ArticleLiterature Review

Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults

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Abstract

SUMMARY In order to stimulate further adaptation toward specific training goals, progressive resistance training (RT) protocols are necessary. The optimal characteristics of strength-specific programs include the use of concentric (CON), eccentric (ECC), and isometric muscle actions and the performance of bilateral and unilateral single- and multiple-joint exercises. In addition, it is recommended that strength programs sequence exercises to optimize the preservation of exercise intensity (large before small muscle group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises, and higher-intensity before lower-intensity exercises). For novice (untrained individuals with no RT experience or who have not trained for several years) training, it is recommended that loads correspond to a repetition range of an 8-12 repetition maximum (RM). For intermediate (individuals with approximately 6 months of consistent RT experience) to advanced (individuals with years of RT experience) training, it is recommended that individuals use a wider loading range from 1 to 12 RM in a periodized fashion with eventual emphasis on heavy loading (1-6 RM) using 3- to 5-min rest periods between sets performed at a moderate contraction velocity (1-2 s CON; 1-2 s ECC). When training at a specific RM load, it is recommended that 2-10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number. The recommendation for training frequency is 2-3 dIwkj1 for novice training, 3-4 dIwkj1 for intermediate training, and 4-5 dIwkj1 for advanced training. Similar program designs are recom- mended for hypertrophy training with respect to exercise selection and frequency. For loading, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 1-12 RM be used in periodized fashion with emphasis on the 6-12 RM zone using 1- to 2-min rest periods between sets at a moderate velocity. Higher volume, multiple-set programs are recommended for maximizing hypertrophy. Progression in power training entails two general loading strategies: 1) strength training and 2) use of light loads (0-60% of 1 RM for lower body exercises; 30-60% of 1 RM for upper body exercises) performed at a fast contraction velocity with 3-5 min of rest between sets for multiple sets per exercise (three to five sets). It is also recommended that emphasis be placed on multiple-joint exercises especially those involving the total body. For local muscular endurance training, it is recommended that light to moderate loads (40-60% of 1 RM) be performed for high repetitions (915) using short rest periods (G90 s). In the interpretation of this position stand as with prior ones, recommendations should be applied in context and should be contingent upon an individual's target goals, physical capacity, and training

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... Research on HIIT's effects on health, including in clinical populations, is expanding (Taylor et al., 2019). Contemporary resistance training guidelines suggest novices start with 1-3 sets per exercise, increasing to 3-6 for seasoned trainers (Ratamess et al., 2009). Advancing proficiency optimizes gains with up to six sets per exercise, correlating with slightly reduced all-cause mortality (Stamatakis et al., 2018). ...
... Advancing proficiency optimizes gains with up to six sets per exercise, correlating with slightly reduced all-cause mortality (Stamatakis et al., 2018). Maximizing resistance exercise benefits requires precise manipulation of variables like frequency, intensity, sets, repetitions, rest, volume, velocity, and exercises (Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004;Ratamess et al., 2009). Intensity, ideally 60% to 85% of one-repetition maximum (1RM), fosters strength and muscle mass, with high-intensity resistance training generally more effective but lower intensities also beneficial, especially for older adults (De Vries et al., 2012). ...
... High-intensity exercise has been shown to be effective in improving muscle mass and strength in PLWH (Deminice et al., 2022). Resistance training is considered the most effective exercise for improving muscle performance and size with guidelines established to ensure that these goals are achieved (Ratamess et al., 2009). Briefly, maximizing the response to resistance training involves the manipulation of acute training variables (Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004). ...
... Progressive overload is one of the most important factors in increasing sports performance. It has also been shown that altering the training load does affects acute metabolic (Ratamess, Alvar, Evetoch, Housh, Kibler & Kraemer, 2009;Ratamess, Falvo, Mangine, Hoffman, Faigenbaum & Kang, 2007) and neural (Ratamess et al., 2009), hormonal (Kraemer and Ratamess, 2005;Kraemer, Spiering, Volek, Ratamess, Sharman, Rubin &Van Heest, 2006), and cardiovascular (Ratamess et al., 2009) responses towards exercise. The training load (intensity) was started at low intensity and was increased weekly up to 90% of 1RMM at the end of the training period. ...
