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The Scientific Status of Projective Techniques
Abstract
Although projective techniques continue to be widely used in clinical and forensic settings, their scientific status remains highly controversial. In this monograph, we review the current state of the literature concerning the psychometric properties (norms, reliability, validity, incremental validity, treatment utility) of three major projective instruments: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and human figure drawings. We conclude that there is empirical support for the validity of a small number of indexes derived from the Rorschach and TAT. However, the substantial majority of Rorschach and TAT indexes are not empirically supported. The validity evidence for human figure drawings is even more limited. With a few exceptions, projective indexes have not consistently demonstrated incremental validity above and beyond other psychometric data. In addition, we summarize the results of a new meta-analysis intended to examine the capacity of these three instruments to detect child sexual abuse. Although some projective instruments were better than chance at detecting child sexual abuse, there were virtually no replicated findings across independent investigative teams. This meta-analysis also provides the first clear evidence of substantial file drawer effects in the projectives literature, as the effect sizes from published studies markedly exceeded those from unpublished studies. We conclude with recommendations regarding the (a) construction of projective techniques with adequate validity, (b) forensic and clinical use of projective techniques, and (c) education and training of future psychologists regarding projective techniques.
© 2000 Association for Psychological Science.
... Another criticism of traditional personality assessment related to comparability is the ambiguity of items and response options that lead to interpretative subjectivity. Text-based items usually entail some degree of ambiguity because of words that leave room for interpretation, for instance, often or regularly (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). When using Likert scales, test takers might have different associations with what each response option on the scale represents (Mischel, 1968). ...
... An alternative procedure to traditional text-based testing is the use of projective techniques. Lilienfeld et al. (2000) highlighted several available projective techniques such as Association, Construction and Selection, which require test takers to respond to ambiguous questions. Depending on the projective technique, items are often open-ended, which allows an infinite number of responses. ...
... Depending on the projective technique, items are often open-ended, which allows an infinite number of responses. Thus, projective instruments, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test, have received criticism because of restricted validity and standardisation (Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Piotrowski, 2015;Sartori, 2010). ...
Personality characteristics are frequently assessed with traditional text-based self-report scales despite concerns about limited engagement, subjective interpretation of scale levels and faking. The study explored whether image-based testing approaches could serve as a viable alternative to text-based methods. Thus, the affinity for technology interaction (ATI) scale, a validated text-based rating scale, was transformed into the image-based affinity for technology interaction (IBATI) scale. Generative artificial intelligence was utilised to visualise the response options. Responses of 178 participants were analysed to assess the rating scales' validity and reliability on item and scale levels. Bayesian Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted to evaluate the scales' factor structure and psychometric properties. While the data collection yielded an outstanding completion rate, the IBATI scale displayed slightly lower reliability than the ATI scale. Still, outcomes on the text-based and image-based rating scales were mostly congruent on scale and item levels. The text-based Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) was introduced to examine if the IBATI scale specifically measures affinity for technology interaction and displays discriminant validity to the AAS, which aims at a separate construct. The image-based testing approach revealed notable potential, reflected by robust construct validity and internal consistency. The research highlights that extensive pretesting and iterative refinements of image-based response options are vital. Additional research is required to explore the potential of image-based personality testing further. Future studies could introduce external measures for concurrent and predictive validity, examine test-retest reliability and combine image-based and text-based rating scales to potentially obtain higher validity and reliability and facilitate a better testing experience.
... Projective techniques have a long history in clinical psychology and psychoanalysis, and are utilized in situations where clinicians do not wish to ask sensitive questions directly or where subjects are "repressing" certain uncomfortable memories (e.g., Mosak, 1958). The overall rationale behind projective techniques is that "individuals' personality characteristics, needs, and life experiences" (Lilienfeld et al., 2000) are influenced by how they interpret and respond to what are often classed as "ambiguous" stimuli. Unstructured or ambiguous stimuli will give a higher level of projection of "emotions, motives, attitudes and values" (Donoghue, 2000). ...
... The most common categorization is given by Lindzey (1959) and adapted by numerous authors (e.g., Bond & Ramsey, 2010;Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Pich et al., 2015). Here, techniques are categorized into ordering and arrangement, association, completion, construction, and creative/expression techniques. ...
... As noted previously, more unstructured and ambiguous tasks may provide more projective insights (Donoghue, 2000). However, if the tasks are too abstract, they may lack validity with respect to the problem domain (Lilienfeld et al, 2000). ...
This article gives an integrative review of research using projective methods in the consumer research domain. We give a general historical overview of the use of projective methods, both in psychology and in consumer research applications, and discuss the reliability and validity aspects and measurement for projective techniques. We review the literature on projective techniques in the areas of marketing, hospitality & tourism, and consumer & food science, with a mixed methods research focus on the interplay of qualitative and quantitative techniques. We review the use of several quantitative techniques used for structuring and analyzing projective data and run an empirical reanalysis of previously gathered data. We give recommendations for improved rigor and for potential future work involving mixed methods in projective techniques.
... Consistent with theorizing, trait-related measures do not correlate highly with projective test scores, even when they are purported to tap the same tendencies (Bornstein, 2002). However, the psychodynamic theorists and clinicians who championed projective tests often favored idiosyncratic procedures for testing and scoring, which impeded scientific progress concerning this class of instruments (Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Rothney & Heimann, 1953). In addition, there are doubts as to whether projective tests measure anything like the defense mechanism of projection, at least typically (Bornstein, 2007). ...
... There may be ways of modifying projective tests such that they can serve as more useful tools to personality psychologists (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). Two papers (Penzel et al., 2021;Robinson et al., 2017) applied several such procedures to an old projective test termed the "animal preference test" (Van Krevelen, 1956). ...
... According to psychodynamic theorizing, they often do so because animals express their motivations in basic ways, rendering animals a useful set of symbols for representing basic drives and motives (Bills, 1950;Myers, 2002). The RAPT (Penzel et al., 2021) follows these lines of thinking, but in the context of procedures designed to produce a reliable and repeatable assessment device (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). ...
Projective tests, which were thought to provide key insights concerning motivation, have largely disappeared from personality psychology. Participants in the present studies (total N = 924) were presented with a Revised Animal Preference Test (RAPT) that quantifies desires to be predator animals in a reliable manner. Drawing from several literatures, including the psychopathy literature, it was hypothesized that higher levels of predator self-identification would be linked to higher levels of fearlessness as well as lower levels of negative emotionality. Consistent with this analysis, participants wishing to be predator (relative to prey) animals scored lower in neuroticism (Study 1), responded to physical threat scenarios in a fearless manner (Study 2), and exhibited lower levels of emotionality in their daily lives (Study 3). The RAPT appears to assess motivations that are linked with callous-unemotional functioning. The findings can be extended, however, and future directions are highlighted.
... As such, it is not based on responses to experimenter-determined characteristics of target groups but instead elicits personal contents and implicit, nonverbal information about the image. In this sense it resembles the approach of Livesley and Bromley (1973), who allowed children to spontaneously describe different people, and it follows the recommendations for the development of indirect approaches to the assessment of social images Kosslyn & Kagan, 1981;Stroebe & Insko, 1989) and for relevance to the construct being assessed (Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000). Dennis (1966) first suggested HFD as an instrument for the assessment of social images. ...
... As noted, structure was inferred from image complexity and quality, and content from attributions regarding status, affect, behavior, and appearance. Each of these variables included at least two empirically aggregated items (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). The child's beliefs and intentions concerning the figure were inferred from the questionnaire. ...
... This raises the question of whether children have a limited repertoire for expressing their social attitudes or whether it is the ability of this instrument in its present form to assess their social attitudes that is limited. Thus, as in the clinical use of HFD, the role of artistic ability warrants a closer examination (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). ...
The development of images of “a Jew” and “an Arab” in Jewish Israeli children who were 4–15 years of age was investigated by means of human figure drawings followed by the administration of questionnaires. The drawings were scored on structural and thematic variables. The questionnaires assessed beliefs and intentions. The hypotheses predicted a differential perception of in- and out-groups and peaks in negativity toward the out-group at preschool age and in early adolescence. Results indicate that, irrespective of age, Jewish Israeli children have generalized images of the two ethnic groups. Preschoolers expressed both positive biases toward the in-group and negativism toward the out-group, and early adolescents manifested mainly negative biases toward the out-group. Children in middle childhood and mid-adolescents manifested reductions in both in-group favoritism and out-group negativity.
... The purpose of this monograph is to provide an updated review of the SCORS-G and TAT research literature, building on the work of Lilienfeld et al. (2000) just over 2 decades ago. The article will discuss important methodological and psychometric limitations of the SCORS-G system, which have implications for both clinical and research applications. ...
... Although Lilienfeld et al. (2000) focused more generally on "projective" assessment methodologies several decades ago, the current review seeks to focus more narrowly on applications of the SCORS-G specifically-following the publication of the SCORS-G This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
... In light of research that has started to explore the stimulus characteristics of the cards themselves, and fact that some cards "pull" for more positive/adaptive themes and others for more negative/less adaptive themes, it is unclear whether and to what extent different TAT card batteries may yield different results. Lilienfeld et al. (2000) also noted that because of this variability in card use, the extent to which findings can be generalized across studies is simply unknowable. ...
The Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale-Global (SCORS-G) has been used increasingly in multimethod psychological assessment contexts as a framework for eliciting personality information from narrative data collection techniques, the most popular of which is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Although research on the reliability and validity of the SCORS system has evolved over the last decade, there are numerous psychometric and procedural shortcomings (and corresponding ethical issues) that should be considered when applying this methodology to the TAT in clinical and research settings. Chief among these concerns is a lack of normative benchmarking, variability in TAT card batteries that are administered across contexts (which limit generalization and direct research comparisons), ambiguous reliability and validity evidence (and lack of incremental validity), and redundancy in published studies (i.e., versions of the same data/samples presented repeatedly across research). There is also a dearth of information about how SCORS-G data are influenced by factors such as culture, language, cognitive functioning, and other variables that may impact narrative output, word count, and richness (and subsequent interpretation and clinical decision making). The review concludes with a discussion of the ethical implications of using the SCORS-G in clinical practice, and recommendation for a moratorium on its use until minimum psychometric standards can be established and greater clarity is achieved surrounding its use with diverse and vulnerable populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... This conclusion is misleading for two reasons. First, both Mihura et al.'s (2013) and Wood et al.'s (2015) meta-analyses were conducted more than 10 years after Lilienfeld et al.'s (2000) study. Second, the data referenced by Lilienfeld et al. (2000) were in fact included in the aforementioned metaanalyses. ...
... First, both Mihura et al.'s (2013) and Wood et al.'s (2015) meta-analyses were conducted more than 10 years after Lilienfeld et al.'s (2000) study. Second, the data referenced by Lilienfeld et al. (2000) were in fact included in the aforementioned metaanalyses. As such, both Mihura et al. (2013) and Wood et al. (2015) provide a much more accurate and complete picture to appreciate the validity of Rorschach CS variables, compared to Lilienfeld et al.'s (2000) review. ...
... Second, the data referenced by Lilienfeld et al. (2000) were in fact included in the aforementioned metaanalyses. As such, both Mihura et al. (2013) and Wood et al. (2015) provide a much more accurate and complete picture to appreciate the validity of Rorschach CS variables, compared to Lilienfeld et al.'s (2000) review. In addition, Areh et al. (2022) failed to report that Mihura et al. (2015) published a reply to Wood et al. (2015) in the same journal. ...
Areh et al. (Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 29:183–205, 2022) recently commented on what standards should be applied to determine whether a test is appropriate for psycholegal use and concluded that the Rorschach does not meet their proposed standards. Accordingly, they concluded that psychologists should not use it in legal contexts. However, Areh et al.’s (2022) claims are based on a significant misunderstanding of how the Rorschach task works, relative neglect of the last 20 years of Rorschach research, unrealistic psychometric standards for assessing the reliability and validity of a psychological assessment measure, and a single European legal case in which a forensic expert used the Rorschach inappropriately. Our article seeks to clarify and correct some of their errors and misleading assertions. First, we clarify how the Rorschach task works according to more recent and widely accepted conceptualizations. Then, we show that Areh et al.’s (2022) position that Rorschach task data do not meet acceptable validity standards, especially when compared to medical tests, is empirically untenable. Next, we provide a detailed and nuanced account of what the Rorschach has to offer as a performance-based assessment method for forensic evaluators and the legal system, with attention paid to the anecdotal legal case Areh et al. (2022) highlighted. Finally, we provide four reasons why the Rorschach can be a useful tool for forensic mental health assessments when using the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS).
... En las pruebas proyectivas estos indicadores de calidad tienen un tratamiento más laxo. Autores como Lilienfeld et al. (2000), Sabogal (2004) y Sneiderman (2011) coinciden en señalar que la calidad psicométrica de las pruebas proyectivas es cuestionable. Si se juzgan desde el modelo psicométrico, la casi totalidad de ellas sería excluida del arsenal de pruebas psicológicas, porque las respuestas no son cuantificables, no tienen estimaciones de confiabilidad y validez y generalmente no poseen datos normativos adecuados (Sabogal, 2004;Salvia & Ysseldyke, 2001). ...
... Por su parte, la validez es concebida como congruencia y se establece comparando la ejecución de la persona en la prueba con otros datos de la propia persona, como su historia clínica, datos de entrevista y la opinión de jueces expertos. Dado que el interés principal de estas pruebas es la individualidad, los referentes normativos generalmente no existen, son pobres o engañosos, llevando a juicios o predicciones erróneas (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). Aunque el estatus científico de las técnicas proyectivas es aún controversial (ver, e.g., Hibbard, 2003), lo cierto es que ellas también deben contar con evidencia sistemática sobre su calidad psicométrica, incluso, definiendo tal calidad en sus propios términos epistémicos. ...
... En la literatura internacional, la generalizada falta de evidencia sobre la fundamentación psicométrica de los test proyectivos ha llevado a discutir la pertinencia de su uso (Lilienfeld et al., 2000) o, al menos, su denominación como pruebas psicológicas (Sabogal, 2004). Pese a las dificultades para cuantificar las respuestas obtenidas en test proyectivos (Sneiderman, 2011), ha habido esfuerzos exitosos en la generación de respaldo psicométrico para este tipo de instrumentos; tal es el caso, por ejemplo, de algunos índices del Sistema Comprehensivo del Ro (Exner Jr., 2003) examinados por Sahly et al. (2011) y Giromini et al. (2015. ...
Ante la escasez de antecedentes, este estudio indagó, desde un enfoque principalmente cuantitativo, 4 aspectos del empleo de test por parte de los/as psicólogos/as chilenos/as: caracterización del uso, pruebas de uso más frecuente, calidad psicométrica, problemas percibidos y actitudes. Una muestra no probabilística intencionada de 381 psicólogos/as (71,7% mujeres, Medad = 41,35 años, DE = 11,36) respondió un cuestionario en línea que abordó los aspectos previamente mencionados. Los datos fueron examinados mediante análisis estadísticos descriptivos e inferenciales. Complementariamente, se efectuó una revisión sistemática cualitativa de la literatura sobre fundamentos psicométricos (confiabilidad, validez y/o referentes normativos) de los test empleados habitualmente en Chile. El principal hallazgo reveló que 15 de los 20 test de uso más frecuente no cuentan con evidencia que respalde su calidad psicométrica en poblaciones chilenas. Otros resultados muestran que el empleo de test es una práctica extendida en el ejercicio profesional, orientada preferentemente a la evaluación clínica, de adolescentes y adultos, realizada a través de unos pocos test que se repiten en los distintos campos profesionales y con presencia mayoritaria de técnicas proyectivas. La discusión se centra en la inobservancia de exigencias básicas para una correcta utilización de test y sus eventuales consecuencias. Se plantean posibles explicaciones para este proceder profesional y se ofrecen propuestas para mejorar las buenas prácticas en el empleo de pruebas psicológicas, señalándose, entre otras, el fortalecimiento de la formación de los usuarios de test y la adopción de estrategias restrictivas y formativas para favorecer el uso correcto de los test en Chile.
... In making their argument for a revised conceptualization of the alexithymia construct, Preece and his colleagues , 2019Preece & Gross, 2023) were either selective in their review of the alexithymia literature or overlooked a series of studies that used performance-based tests and clinical samples, the results of which provide considerable support for an impaired imaginal capacity as a core component of the alexithymia construct. Some of these performancebased instruments such as the Rorschach were previously labelled as "projective tests" and relied heavily on the content of the respondents' responses to ambiguous stimuli and were criticized for poor reliability and questionable validity (see Lilienfeld et al., 2000); however, more contemporary views conceptualize these tests as performance-based personality measures in that they focus not so much on the content of the percept attached to the ambiguous stimuli but how the respondent formed that percept, which can be scored using standardized scoring guidelines not much different from cognitive tests. This assessment technique is designed to elicit information about the personality in action by using incomplete or unstructured tasks to reveal implicit individual motives and abilities, differently from explicit motives derived from selfreport scales (Krishnamurthy et al., 2022;Wright et al., 2022). ...
Objective: Our goal was to compare the original conceptualization of the alexithymia construct with the attention-appraisal model, focusing primarily on the removal of the reduced imaginal activity component, a seminal aspect of the construct in the original model. We also examined associations between alexithymia and emotional distress and emotion regulation, attachment, and trauma, and whether alexithymia is a transdiagnostic risk factor. We discuss differences between the models in the treatment of alexithymia and also differences in measurement.
Method: We conducted a narrative review of the scientific literature validating the original model of alexithymia and examined the comparatively few empirical studies evaluating the attention-appraisal model. Articles describing contemporary theoretical ideas about the relationship between imagination and emotion were reviewed, as well as studies exploring associations between alexithymia and imaginal activity.
