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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone

Authors:
  • Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entreprenurial Development

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SUMMARY This paper reviews different climate induced sea-level rise adaptation policy options and assesses how these policy options can be integrated into planning policies in the coastal zone to increase adaptive capacity. In order to identify a holistic and efficient way of integrating sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies, relevant and related literature on both sea- level rise adaptation policies and planning policy in the coastal zone were reviewed and gaps in the adaptation planning policies identified. A framework for the integration of climate induced sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies in the coastal zones was developed based on qualitative appraisal of coastal adaptation policy options for different coastal conditions, potential risk to natural and human resources and the possible impacts of each policy option on coastal settlements and resources in the face of climate change and associated sea-level rise. The paper concludes that due to recent climate related devastations in the coastal zones, such as 2007 flooding in the UK, Ghana and Bangladesh and 2006's hurricane Katrina in USA, a range of adaptive management and planning policies that could potentially offset some of the worst climate related problems need to be identified and implemented. However, for such policies to be effective, they need to be matched carefully to local economic and environmental conditions as well as the coastal characteristics. They also need to be planned in advance and implemented within an organised framework that includes elements of monitoring, maintenance, local community involvement and capacity building.
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TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
1/22
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal
Zone
Isaac BOATENG, United Kingdom
Keywords: Climate Change, Sea-Level Rise Adaptation, Coastal Zone Management and
Planning Policy
SUMMARY
This paper reviews different climate induced sea-level rise adaptation policy options and
assesses how these policy options can be integrated into planning policies in the coastal zone
to increase adaptive capacity. In order to identify a holistic and efficient way of integrating
sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies, relevant and related literature on both sea-
level rise adaptation policies and planning policy in the coastal zone were reviewed and gaps
in the adaptation planning policies identified. A framework for the integration of climate
induced sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies in the coastal zones was developed
based on qualitative appraisal of coastal adaptation policy options for different coastal
conditions, potential risk to natural and human resources and the possible impacts of each
policy option on coastal settlements and resources in the face of climate change and
associated sea-level rise. The paper concludes that due to recent climate related devastations
in the coastal zones, such as 2007 flooding in the UK, Ghana and Bangladesh and 2006’s
hurricane Katrina in USA, a range of adaptive management and planning policies that could
potentially offset some of the worst climate related problems need to be identified and
implemented. However, for such policies to be effective, they need to be matched carefully to
local economic and environmental conditions as well as the coastal characteristics. They also
need to be planned in advance and implemented within an organised framework that includes
elements of monitoring, maintenance, local community involvement and capacity building.
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
2/22
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal
Zone
Isaac BOATENG, United Kingdom
1. INTRODUCTION
There is increased scientific understanding and a very high confidence of the dangers and
impacts of climate change on natural ecosystem, managed and human systems and the
capacity of these systems to adapt to their vulnerability. The biggest danger, many experts
warn, is that climate change will cause sea levels to rise increasingly rapidly. The Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report, published in
2007, has the following projections: temperature is likely to rise between 1.1oC and 6.4oC by
2099 and sea level likely to rise between 0.18m – 0.59m by 2099. Arctic summer sea ice may
disappear by the second half of the century; increase in heatwaves is very likely and increase
in tropical storm intensity likely, the latter being likely to cause severe problems for tropical
developing countries. Walsh et al (2004) indicated that although scientific evidence for future
sea-level rise seems convincing, the available estimates of future sea-level rise are not
sufficient for planning purposes because of high uncertainties. However, the IPCC, (2007)
report concluded that there is a greater certainty (at least 90% certain) that human emissions
of greenhouse gases rather than natural variations are warming the planet's surface and most
likely to cause sea level to rise.
Nicholls, et al (2007) acknowledged that since the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), our
understanding of the implications of the climate change for coastal systems and low-lying
areas has increased substantially and the level of uncertainty has reduced considerably. Six
highly confident coastal planning policy-related facts that emerged from the IPCC 2007 report
are:
Coasts are experiencing the adverse consequences of hazards related to climate and
sea-level rise.
Coasts will be exposed to increasing risks, including coastal erosion, over coming
decades due to climate and sea-level rise.
The impact of climate change on coasts is exacerbated by increasing human-induced
pressures.
Adaptation for the coasts of developing countries will be more challenging than for
coasts of developed countries, due to constraints on adaptive capacity.
Adaptation costs for vulnerable coasts are much less than the cost of inaction.
The unavoidability of sea-level rise, even in the long-term, frequently conflicts with
present-day human development pattern and trends.
Rising sea-levels is particular problems in the world because a majority of the world’s
population lives in coastal areas and hence many of the world’s built assets are located in the
coastal zone. Sixty percent of the world’s 39 metropolises with a population of over 5 million
are located within 100km of the coast, including 12 of the world’s 16 cities with populations
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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greater than 10 million (IPCC, 2007). The growing trends of human development along
coasts exacerbate their vulnerability due to increased risk to life and property. Dang, (2003)
identified that in China, 100 million people have moved from inland areas to the coast in the
last twenty years. Nicholls and Mimura (1998) have estimated that 600 million people will
occupy coastal floodplain land below the flood level by 2100. Quite apart from this, a
significant amount of the world’s most diverse and productive resources are located in the
coastal zone. This implies that a significant adverse effect of climate change induced sea-level
rise is likely to have a huge impact on the world population and the world economy. The
possible impacts of sea-level rise on the coastal zone include:
Increased inundation (flooding) of coastal land, which may cause loss of life and
property;
More frequent storm-surge flooding, which may cause destruction of life, property and
beaches and severe shoreline erosion e.g Hurricane Katrina;
Accelerated coastal erosion, which may also cause destruction of coastal properties
and possibly loss of life;
Seawater intrusion into fresh and groundwater sources thus reducing the supply of
fresh water in coastal towns;
Altered tidal range in estuaries and tidal river systems which may destroy estuarine
ecosystems; and
Change in sedimentation patterns.
These impacts coupled with increased temperature, rainfall and storm associated with climate
change could cause severe impacts to coastal developments, resources and the coastal
economies. Such impact on coastal economies will go a long way to affect the global
economy, since every country, including landlocked countries, depend on the coast in some
form. It must be noted, that the extent of the impact of sea-level rise on countries depends on
many factors including:
the nature of the coastline and the level of exposure (delta, marsh, estuary
lowlands/uplands, soft geology/hard geology etc);
the nature and value of developments on vulnerable coastal lands;
the capacity and affordability to build defence and protection schemes;
the natural adaptive capacity of the coast;
adaptation planning and mitigation and
availability of cost effective sources of alternative supply of goods and services to the
hinterland, landlocked countries in times of climate hazards.
It is important to mention that sea level changes are caused by many factors. Bird, (2000)
outlined the causes of sea level change under four broad themes. They are: (1) eustatic
movement of the sea level, (2) steric changes, (3) sedimentation and (4) tectonic movements.
The first two factors involve increase or decrease of the volume of water in the ocean basins
as a result of a rise and fall in the water supply from the earth interior or an increase in
atmospheric temperature resulting in warming and expansion of the ocean’s water and vice
versa. The last two factors, on the other hand, cause sea level change through reduction of the
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
4/22
ocean basin and upward or downward movement of the earth crust. The two important points
worth noting are:
Sea level change caused by the last two factors are relatively local but sea level change
caused by the first two are world-wide because the oceans are inter-connected (Bird,
200).
