .76 to .87. Results of the present study suggested further investigation of the variance method as a diagnostic tool for lie detection.
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Truth-telling (Truth) and simulated malingering (Malinger) groups were tested in a matching-to-sample procedure in which each sample three-digit number was followed by a series of nine test numbers, only one of which matched the sample. P300 was recorded during test-number presentation. Group analyses revealed differences between the P300s of the groups in unscaled amplitude, but not latency, in response to match and mismatch stimuli. P300 amplitudes at Fz, Cz, and Pz were scaled to remove possible confounding effects of amplitude in tests of the interactions of site with other variables. Significant interactions of both stimulus-type (match vs. mismatch) and group (Truth vs. Malinger) with site were obtained. Within the Malinger group, a significant interaction was obtained (scaled data) between site and response type (honest vs. dishonest). These interactions suggest that deceptive and honest responding are associated with different neurogenerator sets or different sets of P300-overlapping components. In within-individual analyses, 100% of the Truth participants and 87% of the Malinger participants were found to have larger P300 responses at Pz to match stimuli than to mismatch stimuli on the basis of intra-individual bootstrap tests. This represents an improvement in comparison with our related, previous report on a matching-to-sample test using only one test stimulus per sample.
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To investigate whether the P300 (P3) event-related potential (ERP) can be used as an index of the intactness of recognition memory in subjects trying to simulate amnesia, two groups of subjects (n = 12 and n = 15) were instructed to simulate amnesia and one group of control subjects (n = 14) did not simulate amnesia while taking three recognition tests, during which ERPs were recorded. The three tests consisted of three different types of memory items: 1.(1) the subject's birthday (birth)2.(2) the experimenter's name (name)3.(3) a word list of 14 nouns (words). The memory item was presented in a random series with other, similar in type, non-memory items. In group tests, memory items evoked larger amplitude P3s than non-memory items (p < 0.001). Within-subjects tests were used to determine whether the P3 amplitude in response to memory items was larger than the P3 amplitude in response to non-memory items for each individual. There was no difference between the sensitivity of the best within-subjects tests for amnesia simulators (birth = 0.9, name = 0.85, words = 0.53) versus non-simulators (birth = 1.0, name = 0.81, words = 0.5) averaged across the three test types. This suggests that P3 used as an index of the intactness of recognition memory may be useful in cases of suspected malingering.
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Analysis of variance (ANOVA) interactions involving electrode location are often used to assess the statistical significance of differences between event-related potential (ERP) scalp distributions for different experimental conditions, subject groups, or ERP components. However, there is a fundamental incompatibility between the additive model upon which ANOVAs are based and the multiplicative effect on ERP voltages produced by differences in source strength. Using potential distributions generated by dipole sources in spherical volume conductor models, we demonstrate that highly significant interactions involving electrode location can be obtained between scalp distributions with identical shapes generated by the same source. Therefore, such interactions cannot be used as unambiguous indications of shape differences between distributions and hence of differences in source configuration. This ambiguity can be circumvented by scaling the data to eliminate overall amplitude differences between experimental conditions before an ANOVA is performed. Such analyses retain sensitivity to genuine differences in distributional shape, but do not confuse amplitude and shape differences.
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Subjects chose and pretended to steal one object from a box of nine. They then watched a visual display of verbal representations of objects including their chosen object or one of eight novel objects on each trial. They were told to count one of the novel objects and that although they were welcome to try to beat our test, they would be unable to avoid noticing the chosen object. P3 responses were obtained only to counted and to chosen objects in 7 of 10 subjects not eliminated for artifact or noncooperation.
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Previous research has indicated that components of the event-related potential (ERP) may be used to quantify the resource requirements of complex cognitive tasks. The present study was designed to explore the degree to which these results could be generalized to complex, real-world tasks. The study also examined the relations among performance-based, subjective, and psychophysiological measures of operator workload. Seven male volunteers, enrolled in an instrument flight rule (IFR) aviation course at the University of Illinois, participated in the study. The student pilots flew a series of IFR flight missions in a single-engine, fixed-based simulator. In dual-task conditions subjects were also required to discriminate between two tones differing in frequency and to make an occasional overt response. ERPs time-locked to the tones, subjective effort ratings, and overt performance measures were collected during two separate 45-min flights differing in difficulty. The difficult flight was associated with high subjective effort ratings, as well as increased deviations from the command altitude, heading, and glideslope. The P300 component of the ERP discriminated among levels of task difficulty, decreasing in amplitude with increased task demands. Within-flight demands were examined by dividing each flight into four segments: takeoff, straight and level flight, holding patterns, and landings. The amplitude of the P300 was negatively correlated with deviations from command headings across the flight segments. In sum, the findings provide preliminary evidence for the assertion that ERP components can be employed as metrics of resource allocation in complex, real-world environments.
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Two experiments using a P300-enhanced Forced Choice Procedure (P3FCP) investigated simulated amnesia in a matching-to-sample task. In Experiment 1, successful manipulation of subjects towards different behavioral hit rates (75-80% vs. 85-90%) did not adversely affect the diagnostic sensitivity of match-mismatch Pz-P300 amplitude analyses, allowing detection of 69% of simulators. P300 amplitudes of simulators (Malinger group) were as large as those of truth-tellers (truth group, a control), indicating no dual task-related (Malingering) reduction across different behavioral hit rates. Experiment 2 found no main effect of oddball type, match vs. mismatch, on P300 (P3) amplitude with a mismatch-rare variant of the P3FCP. This study also revealed larger Pz-P3s in the Malingering (vs. Truth-telling) condition. Subsequent topographic analyses suggested different Truth and Malinger scaled P3 amplitude topographies in both these sets of P3FCP data and in those from a previous autobiographical memory paradigm. Further analysis yielded preliminary evidence for a common deception-related P3 amplitude topography across different paradigms/conditions.
Cognitive Psycholphysiology in Detection of Malingered cognitive deficit. Forensic Neuropsychology: Fundamentals and Practice
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Rosenfeld, J.P. & Ellwanger, J.W. (in press). Cognitive Psycholphysiology in Detection of Malingered cognitive deficit. Forensic Neuropsychology: Fundamentals and Practice, J.J. Sweet (Ed.), Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Applications of brain event-related potentials to problems in engineering psychology
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Donchin, E., Kramer, A., & Wickens, C. 1986). Applications of brain event-related potentials to problems in engineering psychology. In M. Coles, S. Porges and E. Donchin (Eds.), Psychophysiology: systems, processes and applications. New York: Guilford.