Results: The attention-appraisal model of alexithymia is theoretically derived and examined empirically in studies using correlation/measurement-based methods that employed self-report measures with mostly non-clinical samples and conducted primarily by researchers led by developers of the model. The original model of alexithymia is derived from observations of patients in clinical settings; its validity is supported by findings from hundreds of empirical investigations spanning nearly four decades with nonclinical and a variety of clinical samples using both correlation-based and experimental studies and methods of measurement other than self-report, and by independent teams of researchers. The reduced imaginal activity component of the alexithymia construct is mostly supported by these studies.
Conclusions: Because of the dearth of studies with clinical samples, the absence of investigations by independent researchers, and the limited range of methods and measurements to evaluate and assess the model, there is insufficient evidence to warrant removal of the imaginal activity component of the alexithymia construct and for replacing the original conceptualization of the construct with the attention-appraisal model.
... Despite the fact that the latest meta-analyses (Mihura et al., 2013) reported satisfactory validity for the test for many CS variables and most R-PAS variables, a small percentage of professionals (14.4% overall) still consider the Rorschach Test an inva- lid assessment tool. Nonetheless, they often use drawing tests whose statistical validity seems to be quite weak: Many studies have highlighted the difficulty of drawing tests in reliably measuring psychological variables (Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Motta et al., 1993;Smith & Dumont, 1995;Troncone et al., 2021). The main reasons why SG professionals do not use the test are a lack of training or the choice to not use projective tests at all. ...
Our study was conducted between 2020 and 2021 with a sample of 499 Swiss professionals. The research focused on exploring the current use of the Rorschach Test in the clinical practice of Swiss psychologists/psychotherapists, focusing on (1) how often clinicians use this test, (2) understanding the differences in its use among the various regions of Switzerland, (3) understanding why the test is either used or not, (4) which type of interpretative analysis is most commonly used (quantitative vs. qualitative), (5) which scoring reference manuals are most often used, and (6) what are the clinicians’ opinions on the future of the Rorschach Test. Data showed that about half of Swiss French (47.3%) and Swiss Italian (53.6%) clinicians still use the Rorschach Test, whereas only 17.8% of Swiss German clinicians use it. However, the Rorschach Test remains among the top three personality tests used in Switzerland (drawing tests: 34.3%; Rorschach: 32.0%; Thematic Apperception Test: 30.3%). A lack of adequate training for this test and a general nonuse of projective tests appear to be the main reasons why some clinicians do not use it. Nevertheless, the test is widely used for the vast amount of information it offers and for its diagnostic validity. Swiss Italian and Swiss German clinicians used both qualitative and quantitative analysis, unlike Swiss French therapists, who seemed to prefer qualitative analysis.
... This disinterest by many researchers can be traced back to the failure of implicit motive tests to show acceptable reliability. The use of classical indices such as Cronbach's α has revealed that implicit motive tests exhibit only low internal consistency (Entwisle, 1972;Fineman, 1977;Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Schultheiss et al., 2008;Tuerlinckx et al., 2002). ...
The study of implicit motives is characterized by a paradoxical phenomenon: while tests for implicit motives, such as the Operant Motive Test (OMT), have demonstrated their predictive power, they exhibit only weak reliability scores when utilizing classical indices, such as Cronbach’s α. The OMT is a picture-based procedure that requires respondents to generate imaginative verbal behavior, which is subsequently coded for the presence of affiliation, power, and achievement-related motive content by trained coders. The article makes two contributions. First, the article builds on a novel dynamic Thurstonian model to address the reliability issue, based on OMT data of 7,060 participants. Second, a machine learning (ML) model based on natural language processing (NLP) was developed using the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) model, with the aim of increasing the internal consistency of the coding compared to manual coding. The advantage of the BERT-based ML model is that it codes not only one motive for each picture, as human experts do, but also assigns four codings for each question of every picture. These 4 × 15 scores were analyzed for internal consistency. Both approaches achieve comparable reliability estimates. The squared correlation reliability using the dynamic Thurstonian model was .75 for affiliation, .65 for power, and .61 for the achievement motive, respectively. Cronbach’s α was .61 for affiliation, .71 for power, and .66 for the achievement motive. Furthermore, the coding of the ML model was found to be indistinguishable from that of human experts and demonstrated similar prognostic validity indices in predicting managerial responsibility.
... Unlike much of the psychology's early interest in the unconscious that was largely anchored on Freud's theoretical work and the use of projective measurement techniques (cf. Lilienfeld et al., 2000), recent research follows from the dual process theories that differentiate controlled and automatic determinants of judgements and behaviours (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2011;Strack & Deutsch, 2004), and accompanying development of measurement techniques that intend to capture implicit social cognitions (Fazio & Olson, 2003;James & LeBreton, 2012). The trend has already impacted organizational psychology/organizational behaviour literature (Uhlmann et al., 2012) as work showing important implicit determinants of organizational behaviour has been reported in the fields of employment discrimination (Ziegert & Hanges, 2005), goal setting (Shantz & Latham, 2009;Stajkovic et al., 2006), workplace affect (Barsade et al., 2009), and moral behaviour (Reynolds et al., 2010). ...
... Projective methods have an irreplaceable place in personality knowledge (Lilienfeld, 2000). They should be part of every good diagnostic battery (Weiner & Greene, 2017) as they contribute to the description and interpretation of personality with data that cannot be obtained with other MJCP|12, 1,2024 Caporale et al. 2 types of tests or methods. ...
Introduction: Projective methods are recognized as a core instrument in the description and interpretation of personality. The Zulliger test (Z-test) is based on the Rorschach Inkblot test, but it consists of only three cards. It has been mainly used in the collective administration mode and in the context of human resources assessment in organizations. The aim of the present study is to start a standardization of the Z-test on non-clinical Italian population, in individual administration mode. Method: Sample was composed by 360 healthy subjects (180 male and 180 females, mean age 38.25), divided into age groups (18-30; 31-45; 46-60) and education (high and low). All subjects were administered the Z-test in individual form. Results: Results show popular responses for each card, obtained by 17% of sample, and answers of statistical good formal quality, reported by at least 2% of subjects. Conclusion: Although this study has some limitations, it can be considered a good starting point for introducing the Z-test into clinical practice. In future research the sample may be expanded, also including clinical population and detecting specific psychopathological indicators.
... Historically, asking individuals to draw a human figure has been used as a projective test in the realm of psychological assessments. Projective tests operate on the principle that individuals will project their unconscious thoughts and feelings onto ambiguous stimuli, in this case, a drawing task (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). There are several schools of thought for evaluating these drawings, aiming to standardize scoring criteria and improve the reliability of interpretations. ...
Objective The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using transfer learning with state-of-the-art Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to classify human figure drawings of patients diagnosed with Mania and Schizophrenia. Methods We collected a total of 230 images (108 from patients with Mania and 122 from patients with Schizophrenia). We experimented with several CNN models, including ResNet-50, InceptionV3, DenseNet-121, VGG19, and Inception-ResNet-v2, by utilizing their pre-trained weights on the ImageNet dataset to extract features from the human figure images. These features were then used to train a dense neural network head for binary classification. We employed 15-fold cross-validation for internal validation. Results The Inception-ResNet-v2 model demonstrated the best performance, achieving an accuracy of 73.6 ± 9.4%, an AUC score of 0.72 ± 0.09, and an F1 score of 73 ± 20% in classifying Schizophrenia and Mania. Additionally, qualitative analysis revealed that features associated with psychosis and mania, as documented in existing literature, were frequently identified in high-probability classifications. Conclusion This study underscores the potential of CNNs in classifying human figure drawings of psychiatric patients and highlights the need for continued exploration in this domain with larger and more diverse datasets.
... It is noteworthy that both intellectual disabilities and illiteracy more prevalent in forensic populations than in the general population (Harris, 2006;Tuominen et al., 2014;Hellenbach et al., 2017;Muñoz García-Largo et al., 2020), underscoring the importance of considering these factors in the selection of appropriate assessment tools. In addition, it is important to note that some of the tests that emerged from our study are subject to criticism, often in absence of better alternatives (e.g., the Thematic Apperception Test, see Lilienfeld et al., 2000). It is beyond the scope of this study to address tests individually. ...
Objective
This study explores the intricate relationship between cognitive functioning and aggression, with a specific focus on individuals prone to reactive or proactive aggression. The purpose of the study was to identify important neuropsychological constructs and suitable tests for comprehending and addressing aggression.
Methods
An international panel of 32 forensic neuropsychology experts participated in this three-round Delphi study consisting of iterative online questionnaires. The experts rated the importance of constructs based on the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework. Subsequently, they suggested tests that can be used to assess these constructs and rated their suitability.
Results
The panel identified the RDoC domains Negative Valence Systems, Social Processes, Cognitive Systems and Positive Valence Systems as most important in understanding aggression. Notably, the results underscore the significance of Positive Valence Systems in proactive aggression and Negative Valence Systems in reactive aggression. The panel suggested a diverse array of 223 different tests, although they noted that not every RDoC construct can be effectively measured through a neuropsychological test. The added value of a multimodal assessment strategy is discussed.