It is probably much easier to plan for the adaptation to sea level change caused by
temperature changes (because it evolves over time) than planning for the adaptation to
sea level change caused by tectonic movements, since their occurrence is more
sudden.
These two points have informed the recent international research into climate change and
associated sea level rise as well as the world-wide education on issues of climate change and
the international advocacy for mitigation and adaptation of the impacts of climate change.
The IPCC, (2007) identified that one way of increasing adaptive capacity is by introducing
the consideration of climate change development planning, by including adaptation measures
in land-use planning and infrastructure design and measures to reduce vulnerability in existing
disaster zones. The threats of climate change are so clear and the time to start planning is
now. Perhaps, the way to achieve sustainable settlement and development in the coastal zone
is the integration of sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies in the coast zones now so
that we can reduce, if not prevent, the potential deleterious impacts of sea-level rise on
settlements and development in the coastal zone.
In fact, the need to prepare adaptive responses to reduce impacts of climate induced sea-level
rise on coastal zones cannot be overlooked, irrespective of the possibility of mitigating some
of the more extreme effects through emissions controls. Adaptive capacity varies from one
coastal community to another due to differences in: coastal topography; physical exposure;
human settlement patterns; climate; scientific technology and economic development. Despite
these variations, the policy making process and the planning systems required for sustainable
adaptive action is very complex due to several limitations imposed by the significant
uncertainties in the projection of sea-level rise, financial considerations and numerous
physical, social, economic, legal and political factors which, make many countries more
vulnerable because they have inadequate adaptive capacity in financial, planning, social,
economic, legal and in some case political considerations.
2. METHODOLOGY
In order to identify a holistic and efficient way of integrating sea-level rise adaptation into
planning policies, a literature review was conducted on both sea-level rise adaptation policies
and planning policies in the coastal zone. Based on the literature review, the core strategies of
sea-level rise adaptation, objectives and terms of reference for integrating sea-level rise
adaptation into planning policy in the coastal zone were identified. Then qualitative appraisal
of coastal adaptation policy options for different coastal conditions was undertaken based on
an appraisal of potential risk to natural and human resources and the possible impacts of each
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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policy option on a coastal settlements and their resources should sea level rise. Preferred
policy options that should be adopted, given the human development and the physical
condition of a given coastline, were recommend. This was used as a basis for the development
of a framework for integrating sea-level rise adaptation into planning policy in the coastal
zone. Figure 1 below provides an illustration of the methodology.
Figure 1: Outline of Methodology
3. SEA LEVEL RISE ADAPTATION POLICIES
Adaptation to environmental change is a fundamental human capability and is not a new
concept (Easterling et al, 2004). Throughout the ages, human societies have shown a strong
capacity for adapting to different climatic conditions and environmental changes. The
resilience and flexibility exhibited in the patterns of human settlements show an inherent
desire and some measure of capacity to adapt. However, our understanding of human adaptive
capacity is less developed than our understanding of responses by natural systems, which
limits the degree to which we can quantify societal vulnerability in the world’s coastal regions
(Nicholls et al, 2007).
Adaptation actions and strategies present a complementary approach to mitigation. While
mitigation can be viewed as reducing the likelihood of adverse conditions, (e.g. through
greenhouse gas emissions policies) adaptation can be viewed as reducing the severity of many
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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impacts in response to a projected change or actual change in the climate or other changes in
the environment. In fact, adaptation aims to enhance or encourage positive effects whilst
minimising negative ones. Adaptation may be either planned or spontaneous.
3.1 Climate change adaptation strategies
McCulloch, et al (2002) categorised climate change adaptation strategies as follows:
Prevent the loss – adopt measures that reduce vulnerability to climate change;
Tolerate the loss – do nothing to reduce the vulnerability, and absorb the cost of the
losses as they occur;
Spread or share the loss – do not reduce vulnerability, but spread the burden of the
losses over different systems or populations (this is how insurance works);
Change the affected activity – stop doing things that cannot cope with changes in
climate, and substitute other activities; and
Change the location of the activity – move the activity or system to a more favourable
location.
However, Easterling, et al, (2004) viewed adaptation as a risk-management strategy: that is
neither free of cost nor foolproof, and the worthiness of any specific actions must therefore
carefully weigh the expected value of the avoided damages against the real costs of
implementing the adaptation strategy. Thus, there is a need for comparative assessment of
adaptation policies and strategies so that those likely to be most effective in particular
circumstances can be identified for implementation. Easterling, et al (2004) observation
implies that any adaptation policy option that is selected for a given coastal settlement must
be based on cost benefit analysis.
3.2 Coastal Response Options to Sea-Level Rise
Biljsma et al. (1996) identified three possible coastal response options to sea-level rise, which
were adopted by IPCC (2001) comprising: Protection; Accommodation; and Retreat.
The Protection policy aimed at protecting the land from the sea so that existing land uses can
continue, by constructing hard structures as well as using soft engineering measures. The first
shortfall of protection policy is that it is generally costly and has limited or finite long term
effectiveness. It may me toppled by storm surge and other extreme weather conditions
associated with climate change (e.g. Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, 2006). It tends to
overly control or operate against natural processes and can trigger effects detrimental to long-
term sustainability. For instance seawalls may be effective as flood protection, but in an open
coast with long wave fetch, wave reflection and scour at the base of a seawall can cause loss
of beach in front of the seawall (Krauss and McDougall, 2006). Even in a sheltered coastline,
local waves in a storm surge may lead to the failure of a protection structure. Groynes are
effective where there is significant longshore drift, but they can be subject to bypassing, and
do not address crosshore transport losses. Hard structures usually require regular maintenance
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
7/22
to achieve full longevity and this is not always adhered to leading to earlier than anticipated
failures.
One negative impact of protective structures is the “knock-on effect”. Seawalls for instance
almost always cause terminal scour (out flanking) downdrift. Groynes also may succeed in
trapping sediment updrift and cause starvation (erosion) of sediment downdrift and possibly
lead to the continuous construction of expensive groynes or other forms of protective
structure along the entire coastline.
“Soft” engineering methods such a beach replenishment or artificial breakwaters are used
increasingly amongst developed countries and offer opportunities to avoid some of the
problems associated with hard structures (e.g. Hamm et al. 2002). However, these techniques
do require better technical knowledge and continued monitoring for effective performance.
However, in spite of the short-comings of the protection policy, it may still be the best sea
level rise adaptation policy depending on the values of properties along the coastline, the
cultural heritage of the local people as well as the contribution of the vulnerable coastal
resources to the local and national economy.
The Accommodation policy implies that people continue to occupy the land but make some
adjustments to properties and activities. The policy involves: redesigning of structures (e.g.
elevating buildings and strengthening foundations) to minimise impact of flooding and;
zoning and proper land use policy to encourage only low capital investments on vulnerable
lands; soft approaches like dyke opening, wetland renewal, dune rehabilitation and beach re-
feeding to enhance natural resilience; drainage modifications for built up areas that might
become inundated; growing flood or salt-tolerant crops; and storm warning, preparedness and
evacuation schemes.