... Progressive overload is one of the most important factors in increasing sports performance. It has also been shown that altering the training load does affects acute metabolic (Ratamess, Alvar, Evetoch, Housh, Kibler & Kraemer, 2009;Ratamess, Falvo, Mangine, Hoffman, Faigenbaum & Kang, 2007) and neural (Ratamess et al., 2009), hormonal (Kraemer and Ratamess, 2005;Kraemer, Spiering, Volek, Ratamess, Sharman, Rubin &Van Heest, 2006), and cardiovascular (Ratamess et al., 2009) responses towards exercise. The training load (intensity) was started at low intensity and was increased weekly up to 90% of 1RMM at the end of the training period. ...
... Progressive overload is one of the most important factors in increasing sports performance. It has also been shown that altering the training load does affects acute metabolic (Ratamess, Alvar, Evetoch, Housh, Kibler & Kraemer, 2009;Ratamess, Falvo, Mangine, Hoffman, Faigenbaum & Kang, 2007) and neural (Ratamess et al., 2009), hormonal (Kraemer and Ratamess, 2005;Kraemer, Spiering, Volek, Ratamess, Sharman, Rubin &Van Heest, 2006), and cardiovascular (Ratamess et al., 2009) responses towards exercise. The training load (intensity) was started at low intensity and was increased weekly up to 90% of 1RMM at the end of the training period. ...
Article
Greater muscular strength can enhance the ability to perform general sport skills such as jumping, sprinting, and change of direction tasks. Traditional Resistance Training (TRT) is broadly applied by strength and conditioning coaches to increase strength. However, recently, Whole-Body Electromyostimulation (WB-EMS) has been proven to be able to increase muscular strength in high performance athletes. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of two different training modalities on muscular strength. Sixty female collegiate softball players (Age = 23.52 ± 1.89years; Height = 156.20 ± 1.71 cm; Mass = 53.21 ± 3.17 kg) were randomly assigned into 3 groups. Along 8 weeks, all the groups trained like usual, but the first group performed additional of whole-body electrical stimulation (WB-EMS), the second group performed additional of traditional resistance training (TRT), and the third group (CTR) did not perform any additional training after regular softball training. Before and after the 8-week program, muscular strength (upper body and lower body) was evaluated in the 3 groups. The main results showed that after 8-week training, the upper body strength was significantly increased in TRT and WB-EMS groups in comparison with CTR (p = 0.000, and p = 0.000, respectively). However, t value showed greater improvement of upper body strength in TRT (7.37) group compared to WB-EMS (2.37) group. Similar finding on lower body strength where TRT and WB-EMS groups showed significant increase compared to CTR group (p = 0.000, and p = 0.000, respectively). Moreover, t value showed greater improvement of lower body strength in TRT (8.40) group compared to WB-EMS (3.97) group. The findings of this study highlighted the efficiency of both training modalities to improve muscular strength but also suggested that the traditional resistance training should be emphasize in improving muscular strength compared to utilizing whole-body electrical stimulation training.
... A rest interval between sets and exercises of 1 min and a load of 80% of one maximum repetition (1-RM) were used. The training protocol followed the resistance training guidelines for older adults proposed by the National Strength and Conditioning Association [80] and the American College of Sports Medicine [81,82]. ...
... We observed an increase in muscle strength in the training group through the increase in the load in the 10-RM test after the intervention, both in the lower and upper limbs, corroborating studies that also documented an increase in muscle strength in the lower and upper limbs [42,54,82,115] or only in the lower limbs [63,82,116,117] in elderly individuals with MCI. This increase in muscle strength was expected due to the progressive adjustment of the load and reflects the benefit of this practice for this population, since increased muscle strength is related to better cognitive performance [115] and a lower risk of developing dementia [118]. ...