Conclusions
This research advances our understanding of the RDoC constructs related to aggression and provides valuable insights for assessment strategies. Rather than suggesting a fixed set of tests, our study takes a flexible approach by presenting a top-3 list for each construct. This approach allows for tailored assessment to meet specific clinical or research needs. An important limitation is the predominantly Dutch composition of the expert panel, despite extensive efforts to diversify.
... Others have focused on the psychometric properties of PTs: e.g. Lilienfield and colleagues review highlighted major limitations in norms, reliability, validity and treatment utility (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). These concerns resulted in long-standing arguments to restrict the use of PTs (Knoff, 2003;Merrell et al., 2006;Miller & Nickerson, 2006) and to an argument that developing PT practice would be financially wasteful and damage professional practice, telling us what we already know or should have ascertained by other means (Sechrest et al., 1998). ...
... In practice, one can encounter a large number of projective methods, which are usually divided into three groups -verbal, graphical and choice methods (also called manipulation methods) [18]. In some cases most projective techniques allow respondents some freedom and a large number of responses [19]. ...
This paper describes the results of a pilot study focused on measuring the affective components of individual digital competences defined by the DigComp digital literacy concept. Even if pupils are gradually developing digital literacy in elementary schools and are introduced to the potential of digital technologies and their possibilities of use, they may still lack some of the important affective components such as motivation, desire and willingness to engage (appropriately) with digital technologies in their professional and private lives. A prerequisite for valid measurement is a well-designed diagnostic tool including the identification and assessment of emotional and motivational factors that are directly related to the development of digital competences. The article describes a pilot study with the objective of designing a diagnostic tool to measure the affective components of digital literacy. The pilot study was conducted on a sample of second stage elementary school pupils.
... Along somewhat different lines, skeptics might argue that use of a performance-based test in lieu of a selfreport measure of the self-concept represents a methodological limitation of this investigation, in that some performance-based measures (e.g., the Rorschach Inkblot Method, the Thematic Apperception Test) have been criticized for lacking external validity and psychometric rigor (see, e.g., Lilienfeld et al., 2000;McGrath, 2008). With this potential limitation in mind, it is important to note that the ORI yields compelling evidence of convergent validity and retest reliability (Huprich et al., 2016), and inter-rater reliability in ORI scoring in the present investigation was strong (overall ICC = 0.79). ...
Introduction
People vary in the degree to which they affiliate with others; exaggerated efforts maintain interpersonal closeness versus distance are codified in longstanding categorical models of personality pathology, and in contemporary dimensional frameworks as well.
Objective
To examine associations between destructive overdependence (DO), dysfuntional detachment (DD), and healthy dependency (HD) and qualities of the self‐concept.
Method
A mixed‐sex sample of 229 adults completed the Relationship Profile Test to assess DO, DD, and HD, and the Object Relations Inventory (ORI) to assess qualities of the self‐concept.
Results and Conclusion
Analyses indicated that (1) the ORI Strong dimension was uniquely predictive of DO (inversely related); (2) ORI Warm and Nurturing were unique predictors of DD (both inversely related); and (3) ORI Nurturing and Successful were unique predictors of HD. This study illuminates key intrapersonal features of these three personality styles.
... Compelling concerns, though, have been raised regarding the validity and utility of projective tests (Wood et al., 2002), and there is currently only limited research on the use of projective tests for the assessment of most of the DSM-IV personality disorders. Nevertheless, even the toughest critics of projective tests do acknowledge that some Rorschach indices possess moderate validity, including, for example, the Rorschach Oral Dependency score (Bornstein, 1999;Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000;Wood et al., 2002). Comparable empirical support for the assessment of other maladaptive personality traits is needed if projective tests are to be included within an empirically valid assessment of the DSM-IV personality disorders (e.g., Blais, Hilsenroth, Castlebury, Fowler, & Baity, 2001;Hilsenroth, Fowler, Padawer, & Handler, 1997). ...
The purpose of this article is to provide a foundation for the development of evidence-based guidelines for the assessment of personality disorders, focusing in particular on integrated assessment strategies. The general strategy recommended herein is to first administer a self-report inventory to alert oneself to the potential presence of particular maladaptive personality traits followed by a semistructured interview to verify their presence. This strategy is guided by the existing research that suggests particular strengths of self-report inventories and semistructured interviews relative to unstructured clinical interviews. However, the authors also consider research that suggests that further improvements to the existing instruments can be made. The authors emphasize, in particular, a consideration of age of onset, distortions in self-perception and presentation, gender bias, culture and ethnicity, and personality change.
... This subjectivity challenges the scientific objectivity and reliability of the method. (Lilienfeld et al., 2003) established personality assessment tools such as psychometric tests and questionnaires, graphology lacks standardized criteria and a consistent framework for evaluating handwriting. The absence of standardized procedures and measurement tools limits the scientific rigor of graphology. ...
Graphology, the practice of assessing personality traits through the analysis of handwriting, remains a topic of interest and debate within the field of psychology. This abstract provides a scientific perspective on the utility of graphology in identifying personality characteristics. While graphology has been a subject of study for decades, it is essential to acknowledge that it lacks robust empirical validation and widespread acceptance within the scientific community. Despite its limitations, some proponents argue that handwriting analysis may offer insights into certain personality traits. This abstract explores the key aspects of graphology, including its historical development, principles, methodology, and the challenges it faces in achieving scientific credibility. The discussion highlights the need for continued research to establish the validity and reliability of handwriting analysis as a tool for assessing personality, emphasizing the importance of empirical validation in scientific endeavors.
... Some of the criticisms directed at the R-PAS are given below. The first of these controversies is test validity, i.e., to confirm that the test measures what it wants to measure (Cronbach, 1949;Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Meyer, 2004;Meyer and Archer, 2001). Several authors confirmed that the Rorschach inkblots test could add essential data to the evaluation of personality and cognitive and perceptual processes (Meyer, 2017;Mihura et al., 2013). ...
The Rorschach inkblot test allows access to psychological processes that usually do not emerge in self-report measures and it has been widely used in clinical psychological and psychiatric settings. Recordings of brain activity during the administration of the Rorschach inkblots test could provide information on neural correlates of the underlying perceptual-cognitive processing and potentially identify neuroimaging markers of psychopathology risk. The present paper offers a systematization of the available literature on the Rorschach inkblot test and neuroimaging research. The 13 selected studies had been conducted with healthy participants and using fMRI, EEG, and fNIRS to investigate the neural underpinnings of Rorschach inkblot test responses. The neural processes underlying the visual, social, and emotional processes described by the included papers are systematically summarized. Research on the neural correlates of the Rorschach inkblot test is promising and would further benefit from studies on clinical populations, broader samples, and younger age groups.
... We consider internal consistency an appropriate tool for evaluating self-report-based scales, such as selfreported motivation scales and questionnaires that measure various personality traits. Questions about PSE's usually low internal consistency have continued since the early years of research (Entwisle, 1972) until recent years (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). A theory provides one reason for the PSE's typically low internal consistency coefficient about the dynamic and continuous nature of motivation. ...
Purpose
The present study aims to investigate the psychometric properties of the picture story exercise (PSE), a tool for measuring implicit motivations in Iran.
Design/methodology/approach
The research method is descriptive correlation and was conducted in two studies. In the first study 24 psychology master’s students were selected by convenience sampling method and tested them to check retest and inter-coder reliability. The second study investigated the correlation between self-reports and the PSE test on a sample of managers. Its statistical population comprised all the managers of a refinery company, 50 people were selected by convenience sampling method. To check the concurrent validity of the PSE test, the participants of the second study, completing the PSE, also completed the needs questionnaire of Steers and Porter (1979).
Findings
The findings showed that the PSE test in the Iranian sample had high retest reliability (0.62 on mean) and inter-coder reliability (0.87 on mean), and, following previous research, it does not show a significant relationship with self-reported motives.
Practical implications
PSE can be used in future research as a tool that has demonstrated its reliability and validity in the Iranian sample.
Originality/value
Measurement of implicit motives is a practical factor for predicting people’s behavior, the necessity of using tools that can accurately evaluate implicit motives is strongly felt. Taking into account the fact that so far, in Iranian samples, implicit motivations have not been measured, therefore, the current research is trying to answer this question, whether one of the most important and prominent tools that were made for this purpose and used in various studies can also be used in Iranian samples.
... As Anastasi (1988) pointed out, when the projective methods are evaluated as psychometric instruments (analysing reliability and validity indices), the large majority make a poor showing, however their popularity in clinical use still remains because of the richness of their analyses of psychological functioning and their contribution to treatment outcome. These aspects are also highlighted and discussed by Lilienfield et al. (2000), McGrath and Carroll (2012), and Piotrowski (2019), analysing the scientific status and the usefulness of projective methods, particularly the three major ones, which are the Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test, and human figure drawings, being the Rorschach the most studied one. ...