Accommodation allows wetlands and other natural coastal features to migrate inland through
wash-over and tends not to result in the environmental problems that can occur with
protection. It reduces risks without the expense of full protection, but it does not completely
reduce risk. Indeed, substantial risks can remain if measures are not implemented carefully
(e.g. storm warnings available, but communications with rural areas are poor and without
education of local populations) appropriate reactions may not be made. Because of the
problem of significant residual risks these methods alone may not be suitable for densely
populated cities and centres of economic activity. However, the measures can be implemented
at community level and may be suited to developing countries supported by appropriate
technical guidance.
Retreat involves either only a partial, or perhaps no attempt to protect the land from the sea.
In an extreme case, the coastal area is abandoned and coastal landforms and ecosystems are
allowed to shift landwards. This policy option is recommended for highly vulnerable
coastlines, where the market cost and/or technical difficulty of protecting the coast far
exceeds the benefits of providing protection. To be effective, vulnerable populations and
infrastructure need to be shifted away from hazardous zones. The potential benefits of this
policy include savings on cost of defences, habitat and wetland conservation and maintain
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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aesthetic value of the coast. The opportunity cost of obtaining these benefits includes loss of
land, properties, heritage and payment of high compensations.
Effective organised retreat, rather than simply doing nothing, does require planning and
organisation within a strong governmental framework and does assume that land is available
to support displaced populations. Implementation requires legislation and regulations that
prevent development and possibly settlement on vulnerable coastal lands and properties. It
may involve public education, taxation, insurance and zoning policies. In fact, in areas where
reliable data on historical rate of shoreline recession are available, a setback distance may be
fixed based on predicted rate of recession into the future. The success of this policy depends
on the ease with which vulnerable communities can be resettled inland which in developed
countries appears conditional on the willingness of government and local authorities to pay
compensation. In developing countries this may not be possible due to inadequate funding to
provide housing and the payment of compensation.
3.3 The Process of Coastal Adaptation
Klein and Nicholls (1999) argue, that the adaptation polices proposed by Biljsma et al. (1996)
have not necessarily been effective in assessing the wide range of technical, institutional,
economic, and cultural elements in different localities. Indeed, they observed that the
methodology could be limited by a protection-oriented response rather than consideration of
the full range of adaptation options. Klein et al. (2000) argued that successful coastal
adaptation embraces more than just selecting one of the technical options to respond to sea-
level rise; it is a more complex and iterative process, with a series of policy cycles. They
identified four steps which can be distinguished in the process of coastal adaptation. The four
steps are:
Information collection and awareness creation
Planning and design
Implementation
Monitoring and
Evaluation.
According to Klein et al (2000) if the four steps of coastal adaptation process above are
adhered to before and after the selection of the coastal adaptation policy option and
implementation of the selected policy option, positive results can be achieved. The reason is
that following the first two steps should significantly improve knowledge, and participation,
which will in turn; enable a much better informed selection of coastal adaptation policy that
would be suited to both natural and human conditions and also acceptable to the local
population. These last three steps are equally important since the selected adaptation policy
option needs to be implemented and also monitored after implementation of the policy, so as
to identify any uncertainties, gaps in coverage and allowing amendments where necessary
(see figure 2). Evaluation is also required to enable policy makers to assess how the policy is
achieving its objectives.
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
9/22
This implies that adaptive measures will need to be planned well in advance, but only
implemented when appropriate, according to proximity of the risk and the “lead-in” time of
the measure under consideration. IPCC, (2007) observed that there is inadequate data and
literature on climate change and sea-level rise in developing countries. This situation may
affect adaptation planning and adaptive capacity in the development countries. Perhaps, it is
worth noting that developing countries will have to start their capacity building and institution
development now if they are to be able to implement adaptive measures successfully when
required. There is the need for developing countries to study the natural processes of their
coastline, identify flood and erosion risk areas (preferably using a zoning approach), and
design a basic form of shoreline management framework and monitoring system now to
facilitate effective adaptation later.
3.4 Strategic Coastal Defence Policy Options
Another sea level rise adaptation policy that has gained much attention in the UK and perhaps
other coastal countries is the Shoreline Management Plan (SMP). It is a plan that identifies
one coastal defence strategy for a specific length of coastline (a “management Unit”) and for a
defined period of time, typically up to 50 years. The first plans were prepared to cover the
coast of England and Wales in 1993. The guidance for SMP has been extensively reviewed
since 1993. The latest SMP guidance was published by Department for Environment Food
and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in 2006. DEFRA, (2006) SMP guidance outlined four strategic
coastal defence/adaptation policy options to deal with effects of sea-level rise. They are:
Hold the line: protect the economic assets of the frontage and backing flood risk
areas.
Advance the line: reclaim land lost to the sea where no environmental impacts would
result from seaward movement of defences.
Managed Realignment: where there is a potential long-term technical and
environmental benefit.
No active intervention: vast flood risk areas where there is limited potential benefit
from controlled inundation.
It must be noted here that the key to successful application of DEFRA strategic coastal
defence options is based on sound understanding of coastal processes and the involvement of
stakeholders to ascertain potential hazards, vulnerability, resilience and risk to the
environmental and economic resources of a given coastal system. The duration for the
application of a strategic coastal defence option to an area could be a short-term (20years), a
medium-term (30years) and a long term (50years) period. DEFRA believe that to minimise
future risk is to encourage fully engagement of local people and planning authorities to ensure
that the adaptation plan is link to and inform Regional Spatial Planning Strategies and Local
Development Frameworks. This will help to ensure that inappropriate development does not
take place in areas that are at risk of flooding or erosion either now or in the future.
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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4. PLANNING POLICY IN THE COASTAL ZONE
Town planning by its nature is essentially concerned with shaping the future (Ward, 2004).
This does not mean that town planners should ignore the past. The past always have some
influence on the present and the future. This indicates that planning policies are extensively
influenced by the past, present and the future expectations. Keeble, (1969) defined, Town
planning as the art and the science of ordering land-uses and siting the buildings and
communication routes so as to secure the maximum level of economy, convenience and
beauty. This traditional definition also emphasis the need to ensure that siting of buildings,
infrastructure, social and economic developments do not only provide present and future
convenience but also justify maximum economic benefit at present and in the future. This also
implies that cost-benefit analysis of developments is a very important factor that should be
considered before given planning permission for some key developments.
The key concepts of the two definitions above show that planning policy in the coastal zone
should be based on anticipated future occurrences and problems (climate change, sea-level
rise and its anticipated impacts on the coastal zone), exploring their probable impact (Risk
assessment), and appraisal of policy options and strategies to solve the problems (assessing
alternative adaptation and mitigation options) and the selection of the best sustainable options
for implementation. The question often asked by many people is, what does spatial planning
have to do with climate change? Many people often forget that spatial planners set the vision
for development and decide the way we use and develop the environment. The choice about
the use and development of land, coasts and sea could significantly affect the rate of
greenhouse gas emissions, the speed and severity of climate change as well as the impact of
sea-level rise on coastal settlement.
The adoption of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) by many coastal nations has
led to the increased level of participation in the decision-making process and the
strengthening of institution in the coastal zone. ICZM has helped in the building of capacity,
creating awareness of the dynamics and the complexity of the coastal systems and how it
should be managed and above all it has developed a sense of ownership of the coastal zone
and its institutions among the stakeholders.
One important tool of the concept of sustainable development that has contributed
significantly to the developments in the coastal zones is Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA). It tries to ensure that developments do not cause extreme harm to the earth and that
any significant harmful effects of a development are mitigated or properly managed. EIA is a
process with several important purposes. It is an aid to decision making (Glasson, 1999).
Perhaps, it is right to state that many developers nowadays see EIA as a key hurdle to jump
before they can get permission to proceed with their development activities.
EIA is a tool that is used to assess physical impacts of development (e.g. building, road and
industry) on the natural environment. However, considering the likely effects of climate
change and sea-level rise identified by IPCC, 2007, in particular, the impacts on the coastal
zones, perhaps it is time introduce Climate Change Impacts Assessment (CCIA) (e.g. impacts
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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of temperature extremes, high or low rainfall, sea-level rise, storm surge, flooding, and
erosion) prior to a physical development of an area. Sustainable development is likely to be
achieved in the coastal communities if development decisions are made based on both EIA
and CCIA.
In most countries, EIA has been integrated into national and local planning policies. Since
CCIA could be defined as complementary to EIA, it is probably better if CCIA is also
integrated into planning policy so that both could be done by developers concurrently.
However, the best way of achieving CCIA in the coastal zone is to integrate climate change
and sea-level rise adaptation into the Planning Policies of coastal developments. Another
question that comes out at this point is what amount of sea-level rise should therefore be
assumed for planning purposes? Walsh et al, (2004) suggested that the best approach might be
through risk assessment, based upon the estimated probability of various estimates of sea-
level rise. They further explained that for all types of sea-level rise risk assessment, the
scenario-building exercise should incorporate all ranges of uncertainty that can be quantified,
whether by expert analysis, dynamic modelling or statistical method or a combination of both.
This idea of risk assessment from Walsh, et al (2004) is either similar or seems to support the
proposition of CCIA in coastal planning policy.
5. INTEGRATING CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA-LEVEL RISE ADAPTATION
INTO PLANNING POLICY IN THE COASTAL ZONE
The coast is an area where land and sea interact (Boateng, 2006). The coastal zone refers to
the zone (coast and its adjoining hinterland and offshore) where the coastal environment
exerts an influence. The landward limit of the coastal zone, though defined differently by
coastal nations, can be said to be marked by the 30m contour above sea level. The coastal
zone and its ecosystem is believed to be among the most productive areas that provide food,
livelihood and home to millions of species in the world. Coastal zones have a very complex
and dynamic environmental system and are perhaps the most vulnerable area in the face of
climate change and associated sea-level rise. Hence there is the need to integrate sea-level rise
adaptation into planning policy in the coastal zone so as to ensure sustainable development
and maximise economic benefit from the coastal zone.
Management of any environmental problem requires the concerted effort of all stakeholders.
There is therefore the need to adopt a participatory approach in the integration of the sea-level
rise adaptation into the planning policy process. Quite apart from this, the physical processes
of the coast, the natural resources and the socio-cultural philosophy of the local people need
to be understood in order to select appropriate and sustainable adaptation polices. Table 1
outlines the core strategies and terms of reference for sea-level rise adaptation and Figure 2
(page 16) provides a framework for the various processes that should be followed, in stages,
to achieve sustainable integration of sea-level rise adaptation into planning policy. It is
important to note that planning policy can operate at different “levels”: regional, national and
local “levels”. The framework below can be used to integrate sea-level rise adaptation into
planning policies at all scales (perhaps with little modifications), if the planning policy
agenda/objective is to achieve sustainable adaptation to climate induced sea-level rise.
TS 3F - Coastal Zone Administration
Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
FIG Working Week 2008
Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
12/22
Table 1: Summary of the Review of Sea-level rise Adaptation Policies
CORE SEA-LEVEL RISE
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TERMS OF REFERENCES SOURCES
Sea-Level Rise Adaptation Objectives Prevent the loss
Tolerate the loss
Spread or share the loss
Change the affected activity
Change the location of the
activity
McCulloch, et al (2002)
Sea-Level Rise Adaptation planning
process Information collection and
awareness creation
Planning and design
Implementation
Monitoring and
Evaluation.
Klein et al. (2000)
Sea-Level Rise Adaptation policy
options Protection
Accommodation
Retreat
(or) Hold the line
Advance the line
Managed Realignment
No active intervention
Biljsma et al. (1996)
adopted by IPCC (2001)
DEFRA (2006)
Basis for selection sea-level rise
(SLR) adaptation policy option for
implementation
Risk/ hazard assessment
Cost benefit analysis
Local sea-level rise projections
Appraisal of the SLR adaptation
policy options base on adaptation
objectives, natural vulnerability of the
coast and human development.
Walsh et al (2004)
5.1 Appraisal of Coastal Adaptation Policy Options
The aim of this assessment is to identify both the nature and human condition that make one
policy option either better or has a comparative advantage to the others. Tables 2A, 2B and
2C show the appraisals for human conditions, natural conditions, and strategic coastal defence
options respectively. To be able to choose a reliable policy option there is the need for data
gathering. Natural coastal data that need to be gathered include: geology (hard/soft), relief
(low/high/cliff), drainage (estuary/delta/lagoon/marsh), local predicted sea-level rise scenario
and the physical processes (waves, tide, wind and drift). Data on human activities along the
coastline also should be collected and related to the natural conditions of the coast.
The outcome will be a combination of human developments and natural coastal conditions;
for example, a harbour city located on a hard coastline or an urban settlement on a low
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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coastline say in a delta. The information gathered on the intensity of human development, the
natural coastal morphology and the physical processes operating along the coast would
determine whether protection, accommodation or retreat is the best option for a particular
section of a coastline.
The general principle that can be deduced from tables 2A, 2B and 2C are the obvious
outcomes which indicate that where valuable developments and economic activities have been
already located on vulnerable coastal lands, protection (hold/advance the line) should be the
best policy option unless cost benefit analysis shows that the cost of protection will exceed
the value of the developments or the economic activities. Furthermore, where the cost of
protection exceeds the value of development and economic resources on vulnerable coastal
lands, accommodation (management realignment) should be the best policy option and
encourage only low investment on such lands. Finally, where vulnerable coastal lands are not
developed or where the cost of accommodation far exceeds the value of development and
economic activities on the land, then retreat (no active intervention) should be the best policy
option.
Table 2A: Appraisal of SLR* Adaptation Policy Options for Human Development Conditions
Impact /effects Protection Accommodation Retreat
Developed
coastlines Must be protected if the cost of
protection is less than the value
of land and properties that
would be lost as result of the
impact.
Should be embraced if the soft
defences recommended by
accommodation can offer the
necessary protection for life and
properties
Should be considered only
where the cost of protection
far exceeds the value of
vulnerable land and
properties.
Undeveloped
coastline Allowing the natural processes
to operate along an
undeveloped coastline may be
more economical than
protection. Protection may be
needed where allowing natural
processes leads to severe
contamination.
Accommodation may be ideal
where the land is used for
agricultural production and
ecotourism.
This may be considered the
best option for undeveloped
coastlines, except where land
is really scarce (small Islands)
or the undeveloped land along
the coast is earmarked for
agricultural production.