The Roberts Apperception Test for Children (RATC) is a projective method developed by McArthur and Roberts (1982) to assess children and adolescents' behavioural, social and emotional functioning, concerns, conflicts and emotional management strategies through their perceptions of common interpersonal situations of everyday life. The aim of the present study is to contribute to the validation of the RATC in a forensic sample (N = 75) [constituted by a group of juvenile delinquents detained in educational centres (n = 40, 12-17 years old, 1-10 years of schooling) and a group of maltreated adolescents integrated in residential care (n = 35, 11-16 years old, 5-10 years of schooling)], studying its psychometric properties, such as reliability and criterion validity (convergent and discriminant validity), considering the results obtained in other instruments as external validation criteria: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Third Edition (WISC-III) and Youth Self-Report (YSR). It also aims to search for some indicators based on means and standard deviations to interpret the scores obtained in RATC for these forensic contexts, through the comparisons within forensic groups and the comparisons of the forensic groups with a community sample. The RATC showed minimally acceptable reliability and adequate validity indices, considering that this instrument is a projective method. This limitation is compensated by the clinical value of the data obtained from the projection of individuals' thoughts, concerns, conflicts and problem-solving styles, which are useful to assess their emotional and behavioural characteristics and psychological functioning. The results also show statistically significant differences between the two forensic groups on RATC scales, as well as between them and the community sample, as expected, underlining their different characteristics.
... Achieving adequate levels of interrater agreement for gure drawing task scoring systems is often noted to be challenging (e.g., Lally 2001;Sims et al., 1983), and their general validity as measures of personality functioning has been called into question due to inconsistent psychometric ndings and limited empirical data compared to narrative and other performance-based measures (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). Nonetheless, they remain in frequent use in forensic settings (Archer et al., 2006), and several sophisticated demonstrations of their use are available within the therapeutic/collaborative assessment literature wherein the task itself is used to facilitate collaboration between assessor and respondent (e.g., Austin et al., 2012;Guerrero et al., 2011;Smith et al., 2009). ...
Performance-based assessment methods provide important insight into psychological functioning in ways that differ from those accorded by more structured tasks. Data obtained through performance-based methods can reveal the underlying issues, concerns, and preoccupations that are salient in understanding a respondent’s personality functioning and provide important insight into how they integrate information, approach novel situations and dilemmas, and utilize internal resources to achieve desired outcomes or avoid undesirable ones. This chapter reviews several commonly used performance-based measures, including the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Early Memories Task, and human figure drawing tasks. The chapter explores how data yielded by these measures can assist clinicians in evaluating patterns of personality that unfold over time and across relational contexts and identities how contextual factors might influence trait expression in ways that are otherwise difficult to determine in assessment contexts. The chapter reviews the history, administration process, and general scoring and interpretation procedures of these measures, focusing primarily on the TAT, and provides a discussion of the limitations of these measures and areas in need of further study and development.
... In sum, PAIR is a research tool designed to avoid some recurrent criticisms leveled against the use of children's drawing, primarily the need of interpretations heavily dependent on clinical expertise, which are the more controversial requirements of projective methods (Joiner and Schmidt, 1997;Lilienfeld et al., 2000). Moreover, compared with the classic checklists provided for the scoring of projective tests (see a summary in Chandler, 2003), PAIR stands out because it contains analytical criteria to distinguish between intentional and random productions and to evaluate the communicative incidence of details as a function of the increasing complexity of drawings when children become more proficient in their pictorial activity. ...
This study employs the scale of Value from Pictorial Assessment of Interpersonal Relationships (PAIR) to investigate the links between the importance attributed by primary students to their teachers and two independent measures of scholastic wellbeing, provided by teachers and parents. During middle childhood, the teacher is one of the most significant adults with whom children interact daily; a student–teacher relationship warm and free from excessive dependency and conflict is very important for children wellbeing; however, children’s recognition of teacher importance as an authority figure has been seldom studied. Children aged 7–11 years were individually asked to draw themselves and one of their teachers in two situations (relational Wellbeing and relational Distress); the scale of Value from PAIR was used as a proxy of the importance attributed to teachers in each situation. Teachers completed the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale for Closeness, Conflict, and Dependency of each child; parents answered two items about their children’s School Adjustment. All the study variables were firstly analyzed to check gender and age differences. Boys valorized more than girls the teacher’s figure; however, teachers perceived more Closeness and less Conflict with girls. Dependency and Conflict decreased with age, as well as (albeit slightly) School Adjustment. To assess the links between pictorial valorization of the teacher in Wellbeing and Distress and teachers’ and parents’ evaluations, four separate hierarchical regressions were performed, namely, Closeness, Dependency, Conflict, and School Adjustment, controlling children’s sex and age. The teacher’s pictorial Value in Wellbeing appeared to be related to Closeness and School Adjustment, while a negative relationship emerged between Value and Dependency in Distress. In sum, the recognition of the teacher’s role as an authority figure does not hinder a warm student–teacher relationship and impacts positively on school adjustment. In situations of Distress, dependent pupils showed a diminished appreciation of the teacher’s importance, possibly as a result of a defensive stance.
... This is because scores derived from drawing tests correlate only modestly with scores from intelligence tests (Abell et al., 1996(Abell et al., , 2001, and might be more related to visual-motor development than to intelligence (Dykens, 1996). Lilienfeld et al. (2000) therefore evaluated the scientific status of HFDs as "weak" (p. 51). ...
This study described exceptional items in human figure drawings (HFDs) which have been discussed as possible expressions of intellectual giftedness. The aim was to serve as a first step in the development of a screener for HFDs that can be used as part of the identification process of gifted children. We examined the frequency of occurrence of 158 items in HFDs of 206 children aged 4 to 6 years (17 potentially gifted). Fine details and additions to the human figure turned out to be exceptional, especially in drawings of 4-year-olds. Several exceptional items were drawn more frequently or exclusively by potentially gifted children. Descriptively, exceptionality in drawings of potentially gifted children was most visible in HFDs of 4-year-olds, and tended to become less visible with age. Further research with larger samples is required to draw solid conclusions about HFDs of gifted children.
... Third, there is an apparent shift away from using projective measures, which are plagued with issues related to reliability and validity (Lilienfeld et al., 2000;Lilienfeld et al., 2012), to behavioral rating scales. While this finding is promising, close to 40% of programs still require students to administer projective measures during their training and change is still needed. ...
The last comprehensive study to examine the assessment practices promoted by schoolpsychology programs was published 25 years ago (i.e., Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Since then,significant changes to assessment theory and practice have occurred. Data from a 2020 survey ofdirectors of school psychology programs were collected to gain an understanding of currentgraduate training in test use and assessment. Results were compared to a current survey ofpractitioners as well as past surveys of trainers. Results indicate that the assessment instrumentsused most frequently by practitioners tend to be those that are strongly emphasized in trainingprograms. There were significant changes over time, most notably a large increase in the extentto which programs emphasize rating scales. Programs continue to strongly emphasizestandardized, norm-referenced tests, particularly tests of cognitive abilities and academicachievement. Programs also continue to emphasize behavioral observation methods. In contrastto our expectations, results also reveal a persistent emphasis on low-value instruments such asprojective tests. The implications of these findings for training and practice are discussed.
... Yet, proponents of modern assessment methods suggest that advances in technology now permit school psychologists to accurately use these technologies to diagnose and select treatment for sundry conditions despite little compelling evidence to support these claims. One example is profile analysis of cognitive test results which, despite some changes, have largely remained the same over the past 20 years (McGill et al., 2018) while another is the continued use of projective testing in clinical settings (Lilienfeld et al., 2000). Appeals to novelty should not be accepted unless appropriate supporting evidence is furnished a priori (Glutting et al., 2003). ...
This article addresses the use of hype in the promotion of clinical assessment practices and instrumentation. Particular focus is given to the role of school psychologists in evaluating the evidence associated with clinical assessment claims, the types of evidence necessary to support such claims, and the need to maintain a degree of “healthy self-doubt” about one’s own beliefs and preferred practices. Included is a discussion of topics that may facilitate developing and refining scientific thinking skills related to clinical assessment across common coursework, and how this framework fits with both the scientist-practitioner and clinical science perspectives for training.
Social-emotional/personality assessment measures development, functioning, and growth of children within the contexts of developmental, social, environmental, and interpersonal variables. This chapter addresses using multiple assessments, methods, and informants to provide data to enable crafting a report that describes the child’s strengths, weaknesses, and emotional concerns across situations and settings, as opposed to a listing of scores for each measure in isolation. Practitioners should be familiar with a variety of instruments (i.e., broadband and single construct) and be willing to expand their repertoire as new instruments become available. The use of jargon within the written report should be limited, to provide an understandable report for parents and teachers. This is accomplished by integrating across methods, tests, and informants according to constructs (rather than by the scale names of specific tests used) to drive the generation of recommendations for clinical and school settings. Although the task is complex, a case example is provided with instructions to guide data integration, reader-friendly description of constructs, and the development of recommendations.