Where local
economy and
culture depend on
coastal and marine
resources
Protection should be the best
option if it will not lead to the
destruction of the particular
coastal resource supporting the
economy (eg. beach)
This should be the best option as it
will use soft approaches to
maintain the natural resilience in
order to keep the particular coastal
or marine resource.
Retreat should not be an
option, except where the local
economy depends on
ecotourism.
Where local
economy/culture
does not depend on
coastal and marine
resources.
This should not be considered,
except where vulnerable land
and properties are of higher
value than the cost of
protection (eg. small islands)
It should be possible to
accommodate the impacts since
residual impacts may not affect the
local economy (none or less impact
on local economy)
Should be possible to retreat,
because the local economy
may not be affected.
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
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Table 2B: Appraisal of SLR* Adaptation policy options for Natural Coastal Conditions
Sea level rise
Impact /effects Protection Accommodation Retreat
Hard coastal geology This may not be beneficial since
the natural conditions can
withstand the impacts of sea level
rise. Perhaps minor schemes like
‘cliff toe’ stabilisation may be
necessary.
Natural conditions provide the
necessary resilience for
accommodation and there will
not be the need to retreat. There
may be the need for beach
nourishment and rehabilitation
of barriers against flooding.
There is no need for retreat
since the hard geology can
often withstand erosion and
thus offer natural protection.
Soft Coastal geology There is the need for protection
since the natural resilience may
not be enough to withstand the
impacts of sea level rise. Where
there is much rainfall and clay
geology, cliff slumping may make
protection difficult and expensive.
It may be very difficult to
accommodate erosion and
slumping of soft cliffs
The natural resilience is not
strong enough to withstand
the impact so retreat will lead
to greater loss of land,
properties and coastal
infrastructure. Here retreat
may not be the best option.
Low coastline Protection against inundation and
erosion will be required. Without
protection against flooding, there
will be increased intrusion of
saltwater into aquifers, loss of
beaches and wetlands.
It may be very difficult to
accommodate inundation,
erosion and reduction of
freshwater supply.
This will allow wetlands and
beaches to migrate inland and
survive in the long-term but
this implies loss of arable
farmlands, low food
production and high cost of
resettlement and payment of
compensations.
High (cliff) coastline May require little protection in the
form of cliff stabilisation and
erosion but not protection against
flooding.
High cliffs provide a natural
protection against flooding, thus
making accommodation
possible.
Retreat may not be
economical since the natural
condition makes
accommodation easy.
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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Table 2C: Hypothetical Appraisal of DEFRA’s Strategic Coastal Defence Option
5.2 Framework for Integration
The framework (Figure 2) could be adopted and implemented in most coastal countries for the
integration of climate change adaptation into national and local planning policies. The point
of insertion or application of this framework in countries that have planning policy guidance
is where the Planning Authority needs to decide whether a given development or a project
needs to carry out an EIA. Another parallel decision that must be made at this level is whether
the development or the project should equally conduct CCIA (Climate Change Impact
Option Appropriate for Adopt Where Notes
Existing
development Industrial or urban development
present.
May also be appropriate for satellites or
ribbon development, depending on value
protected and cost of protection
Infrastructure Present and cannot be moved.
Coastal infrastructure is often sited to take
advantage of the combined land and sea
resource. Any impacts, particularly on the
adjacent coast must be accounted for.
Future
planning
allocation
Infrastructure or development
planned which can justify the
need for and coast of production.
Current planning guidance presumes against
development in areas subject to coastal
flooding or erosion.
Hold the line
Conservation
sites
Need for protection and positive
benefit to the site, or a site exists
as a consequence of the present
“shoreline”
This needs careful consideration of how the
site would evolve if it were reconnected or
exposed to an open and active shoreline.
Future
planning
allocation.
Development must use coastal
frontage or requires direct access
to sea.
Likely to have significant impact on
remainder of management unit and adjacent
units
Advance the
line. Advancing
shoreline.
Coast is advancing and value of
reclaimed land is greater than any
protection costs and there is no
attendant negative impact on
adjacent coast.
Great care is needed to ensure that this is a
long-term trend and that enclosing a
sediment sink is not to the net detriment of
the system.
Managed
Realignment Narrow coastal
margin
Coast is defended and is
retreating or steepening and there
is room to allow set back of
defences or remove landward
constraint.
As coastal margins gets narrower
(steepening beaches, loss of salt marsh etc)
exposure increases and leads to more
massive and expensive defences, and that
justify the need to consider realigning of the
shoreline.
Conservation
sites
Protection is detrimental to
conservation interests and could
be improved by allowing natural
processes to operate.
May need to be managed as a single,
stepped or progressive change depending on
the conservation interests
Retreating
shoreline
Foreshore is eroding and value of
land lost is less than the cost of
protection
For this to be a worthwhile option there
should also be a nature conservation benefit
or at least no loss.
No active
intervention
Mobile natural
features A feature moves with time, often
in a cyclic pattern.
Providing room to move is particularly
appropriate in the vicinity of spits, tidal
inlets, estuary margins etc.
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Integrating Generations
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Assessment) or not. While EIAs consider the management and mitigation of environmental
concerns of a project, the CCIA will consider project vulnerability in a climatic environment
and how it can be adapted to the environment given climate change scenarios. Based on
professional judgement, a Planning Authority could recommend either assessments (EIA and
CCIA) or both to be conducted on a proposed development. On the other hand, where there is
no formalised planning policies (e.g. in some developing countries) the framework can be
applied to all proposed developments in the coastal zone. However, in both situations the
framework can be adapted to develop a planning policy for climate change adaptation for a
coastal zone.
Figure 2: Framework for Integrating Sea-level rise Adaptation into planning policy
Figure 2 above suggests that climate change adaptation planning starts with information
collection and creation of awareness on the issues of climate change. The important
information collected (section 5.1) should be used to conduct risk assessment of the possible
impact of climate change on the proposed development or on the plan area. The risk
assessment should be base on the following:
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The proposed development or the plan area vulnerability to the present and future
climate change;
The proposed development or the plan area exposure to the present and the likely
future impacts of climate change; and
The potential hazard likely to cause damage to the proposed development or the plan
area resulting from climate change.
The risk triangle (figure 3) summarises the three dimensions that climate change risk
assessment needs to consider. In Figure 3, the circle represents the entire coastal zone and the
triangle inside the circle represents the dimensions of risk in the coastal zone that need to be
assessed.
Figure 3: Climate Change Risk Assessment Triangle
Source: after Crichton (2001)
When the present risk and the potential risk of future climate change have been ascertained
then a cost-benefit analysis can be done based on the development of the proposed project in
the plan area without adaptation policy and with adaptation policy. The results of the cost-
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Isaac Boateng
Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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benefit analysis should be used to define adaptation objectives (Table 1) for the proposed
development or the plan area. The defined objective(s) will then feed into the appraisal of
climate change adaptation policy options (Tables 2A, 2B and 2C). The appraisal will help the
assessor to identify and select the best adaptation policy option for implementation.
After implementation there should be monitoring and evaluation of results. If the evaluation
indicates that the policy is not achieving the intended objective(s) then it might be a wrong
identification and selection of the policy option and therefore the policy review must start
from there. Again, it might also be the fact that insufficient information was collected at the
beginning, which implies that the whole process needs to be reviewed.
The framework does not only create awareness of climate change but also help increased
participation in the decision making process. Not only would the information collection
aspect help some developing countries to identify the true extent of vulnerability but would
also require input from local staff and could help to build capacity in such areas. The
monitoring aspect in the framework will also help to reduce the site specific “protect and
forget” philosophy which is characterised by donor funded coastal defences in developing
countries (e.g. Keta Sea defence in Ghana). However, there are gaps that need to be filled for
effective implementation of the framework. First, due to limited technology and weak
planning policies in some coastal countries, there is a knowledge gap in the planning and
design solutions on the framework. There is the need for training of skilled personnel in
coastal science and coastal zone management as part of capacity building. In fact, a search
through degree programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa Universities indicates that very few offer
degree courses in coastal management. Secondly, the limited finance in developing countries
also creates a gap in the policy implementation, especially where protection is considered as
the best policy option.
6. IMPACTS OF ADAPTATION POLICIES ON COASTAL SETTLEMENTS.
The processes of adaptation to Climate change and sea level rise in both human and natural
systems are very complex and dynamic, often involving numerous assessments depending on
existing conditions. Table 2A, 2B and 2C provides comparative merits of coastal responds
adaptation policy on both natural and human scenarios of different coastlines. It can be
identified that the choice of policy option may be very difficult if one begins to overlay the
different natural coastal characteristics with the human development. For instance, what
policy option would be best suited for a developed coastline with a soft coastal geology? The
success of any option to be selected will depend on the ability to address the financial
considerations, the local capacity to deal with sea level rise, good planning and reliable data
on the coastline.
In developed countries such as the UK, USA, and the Netherlands, many coastlines are
heavily urbanised and the majority of them are well protected with hard and/or “soft”
engineering measures. They also have monitoring systems in place to check the resilience of
their schemes and the capability to act quickly to maintain and fine tune their performance.
Developed countries have the planning, financial and technical capacity to upgrade existing
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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defences and even build new defences to withstand the impacts of climate change and sea
level rise and would be able to implement effectively almost any of the coastal response
adaptation policies. They have the luxury of being able to select the most sustainable or
environmentally friendly options and can implement accommodation measures to address
residual risks and have the infrastructure and welfare systems enabling communities to
recover from “unanticipated” events that do cause problems.
Developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, on the other hand do not have these capacities,
but they also presently have less development along their coastlines. For instance, Ghana has
only 11% of her 550km coastline developed. There are also many fewer examples of coastal
engineering in these countries, except at harbours and a few erosion “hot spots”. It means that
there are opportunities to avoid the potentially costly and unsustainable “development – risk –
protection” cycle by attempting to apply retreat and accommodation policies to manage the
extent to which their populations and economic activities overlap into the most hazardous
areas. However, almost all the countries are currently experiencing rapid coastal urbanisation
and this threatens to increase the future risks and the consequent demands for protection
options
It could be argued that the author’s approach may not be applicable for all developing
countries. For example Nicholls and Mimura, (1998) identified that several developing
countries in Asia have populated deltas that are vulnerable to sea level rise as well as
increased coastal urbanisation. Often the population pressure is such that all fertile land has to
be farmed, and safety from episodic coastal hazards is perceived as less important than the
provision of food and the opportunity to improve living standards e.g. Bangladesh. Other
vulnerable situations such as coral islands may also require novel approaches for they are so
small that “retreat” would usually involve migration to a neighbouring higher or larger island
or nation. Whatever the case may be, the approach offers a holistic assessment of
vulnerability and rigorous appraisal of climate induced sea level rise adaptation policy options
for planning in the coastal zone. For instance, developing countries could use the framework
to identify the best adaptation planning policy option for their coast before seeking donor
support for implementation.
7. CONCLUSION
The analysis above indicates that where a coastline is developed such that the value of the
properties along the coast would be considerably higher than the cost of building defences,
then protection should be the best option irrespective of the nature of the coastline. Even then
it can be argued that major expansion of defences themselves can encourage further
development and may not be a long term solution. Instead it could be better to confine
protection to a necessary minimum and attempt to educate and direct development away from
hazardous locations and to employ accommodation measures to mitigate risks along
populated, but more rural coasts. Retreat and manage realignment should be considered where
protection and accommodation are likely to fail or cause severe damage to other parts of the
coastline. The no active intervention option on the other hand, should be considered where the
application of any other option might cause destruction of a conservation site and also where
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
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the conservation value exceeds the value of land loss. However, developing countries may
lack the capacity and resources to implement some of these policy options without assistance.
This implies that the approach could not be generally applied to all coastal settings without
some modifications. The framework may require some modification in order to meet the
differences in economic strength, institutions, technology, values, development patterns,
coastal geomorphology and coastal tenure relations.
The IPCC (2007) report provides increasing confidence that coastlines throughout the world
are likely to be subject to increasing flood and erosion pressures due to climate change and its
effects upon storms and sea-levels. The recent devastations caused by climate related hazards
to most coastal communities (e.g. 2007 flooding in UK, Ghana and Bangladesh as well as
2006 Hurricane Katrina in USA), are clear signs of the IPCC findings. They indicate the
strong need for adaptation planning and advance preparation for disaster risk management
such as early warnings systems, victims’ evacuations and accommodation, health care and
insurance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for every coastal community to explore and
identify climate change adaptation plan that could potentially offset some of the worst climate
change problems, since the impacts of climate change and associated sea level rise is global
and probably more predictable and adaptable than other causes of sea-level rise. However, for
such adaptation policies to be effective they need to be matched carefully to the local coastal
conditions, characteristics and the economic activity at the backshore. They also need to be
planned in advance and implemented within an organised framework that includes elements
of monitoring, maintenance, local community involvement and capacity building.
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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Stockholm, Sweden 14-19 June 2008
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Integrating Sea-Level Rise Adaptation into Planning Policies in the Coastal Zone
Integrating Generations
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BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Isaac Boateng is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Environmental Design and Management,
University of Portsmouth where he is currently undertaking his Doctorial research studies in
shoreline management and adaptation of coastlines to climate change. Isaac holds an MSc
degree in Coastal and Marine Resource Management from the University of Portsmouth, a
Postgraduate Diploma in Scandinavian Welfare Model from Roskilde University, Denmark
and also a Bachelor of Education degree in Social Studies from the University of Cape Coast,
Ghana. He has also taught at the Liberal Studies Department of Kumasi Polytechnic in Ghana.
CONTACTS:
Isaac Boateng,
School of Environmental Design and Management,
University of Portsmouth, Portland Building,
Portland Street,
Portsmouth, PO1 3AH
UNITED KINGDOM.
E-mails: isaac.boateng@port.ac.uk
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The sea level rise phenomenon represents one of the most impacting effects of climate change on the territory, with particular reference to the Mediterranean area. Adaptation strategies embody a complementary approach to mitigation in order to perpetuate sustainable and resilient urban development of coastal cities. Therefore, local administrations identify the procedure of the Urban Project as the most suitable tool to respond to the new challenges of contemporary cities, alongside the definition of a strategic vision. For these reasons, the contribution highlights the need to encourage policymakers in building complete and exhaustive databases for an accurate assessment of the vulnerability to the various impacts of climate change as a preliminary action to site-specific project interventions.