Educators, researchers, and psychologists often find themselves in situations where they must assess the causes of children's many unwanted or unusual behaviors to take the appropriate intervention measures. Especially at an early age, psychometric tests cannot offer accurate or detailed answers in order to clarify all the questions. This is due to the lack of or reduced possibility of the children to investigate themselves or analyze their reactions. Their responses to various situations are habitually emotional, not rational. Because of these considerations, the investigative approach becomes difficult and also the therapeutic intervention. Projective techniques, although they do not replace standardized tests, are proving their utility, especially in this situation. This chapter aims to describe the importance of using projective techniques in children's assessment. It also explains the particularity of these techniques and presents a few illustrative case studies – the use of the Rorschach test in the psychological assessment of children.
By learning about the validity of individual test scores, psychologists can avoid using scores that are invalid and making judgments that are potentially harmful to their clients. This is important not only for improving clinical and forensic practice but also for avoiding lawsuits. In this article, the effective use of projective techniques is described, with attention to the overperception of psychopathology, diagnosis and the description of symptoms, and the detection of child abuse. Guidelines are offered for using the Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test, human figure drawings, and the Washington University Sentence Completion Test.
Usability and user experience (UX) are important concepts in the design and evaluation of products or systems intended for human use. This chapter introduces the fundamentals of design for usability and UX, focusing on the application of science, art, and craft to their principled design. It reviews the major methods of usability assessment, focusing on usability testing. The concept of UX casts a broad net over all of the experiential aspects of use, primarily subjective experience. User-centered design and design thinking are methods used to produce initial designs, after which they typically use iteration for design improvement. Service design is a relatively new area of design for usability and UX practitioners. The fundamental goal of usability testing is to help developers produce more usable products. The primary activity in diagnostic problem discovery tests is the discovery, prioritization, and resolution of usability problems.
Introduction: Open objects encourage interactivity and closed objects discourage it. Repeated experiences with open and closed objects are thought to give rise to spatial concepts that can be used to represent a variety of entities such as societies, others, and the self. The present investigation pursues the idea that preferring that which is open to that which is closed is more compatible with an agreeable mode of interacting with others.
Method: Three studies (total N = 901) asked participants whether they preferred “open” or “closed” as spatial concepts. Such preferences were linked to variations in agreeableness, peer perceptions, and daily measures of prosocial functioning.
Results: Open-preferring, relative to closed-preferring, individuals scored higher in agreeableness (Study 1) and were rated by peers as interpersonally warmer (Study 2). Open preferences varied within and across persons in a daily diary protocol and, in both cases, higher levels of open preference were linked to higher levels of prosocial feeling (Study 3).
Conclusion: The findings point to a fundamental component of spatial orientation that plays a significant role in encouraging (open) or discouraging (closed) warm, interactive relations with others.
When experiencing mental health challenges, we all deserve treatments that actually work. Whether you are a healthcare consumer, student, or mental health professional, this book will help you recognize implausible, ineffective, and even harmful therapy practices while also considering recent controversies. Research-supported interventions are identified in this book and expanded upon in a companion volume. Chapters cover every major mental disorder and are written by experts in their respective fields. Pseudoscience in Therapy is of interest to students taking courses in psychotherapy, counseling, clinical psychology, and behavior therapy, as well as practitioners looking for a guide to proven therapeutic techniques.
In this chapter, I offer my perspective on Scott Lilienfeld’s contributions to the field of psychology and on his formative influences, through the lens of our 40-year friendship and 30-year collaboration. In doing so, I hope to illuminate some aspects of Scott’s developmental trajectory that contributed to him becoming the person that so many came to know and respect. Describing our developmental trajectories toward becoming clinical psychologists and clinical scientists highlights some of the important themes facing our field. These include the classification of psychopathology and the comorbidity among disorders; the validity of psychological measures, assessment tools, and treatment techniques; and the use of Questionable Research Practices (QRPs) and the reproducibility and replication of findings across studies. In many ways, our professional journey reflects important trends in the field of psychology over the past 40 years, which continue to the present day.
This chapter was written in honor of the late Professor Scott O. Lilienfeld, who contributed substantially and impressively to the field of clinical personality assessment. We provide an overview of this field as well as a discussion of personality scale construction and evaluation. More specifically, we review the history of personality assessment including a brief overview of Sir Francis Galton’s work which set the stage for modern psychometrics. We further review contemporary personality assessment principles, which typically focus on the assessment of psychological constructs from either typological (e.g., categorical diagnosis) or dimensional, individual differences perspectives. We describe numerous potential sources of information should be considered in assessment practice, with a particular focus on evidence-based assessment principles. The second part of this chapter covers scale construction and evaluation. In terms of the former, we detail one deductive approach that places construct validity at the center of emphasis originally championed by Loevinger, and more recently by Clark and Watson, and a second more inductive approach that allows for the elaboration of theoretical constructs through scale construction; the latter was favored by Scott Lilienfeld throughout his career. We also discuss psychometric principles of reliability, internal structure, and validity, ending with examples derived from Lilienfeld’s published work.
This chapter is a tribute to Scott Lilienfeld and his career contributions to the field of psychology. Scott Lilienfeld made a broad and positive impact on the field of psychology and has put the field on a sturdier scientific footing. The chapter focuses on his early experiences, his education, and his successful career as a professor and writer.
In this chapter, we focus on the construct of intellectual humility (IH), which has been of increasing interest in psychological science over the last several years. We identify why IH is an important construct in psychology, review emerging research on its nature and boundaries, and highlight its potential utility in the domain of critical thinking and reasoning. To hopefully make these points come to life, we conclude the chapter with an overview of what we see as a model for IH in science. Specifically, we conclude with an account of how Dr. Scott O. Lilienfeld embodied key aspects of IH in his scientific pursuits, mentorship, and teaching. We see the study of IH as crucial for the future of psychological science and understanding cognitive bias proneness at large.
The field of experimental psychopathology has emerged and matured over the past century. It has emphasized the use of experimental psychology laboratory methods to leverage insights into the etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathology. The authors briefly review the history of experimental psychopathology and advance a number of viewpoints, arguments, and reflections that they suggest will help experimental psychopathology to continue to thrive and lead the pathway to understanding the nature of psychopathology in the decades to come. The authors share their views, stimulated in part by a hypothetical conversation with Professor Scott Lilienfeld at an imagined coffee shop nearby the University of Minnesota. The authors offer their reflections in the spirit of the context of discovery and heuristic value.
This book discusses how citizens can participate more effectively in sustainability science and environmental policy debates. It discusses designs for participatory procedures, and experiences of their application to issues of global change. While the focus is on citizen participation, the involvement of specific stakeholders - including water managers and venture capitalists - is also addressed. The book describes how focus group methods were combined with the interactive use of computer models into new forms of participation, tested with six hundred citizens. The results are discussed in relation to other important topics, including greenhouse gas and water management. By combining this with an examination of issues of interactive governance and developing country participation, the book provides state-of-the-art, practical insights for students, researchers and policy makers alike.
As one of the projective drawing techniques, the House-Tree-Person test (HTP) has been widely used in psychological counseling. However, its validity in diagnosing mental health problems remains controversial. Here, we adopted two approaches to examine the validity of HTP in diagnosing mental health problems objectively. First, we summarized the diagnostic features reported in previous HTP studies and found no reliable association between the existing HTP indicators and mental health problems studied. Next, after obtaining HTP drawings and depression scores from 4196 Chinese children and adolescents (1890 females), we used the Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) to explore implicit features from entire HTP drawings that might have been missed in previous studies. We found that although the DNNs successfully learned to extract critical features of houses, trees, and persons in HTP drawings for object classification, it failed to classify the drawings of depressive individuals from those of non-depressive individuals. Taken together, our study casts doubts on the validity of the HTP in diagnosing mental health problems, and provides a practical paradigm of examining the validity of projective tests with deep learning.
The assessment of antisocial and psychopathic personalities presents special challenges for the forensic evaluator. This chapter emphasizes use of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), Rorschach, and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) for a comprehensive evaluation of these patients. These measures lend incremental validity to understanding these difficult patients, especially when combined with testing of intelligence and cognitive functioning. Integrating data from multiple domains is essential to answering the psycholegal and forensic treatment questions surrounding the antisocial and psychopathic patient. The forensically trained clinical psychologist is best suited to assess psychopathy, a task that historically has been overlooked or avoided in traditional mental health settings.
Approximately 3,000 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) stories contributed by 150 male veterans including 50 college students, 25 non-hospitalized psychoneurotics, 25 hospitalized psychoneurotics, 25 hospitalized schizophrenics and 25 miscellaneous neuropsychiatric patients, were analyzed for themes, level of interpretation, emotional tone, outcome, identification of characters, perceptual distortions and attention to details. In making a valid interpretation of a given protocol, due consideration must were given to the stimulus properties of the cards themselves, which appear to be as important a factor in determining an individual's response as the actual clinical group in which he may have been classified. Although the findings negate much of what has been reported in the TAT literature, they are not to be construed as an argument against the validity of the instrument. The TAT was introduced to investigate the fantasy of normal individuals. There may be a difference in emphasis and degree from individual to individual, but not from group to group. Normal persons check up on their ideas, and correct their delusional thinking through techniques of social participation, role taking, and the sharing of perspective, more readily than individuals with behavior disorders, in whom these skills are not as well practiced. But the fact remains, according to the evidence of the present study, that we all fantasy much the same things. Therefore, a technique such as the TAT cannot be used as a diagnostic instrument in the sense of pigeon-holing people into different Kraepelinian categories. Thus, the results of this study indicates that it does not yield differential patterns for classification into Kraepelinian nosological entities.