... Le azioni e le strategie di adattamento rappresentano un approccio complementare alla mitigazione che implica la capacità della popolazione di continuare a vivere il proprio habitat, apportando allo stesso adeguamenti atti a ridurre al minimo l'impatto delle inondazioni e che prevedono pratiche di rigenerazione urbana dei territori compromessi (Boateng, 2008) in grado di perpetrare lo sviluppo urbano in un'ottica di sostenibilità e resilienza (Salata, Giaimo, 2016). Come ampiamente espresso sin ora, il cambiamento climatico amplifica la vulnerabilità dei sistemi insediativi esponendo la popolazione a rischi crescenti; pertanto, l'adattamento delle città a tali cambiamenti è da assumere quale pratica prioritaria. ...
Book
Il volume restituisce i risultati dell’attività di ricerca e sperimentazione dell’autrice nell’ambito del percorso dottorale presso il Dipartimento PDTA della Sapienza, Università di Roma (2017-2021), e di due progetti di ateneo svoltisi negli anni accademici 2018-2019 e 2019-2020. La cornice tematica è quella del climate-proof planning, con particolare riferimento alla necessità di adattare le città costiere al fenomeno dell’innalzamento del mare. L’obiettivo del volume è quello di proporre alcuni riferimenti teorico-metodologici e operativi per l’innovazione del Piano urbanistico locale, attraverso la definizione di una metodologia replicabile per l’elaborazione di mappe del rischio da sea level rise a scala urbana per orizzonti temporali, al 2030, 2050 e 2100, sulla base di dati inediti forniti dal Laboratorio di modellistica climatica ed impatti dell’ENEA. La produzione delle mappe del rischio ha un duplice obiettivo: in primo luogo, quello di fornire alcune linee guida per l’integrazione del quadro conoscitivo del territorio; in secondo luogo, come sviluppo futuro della ricerca, quello di identificare “aree prioritarie di intervento”, ponendo le basi per la definizione di categorie di azione progettuale sitespecific a possibile integrazione dell’apparato prescrittivo del Piano.
... Adaptation actions and strategies represent a complementary approach to mitigation. This approach implies the population's ability to continue living their habitat while making adjustments that can reduce flood impact to a minimum; and it involves practices of urban regeneration of compromised territories [21], that can effect urban development with a view to sustainability and resilience [22], also by relying on the adoption of naturebased solutions (NbS) as «actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits» or solutions inspired to the Ecosystem-based Approach (EbA) that involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities to increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of people and the environment to climate change [23]. ...
Chapter
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The increasing frequency of climate change-related extreme events observed in recent decades highlights the need to identify new paradigms for the sustainable transformation of the threatened territories, as also recognized in the 17 goals of the Global Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030. From the urban planning perspective, the achievement of the latter can only be pursued through the overcoming of traditionally sectoral approaches, in favour of an integrated one to urban complexity, according to what is called “climate-proof planning”. Starting from the analysis of the reference context, the contribution focuses on the need to adopt an “amphibious” approach to urban regeneration actions in flood-prone areas, proposing the case study of Isola Sacra, Fiumicino (Italy). This contribution is part of the ongoing research “Urban regeneration strategies for climate-proof territories. Tools and methods for the assessment of vulnerability and for the identification of resilience tactics in coastal urban areas subject to sea level rise” (Scientific coordinator Prof. Arch. Carmen Mariano) carried out by the authors at the PDTA Department, Sapienza University of Rome in collaboration with the Climate and Impact Modelling Lab of ENEA, funded by Sapienza University of Rome within the University funds for scientific research 2020.KeywordsClimate-proof planningUrban regeneration strategiesWater landscape
... Adaptation actions and strategies represent a complementary approach to mitigation. This approach implies the population's ability to continue living their habitat while making adjustments that can reduce flood impact to a minimum; and it involves practices of urban regeneration of compromised territories (Boateng, 2008)practices that can effect urban development with a view to sustainability and resilience (Salata, Giaimo, 2016), also by relying on the adoption of nature-based solutions (NbS) as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits" or solutions inspired to the Ecosystem-based Approach (EbA) that involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities to increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of people and the environment to climate change (IUCN, 2020). ...
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This paper deals with the issue of the relationship between climate change and the government’s land management policies, investigating how urban planning regulation may provide responses to the need for planning and designing the coastal urban settings affected by flooding phenomena as a consequence of gradual sea-level rise (SLR).In this frame of reference, comparison among the strategic planning experiences put into play in a variety of national and international settings suggests the urgency for policymakers to implement knowledge frameworks on planning instruments, in order to identify– as a prerequisite for defining site-specific design actions – the territorial settings affected by the phenomenon of flood risk.
... Over the last two decades, coastal lagoons have come under increasing anthropogenic and natural pressures (Amlalo & Ahiadeke, 2004). For example, urbanization and increasing population have contributed to further land reclamation and water demand that has resulted in the deterioration of water quality (Aheto et al., 2010;Boateng, 2008). Sustaining public interest and stakeholder participation in environmental issues will create opportunities for conserving and restoring areas that seek to provide the required ecological goods and services for the benefit of humanity. ...
Article
Globally, nations have made decisions regarding sustainable management of water resources that have not always inured to the benefit of the populace. Some of these decisions have led to water bodies drying up, overdrawn groundwater aquifers, pollution, and in some cases, degradation in ecosystem services. This paper sought to evaluate and propose an efficient and sustainable management plan for coastal lagoon management to ensure a more desirable future. Data were derived through the purposive sampling technique and snowball methods from all the key stakeholders considered having in-depth knowledge of Fosu and Essei Lagoons. The study showed overlaps in the management of the lagoons, which are perceived to be a missing link or overlap in the management and ownership. It has been identified that the interface/relationship between the ownership and management of the Fosu and the Essei Lagoons has been problematic. Ineffective decision-making mechanisms aimed at linking the expectations, skills, and experiences of all constituents (from civil society, the individuals and state organizations, as well as resident communities) have been developed. As a result, a bottom-up approach to coastal lagoon management in Ghana was proposed. Traditional authorities have been given the power to regulate or manage water resources in collaboration with other stakeholders such as the Environmental Protection Agency and Non-Governmental Organisations. In this case, scientific knowledge and traditional knowledge should be applied simultaneously or synergically to ensure the lagoons' sustainable use and management.
... Over the last two decades, coastal lagoons have come under increasing anthropogenic and natural pressures (Amlalo & Ahiadeke, 2004). For example, urbanization and increasing population have contributed to further land reclamation and water demand that has resulted in the deterioration of water quality (Aheto et al., 2010;Boateng, 2008). Sustaining public interest and stakeholder participation in environmental issues will create opportunities for conserving and restoring areas that seek to provide the required ecological goods and services for the benefit of humanity. ...