The primary purpose of the present study was to investigate the congruencies among personality descriptions made by clinicians when such descriptions are based on different sources of information (instruments). In particular, the study was designed to investigate congruencies (a) for several kinds of Ss—psychotics, neurotics, psychosomatic reactions, and psychiatrically normal; (b) for several instruments—the Rorschach technique, the Thematic Apperception Test, the Make A Picture Story test, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and a psychiatric anamnesis; and (c) for several kinds of interpretive tasks—true-false factual ileitis, true-false inferential items, Q-sort items, diagnostic labels, and ratings of adjustment. Previous investigations of the congruencies of the instruments considered here have usually been of two major kinds. In the first, every attempt was made to minimize the influence of the interpreter through the use of objective scoring systems (even though the clinicians occasionally crept in through the back door by means of rating scales). These studies have the advantage of presenting precise quantitative results amenable to statistical manipulations, but they have been subject to the criticism that they distort the way in which the test instruments are actually used in the clinical situation. The second type of study has treated the interpreter as a relevant part of the situation and has made comparisons of the similarities and the differences of molar descriptions based on different diagnostic techniques. These latter investigations are unable to measure with any assurance the degree of correspondence of one interpretation with another, based as they are on global matching procedures. The present study attempts to combine the advantages and to circumvent some of the shortcomings of both types of study mentioned above in an investigation of the effects of the psychological test used, the clinician who interprets the test results, and the S who is tested.
In this brief comment on J. M. Wood, M. T. Nezworski, and W. J. Stejskal's (1997) response to his article (Meyer, 1997a), the author documents how J. M. Wood et al. continue to make allegations based on a limited subset of the available literature. He also points out specifically how their criticisms regarding kappa, test-retest reliability, true score theory, score aggregation, and his meta-analysis are incorrect. He concludes that these new errors provide additional reasons to be cautious about the conclusions proffered in their other articles on the Rorschach.
Elsewhere the authors have called attention to fundamental problems with the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach (CS). G. Meyer (1997) attempts to refute the authors' criticisms of CS interrater reliability, but misrepresents what they actually stated, and several of his arguments are based on psychometric errors and misunderstandings. The meta-analysis in Meyer's article is flawed and fails to demonstrate CS interrater reliability. Instead of defending the CS with unsound arguments and shaky numbers, Rorschach proponents need to accept valid criticisms and undertake high-quality replicated studies of reliability and validity.
J. H. Kleiger (see record 1993-04017-001) purports that Rorschach data would be more useful if conceptualized in an ego-psychology model. Although theoretical models can provide a basis from which findings may be integrated, their direct application to the interpretation of data can often cause distortion and be quite misleading. Kleiger's attempt to define the D scores in such a context offers a good illustration of this problem.
Comments on the article by E. D. Rossini and R. J. Moretti (see record 1997-04849-016 ) regarding interpretation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The present author notes that issues of test validity, use of quantified scoring systems, and appropriate normative data when interpreting the TAT were ignored. The present author notes that one should not evade issues of validity by alluding to "self-conferred expert clinical judgment." It is also argued that because predictive methods have almost always been more accurate than or as accurate as clinicians, it is inappropriate to assert that such expertise is exactly what the master psychodiagnostician offers beyond actuarial personality evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Methods of personality assessment that were to become known as projective techniques developed gradually over a long period of time. It is even tempting to paraphrase Ebbinghaus’ remark about psychology (Boring, 1929), that projective techniques have a “long past but a short history.” The penchant of man for imposing his own ideas and interpretations upon unstructured stimuli was noted, and occasionally recorded, centuries ago. For example, Leonardo da Vinci reports in his Introduction to the Painter concerning the associative experiences possible as a result of viewing a blot made by a sponge upon the wall: “... various experiences can be seen in such a blot, provided one wants to find them in it—human heads, various animals, battles, cliffs, seas, clouds or forests and other things...” (quoted in Zubin, et al, 1965, p. 167). Also mentioned by Leonardo is the possibility of “hearing” words when a bell is ringing. The stimuli are, therefore, not restricted to any one sensory modality as to their potential to evoke the associative experiences.
Proper use of the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) in practice and research requires (a) well-founded expectations concerning what the RIM should be expected to do, and (b) appropriate methods for examining its validity in achieving the purposes for which it is intended. The RIM is a personality-assessment instrument, and its validity should be judged from its substantial correlations with observed behaviors that are conceptually linked to personality processes. Knowledge about personality functioning gleaned from Rorschach data may contribute to diagnostic formulations, but associations between Rorschach indices and psychometrically shaky DSM diagnostic categories have little bearing on the utility of the instrument for achieving its intended purposes. Adequate conceptual formulation of this kind is as necessary as solid empirical verification in the development and use of psychological assessment instruments. (C) 2000 John Wiley ei Sons, Inc.
Common definitions of projective tests are examined and shown to be imprecise. A distinction is made between projective tests and the projective technique. It is argued that the unique formal feature of the projective technique is its particular scoring process: response categories are intensionally defined and comprise infinite sets of responses. Although two groups of projective tests are differentiated, a continuity from ‘psychometric’ to projective tests is argued. Statistical implications are also discussed.
This second edition of Irving Weiner's classic comprehensive, clinician-friendly guide to utilizing the Rorschach for personality description has been revised to reflect both recent modifications in the Rorschach Comprehensive System and new evidence concerning the soundness and utility of Rorschach assessment. It integrates the basic ingredients of structural, thematic, behavioral, and sequence analysis strategies into systematic guidelines for describing personality functioning. It is divided into three parts. Part I concerns basic considerations in Rorschach testing and deals with conceptual and empirical foundations of the inkblot method and with critical issues in formulating and justifying Rorschach inferences. Part II is concerned with elements of interpretation that contribute to thorough utilization of data in a Rorschach protocol: the Comprehensive System search strategy; the complementary roles of projection and card pull in determining response characteristics; and the interpretive significance of structural variables, content themes, test behaviors, and the sequence in which various response characteristics occur. Each of the chapters presents and illustrates detailed guidelines for translating Rorschach findings into descriptions of structural and dynamic aspects of personality functioning. The discussion throughout emphasizes the implications of Rorschach data for personality assets and liabilities, with specific respect to adaptive and maladaptive features of the manner in which people attend to their experience, use ideation, modulate affect, manage stress, view themselves, and relate to others. Part III presents 10 case illustrations of how the interpretive principles delineated in Part II can be used to identify assets and liabilities in personality functioning and apply this information in clinical practice. These cases represent persons from diverse demographic backgrounds and demonstrate a broad range of personality styles and clinical issues. Discussion of these cases touches on numerous critical concerns in arriving at different diagnoses, formulating treatment plans, and elucidating structural and dynamic determinants of behavior. © 2003 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Current literature reflects a persistent inclination in some quarters to denigrate the Rorschach Inkblot Method as an invalid and useless instrument for assessing personality functioning. Although perhaps warranted to some extent in years past, such harsh criticism of the Rorschach runs counter to abundant contemporary data demonstrating its psychometric soundness and practical utility. This article offers some observations concerning the kinds of information that are necessary to validate assessment instruments and provides examples of lines of research that document Rorschach validity and utility for various purposes.
Psychoanalysis attempts to represent the underlying dynamics of personality as an interaction of forces. Each force is a need which impels the individual person to pursue a certain course of activity—a course of activity which usually involves a certain kind of object. An inhibited or repressed force with its associated impressions of objects may manifest itself in the guise of a fantasy which the subject can report on, or its presence may be inferred by the analyst on the basis of other phenomena. In the latter case the analyst is apt to speak of it as a repressed unconscious fantasy. Since the exposition of such hidden fantasies is one of the fundamental aims of analysis and since, at best, the customary technio for accomplishing it calls for a long period of watchful waiting, it seems that it would be helpful if a more expeditious method could be devised. For, if
-Research assessing the validity of the Rorschach hypothesis that achromatic responses (C') reflect depressiveness was reviewed. The conclusions drawn from these data are that the research does not support the hypothesis as stated and research is needed to clarify the relationship of depressiveness to the determinants or the psychological meaning of C'. Until such time as obieccive signs of depression and depressiveness can be discovered by research, clinicians should not interpret C' as dgnifying depressiveness. If the search is for assistance in discerning depressiveness from the analysis of Rorschach data, until a more objective and valid method of such assessment is developed, the presence of depressive content would appear to be a satisfactory method of assessing a person's depressiveness. Rorschach (1921) did not accord much attention to the kind of achromatic response we know as C'; in his system he was more concerned with the person's use of the dark-light dimension in terms of shading as texture. However, in commenting about the affective meaning of color responses, Rorschach, in passing, noted It has long been realized that there must exist a very dose relationship between color and affectivity. The gloomy person is one to which everything looks 'black' . . . Black is the color of mourning (p. 99).