Article
Full-text available
Globally, nations have made decisions regarding sustainable management of water resources that have not always inured to the benefit of the populace. Some of these decisions have led to water bodies drying up, overdrawn groundwater aquifers, pollution, and in some cases, degradation in ecosystem services. This paper sought to evaluate and propose an efficient and sustainable management plan for coastal lagoon management to ensure a more desirable future. Data were derived through the purposive sampling technique and snowball methods from all the key stakeholders considered having in-depth knowledge of Fosu and Essei Lagoons. The study showed overlaps in the management of the lagoons, which are perceived to be a missing link or overlap in the management and ownership. It has been identified that the interface/relationship between the ownership and management of the Fosu and the Essei Lagoons has been problematic. Ineffective decision-making mechanisms aimed at linking the expectations, skills, and experiences of all constituents (from civil society, the individuals and state organizations, as well as resident communities) have been developed. As a result, a bottom-up approach to coastal lagoon management in Ghana was proposed. Traditional authorities have been given the power to regulate or manage water resources in collaboration with other stakeholders such as the Environmental Protection Agency and Non-Governmental Organisations. In this case, scientific knowledge and traditional knowledge should be applied simultaneously or synergically to ensure the lagoons' sustainable use and management.
... Traditionally, spatial planning policies that control anthropogenic development in the coastal zone of Ghana and elsewhere were developed with inadequate knowledge of CC impacts and therefore, CC adaptation measures were not considered. In order to ensure that CC adaptation strategies cover the effects of both anthropogenic and environmental change, spatial planning and CC adaptation policies should be integrated (Boateng 2008). Such integration will lead to zoning coastal areas based on vulnerability and guide present and future development away from vulnerable coastal lands, secure coastal buffer lands and protect wetlands with conservation interest. ...
Article
This paper discusses the impacts of Climate Change and anthropo-genic activities on coastal lagoons in Ghana. Ghana's coastal lagoons provide unique ecosystem services. However, they are highly fragile and vulnerable to natural processes and anthropogenic activities. Climate Change impacts, such as increased temperatures, sea-level rise, storm surge and increased precipitation are likely to have ecological damage to lagoon ecosystems as a result of erosion, submer-gence of lagoon barriers, flooding and drying of the surrounding wetlands. Field observation, Geographic Information System model-ing were among the methodology applied. The paper identified that anthropogenic activities and Climate Change would combine to have a serious future impact on lagoon ecosystems. Particularly, increased rainfall-induced flooding from the hinterland may be very injurious to the lagoon ecosystem, since the flood water may carry not only nutrients but also various contaminants and solid plastic waste generated by human activities around lagoons catchment into the lagoon channels. Besides, due to the barriers across most lagoon inlets, such polluted runoff water may not be able to flush out to sea, thus impacting negatively on the water quality of the lagoons. The paper proposes some adaptation strategies and recommends the early implementation of Climate Change adaptation strategies, coastal lagoon management measures to prevent potential future destructive impacts.
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This paper presents the concepts and ideas that underpin the chapter Coastal Zones of the UNEP Handbook. Particular emphasis is given to the conceptual framework, which is centered around the concept of vulnerability. Further, the IPCC Common Methodology for Assessing Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise is evaluated and compared with the Technical Guidelines. One notable difference between the 2 approaches concerns the use of scenarios. In the Common Methodology scenarios are prescribed, while the Technical Guidelines allow users maximum freedom in selecting and developing scenarios. Finally, the paper discusses 3 levels of increasingly complex assessment in coastal zones. As more experience is acquired, coastal databases improve and better analytical tools and techniques are developed, more comprehensive and integrated assessments will become feasible.
Book
Provides an overview of the principles and practice of environmental impact assessment (EIA). Part 1 explains the origins of EIA in the USA and documents its introduction in the UK via a European Union (EU) Directive in 1985. Also included is a description of the legislative and institutional framework for implementing EIA in the UK. Part 2 explains the four main stages of an EIA, namely scoping, impact analysis, public participation and impact review. The third part assesses the implementation of EIA in the UK via a series of in-depth case studies and draws comparisons with practice in other countries. The text is written specially for tudents on undergraduate and postgraduate planning programmes. It should also be relevant to courses in environmental management/policy, environmental sciences/studies, geography and the built environment.
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India is both a major greenhouse gas emitter and one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to projected climate change. The country is already experiencing changes in climate and the impacts of climate change, including water stress, heat waves and drought, severe storms and flooding, and associated negative consequences on health and livelihoods. This book identifies and summarizes the latest research related to the impact of climate change on India. This book discusses the impact of sea level rise, water availability, agricultural shifts, ecological disruptions and species extinctions, infrastructure at risk from extreme weather events and disease patterns.
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A previous review by the first author of the literature on the effects of seawalls on the beach is extended to cover the period 1988 to the present. The review synthesizes knowledge on beach profile change, longshore sand transport, and scour in the vicinity of seawalls. Remarkable progress has been made since 1988, with new phenomena and observations reported, such as on longshore transport processes at walls. Some previous results and conclusions of the 1988 review have been cast into doubt, with example new results being that (1) wave reflection at walls may not be a significant contributor to profile change, and (2) scour at seawalls in the field may be more a product of longshore transport and return of overtopping water than a result of direct cross-shore wave action. The validity or usefulness of small-scale physical model tests is questioned. Conclusions and recommendations for future work are given. This paper is the first of a companion set of papers that investigate the effects of seawalls on the beach. The second paper presents a numerical model of cross-shore transport and beach profile change at seawalls that includes wave reflection, and it compares predictions to measurements made at the SUPERTANK project and to recent results found in the literature on scour at walls.
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A recently completed European collaborative project focused on contributing to the improvement and harmonisation of present design practices for artificial nourishment schemes in Europe. An inventory of and a comparison between the major countries involved revealed significant differences between them regarding engineering methods and evaluation procedures, coastal zone management strategies and legal and financial frameworks. The design and evaluation methodologies were then reanalysed in order to provide harmonised recommendations. This analysis covered the monitoring and assessment of the performance of nourishment projects and the role of numerical models in design and evaluation. This paper summarises the conclusions obtained, uses two case studies as an illustration and gives a number of recommendations for achieving the objectives in the context of soft engineering works. The role of long-term monitoring at a regional scale is emphasised, advocating the use of innovative monitoring technologies together with the need for a better understanding and quantification of autonomous shoreline variability. Finally, suggestions for research are outlined, including such aspects as sediment grading and coupling between shoreline and profile change models.
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Even today, many sectors of the insurance industry do not regard climate change as a significant issue. However a certain amount of research and analysis has been performed by progressive companies who now see it as a fundamental which will affect not only the nature of insurance risk, but also public policy towards natural hazards. Additionally they expect climate change to have far-reaching impacts on asset management and in-house resource management because of international and domestic measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.In parallel, there is a broader move within the industry to understand and cope with the insurance impact of extreme events, because of the growing exposure to catastrophic losses, and the increase in their actual impact in recent decades. Finally, there is a recognition that environmental issues will have to feature more prominently on the management agenda in future.This paper will critically examine the reasons for the industry's tardy response to climate change and whether this is likely to change soon. It will consider how public policy might evolve, and how insurance can form a part of a broader programme for natural disaster reduction, incorporating climate research, land use planning, and information strategies. It will explore what problems and opportunities might then arise for insurance from climate change, within the wider context of the industry's own internal dynamics, and external global economic change, and how best to capitalize on the common elements in the industry's divergent views, so that the transition to a more strategic approach occurs with minimal disruption. The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance (2000) 25, 582–601. doi:10.1111/1468-0440.00084