Wood, Nczworski, and Stejskal are correct in noting that the Comprehensive System has been scrutinized less carefully than might have been expected or desired A few critiques have addressed isolated variables in the system, and some comments that have been published suggest that attempts at detailed scoring-coding of the Rorschach tend to neglect the idiographic features of the subject and that the system itself has limited use because it is not aligned with any particular theory of personality This article by Wood et al evolves from a different perspective in which the authors attempt to evaluate the system from an empirical basis Unfortunately, I am not sure that they have achieved their objective, mainly because the manner in which they have addressed each of the issues selected for discussion presents a rather misleading picture Let me attempt to address each in this comment
Discusses the contributions made by John E. Exner, Jr., one of four 1997 recipients of the American Psychological Association (APA) Awards for Distinguished Professional Contributions. Exner is recognized for his contributions to the methodology, language, and literature base of the Rorschach, to help ensure the instrument's usefulness. A selected bibliography is appended.
In speculating about the meaning of M, Rorschach thought that it was a function of the inner life of individuals, reflecting, primarily, intelligence, creativity, and imaginativeness. Klopfer thought M reflected imagination, while Beck thought M reflected the fantasy life of individuals. While all these conceptualizations focus on the inner life, there are subtle differences between these interpretations of M. Research indicated that M seemed to be more reflective of the capacity for imagination and fantasy rather than intelligence and creativity. However, clearly the research done thus far constitutes but the beginnings of a number of programs of research which could/should be done before the meaning of M is truly understood.
Interpretation of response to color on the Rorschach rests on Rorschach's assertion that color has affective connotations. His assumption was based on the connection of color and affect in culture and as regards the differential response to color by patients he tested. This review focused on research which could lend support to Rorschach's empirically derived notion. Ignoring clinical studies of psychiatric patients (in the absence of any theory of affects unique to specific psychiatric groups), this review focuses primarily on psychological tests of the hypothesis. Affect does seem to be associated with colors but not so specifically as to be useful in interpreting the meaning of the response by any one person. Moreover, affect was seen to affect the many dimensions of the Rorschach stimuli. Interpretation of the response to color must take into account the unsystematic way in which factors that influence response to color on the Rorschach, e.g., saturation, context, area covered, etc., vary from card to card. These factors alone influence the response to color and make it impossible to draw conclusions using the plates as constructed. The interpretation of affect from response to color on the Rorschach was seriously questioned.
"Construct validation was introduced in order to specify types of research required in developing tests for which the conventional views on validation are inappropriate. Personality tests, and some tests of ability, are interpreted in terms of attributes for which there is no adequate criterion. This paper indicates what sorts of evidence can substantiate such an interpretation, and how such evidence is to be interpreted." 60 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
From Rorschach to date space responses ( S) have been interpreted as reflecting the trait of ‘oppositionalism.’ The research assessing the validity of Rorschach's hypothesis was reviewed. The results of the research done so far do not strongly or consistently support this hypothesis. On the basis of a critical analysis of the research strategies employed in these studies, conclusions and recommendations were made.
Reviews Raymond B. Cattell, the man, more than it reviews his book (see record 1958-03918-000). One cannot really review a thousand-page book in nine or ten paragraphs, particularly when it is as solidly packed with the theoretical juice and mathematical meat of psychology as this one. Yet every counselor should know, without worrying about details, what Cattell is striving to achieve; for a steadily growing number of psychologists believe that his work will revolutionize the study of personality. The curious thing is that relatively few persons seem to recognize the galactic scope of his notions. The reason for this is probably Cattell himself. Accordingly, this review will devote more space to the man than to the book on the premise that the significance of both may possibly be better understood. The aims of the book, the scope and handling of its subject matter should cause it to be hailed as truly monumental. But if the past reception of Cattell's work is a guide, no such accolade will be bestowed at the present time. This is curious; for in many ways I think an excellent case could be presented as to why Cattell should be recognized as one of the half-dozen who have contributed most to modern psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A comprehensive review of the use of anatomical dolls reveals three areas of research: (1) normative studies (with no known history of sexual abuse) of children's interactions with anatomical dolls; (2) comparative studies of children suspected of being victims of sexual abuse, and those believed not to be; and (3) the role anatomical dolls play in the identification of a child who has been sexually abused. The results of empirical studies in each area are mixed and inconsistent. However, there is general clinical support for the use of the anatomical doll as a demonstration aid during forensic interviewing with children over 3 years of age.
Originally published in JCLP, 1, 296–303 (1945). © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 56: 367–374, 2000.
The Draw A Person test has continued to be one of the most frequently utilized psychological tests with children and adolescents. This is especially true for the child/adolescent populations in state hospitals. Because of the frequent criticism leveled against the DAP's validity, this study was undertaken in order to provide normative data for the DAP with this particular clinical population. Previous research has focused on the drawings of the same sex as the subjects; this study deals with the characteristics of the drawings of the opposite sex. The subjects were 84 male and 66 female psychiatric patients from the Adolescent Unit (AU) at Rusk State Hospital. As each patient was admitted to the AU, he was scheduled for psychological testing, with the DAP, the Revised Beta, and the MMPI being a part of this testing. The results of this study indicate that IQ ranking is the most significant factor affecting DAP test performance by male subjects. IQ ranking was not found to significantly influence the drawings by females. Neither MMPI test performance nor social background factors were shown to significantly affect DAP test performance. It is suggested that in order for the DAP to become a more objectively utilized personality technique, a scoring method should be developed that takes into account the overall quality of the drawing in conjunction with the individual details of each area of the figure drawn. More focus should also be given to the characteristics of the opposite-sex figure drawn by the subjects and its potential interpretation.
Thesis (Ed. D.)--University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 1987. Includes bibliographical references (p. 304-314). Photocopy.
The Com pre hen sive Sys tern for the Ror schach is currently the sub ject of heated con tro versy among psy chol o gists. Much “com mon knowl edge” about the test is ei ther in cor rect or in dis pute. Psychologists who use the Ror schach in fo ren sic settings can often be sue cess fully chal lenged by well-in formed at tor neys and may risk becoming the subject of ethics complaints. This article identifies seven is sues that are particularly relevantto use ofthe Comprehensive System for the Ror schach in forensic psychology.
Emphasis on the narrative mode of thought offers new ideas about the interpretation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). I discuss two new approaches to the TAT, based on psychodynamic concepts and sensitive to the narrative features of TAT stories. Research supporting these coding systems-assessing the level of object relations and assessing the use of defense mechanisms-has shown these measures to be reliable and valid. I discuss considerations of reliability and validity, as they apply to the TAT.
There are a number of legal and professional standards that guide admissibility of expert testimony and psychometric evidence. The most important legal tests for admissibility include the Federal Rules of Evidence (1992), the Frye test (United States v. Frye, 1923), and the Daubert standard (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1993). Within the profession, Heilbrun (1992) and Marlowe (1995) have outlined criteria for the selection of psychological tests in forensic settings. Using these legal and professional standards, the Rorschach is analyzed according to individual criteria Although several issues require additional research, it is concluded that the status of the Rorschach Inkblot Method is such that it satisfies legal tests of admissibility and professional criteria that have been suggested. In those cases where the Rorschach is apt to be deemed inadmissible, it is likely due to how data from the instrument are utilized, rather than characteristics of the instrument itself.
This article is a response to Joiner and Schmidt (this issue) concerning their study "Size, Detail, and Line Heaviness in Children's Drawings as Correlates of Emotional Distress: (More) Negative Evidence" (Joiner, Schmidt, & Barnett, 1996). Several psychometric problems in Joiner and Schmidt's response to our critique of this study are identified. Also, several conceptual similarities and dissimilarities between Waehler's (this issue) position regarding figure drawings and ours are discussed.
Comments are offered regarding how Joiner, Schmidt, and Barnett's (1996) and Riethmiller and Handler's (this issue) articles about psychodiagnostic drawings seem to represent different emphases within the science and practice of psychology. Recognizing the distinctions in these perspectives, while working to bridge the gap between them, can lead to better empirical investigations and improved clinical practice.
Riethmiller and Handler (this issue) critiqued our article on drawing indices and emotional distress (Joiner, Schmidt, & Barnett, 1996). On several counts, we find their points unconvincing. Specifically, we reject the possibilities that our null results are explained by (a) the distinction between self-attributed and implicit motives, (b) measurement error, and (c) curvilinear relations between variables. Furthermore, we document, using Riethmiller and Handler's own data, that previous research on drawings, construed by Riethmiller and Handler as supportive, actually undermines the validity of drawings as indices of emotional distress.
This article is a critique of a study by Joiner, Schmidt, and Barnett (1996). The critique focuses on several methodological problems. The article also discusses what we believe is a more productive approach to Draw-A-Person Test research, attempting to validate the DAP in the manner in which it is used in clinical practice.