... We observed an increase in muscle strength in the training group through the increase in the load in the 10-RM test after the intervention, both in the lower and upper limbs, corroborating studies that also documented an increase in muscle strength in the lower and upper limbs [42,54,82,115] or only in the lower limbs [63,82,116,117] in elderly individuals with MCI. This increase in muscle strength was expected due to the progressive adjustment of the load and reflects the benefit of this practice for this population, since increased muscle strength is related to better cognitive performance [115] and a lower risk of developing dementia [118]. ...
Article
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) refers to cognitive alterations with preservation of functionality. Individuals with this diagnosis have a higher risk of developing dementia. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as physical exercise, are beneficial for the cognition of this population. However, the impact of resistance training (RT) on the brain anatomy of older adults with MCI has not yet been clarified. This study aimed to investigate the effects of RT on cognition and brain anatomy in MCI. Forty-four older adults with MCI, 22 in the training group and 22 in the control group, were evaluated in neuropsychological tests and magnetic resonance imaging at the beginning and end of the study, which lasted 24 weeks. We used repeated measures ANOVA. The training group showed better performance in verbal episodic memory after intervention. The control group showed a decrease in gray matter volume in the hippocampus and precuneus, while the training group showed no reduction in the right hippocampus and precuneus. However, it showed a decrease in the volume of these regions on the left side and in the left superior frontal gyrus. In the analysis of white matter integrity, fractional anisotropy increased in the training group and decreased in the control group. Axial diffusivity decreased in the training group, while radial diffusivity increased in the control group, and mean diffusivity varied according to the tract evaluated. RT improves memory performance, positively influences white matter integrity parameters, and plays a protective role against atrophy of the hippocampus and precuneus in MCI.
... Therefore, RT is known to induce health and performance benefits, with the most prominent adaptation being the maintenance or gain of strength (3). An increase in strength induced by RT was demonstrated in healthy adults (4), older adults (3,5), rehabilitation (6), and athletes (7,8). Interestingly, these long-term adaptations to RT have been demonstrated not only in the peripheral muscular system but also in the central nervous system, particularly the brain (9)(10)(11)(12). ...
... The physiological adaptations to RT result from the specific stimuli induced throughout regular and repeated bouts of RE (4). Therefore, the exercise variables prescribed for the single RE bouts within RT are decisive for the short-and long-term functional adaptations to RT, including those observed in the brain (16). ...
... In addition to the load, the total number of repetitions performed during a training session needs to be considered. The RE volume is defined as the product of repetitions and the resistance load prescribed (4,19) and influences recruitment strategies which aim to counteract the manifestation of neuromuscular fatigue (20). Both exercise volume and load are critical factors in determining the RE stimuli that promote neuromuscular adaptations, because they impact the global energetic and neural recruitment demands associated with RE (17,19,21,22). ...
Article
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Introduction: Resistance training (RT) is known to induce both peripheral and central adaptations, resulting in enhanced strength, sports performance, and health benefits. These adaptations are specific to the training stimuli. The acute cortical mechanisms of single sessions resistance exercise (RE) are not yet understood. Therefore, this review investigates the electrocortical activity during acute RE regarding the specific RE stimuli. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across three databases, focusing on the acute electrocortical activity associated with the muscle contraction type, load, and volume of RE in healthy young adults. Results: Out of an initial 1,332 hits, 19 studies were included for data synthesis. The findings from these studies show that the RE load, contraction type, and volume during RE significantly affect brain activity. The current literature exhibits methodological heterogeneity attributed to variations in study quality, differences in the location of cortical sources, the cortical outcome parameter and the use of diverse training interventions. Discussion: Despite inconsistencies in the current literature, this review highlights the need to investigate time and frequency-specific characteristics when examining electrocortical activity during RE. More research is necessary to further explore the acute cortical mechanisms related to resistance exercise. Future research could improve our understanding of acute neural responses to RE and provide insights into mechanism underlying more long-term neuroplastic adaptations to RT.
... Resistance training (RT) is the main mode of exercise used to enhance muscle adaptations, leading to significant increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy 3 . Exercise selection is a critical component of a strength training plan 4 , manipulated to target a specific muscle group 5 . Additionally, the equipment used in the RT could differ either in freeweights or machines-based exercises, which both show different physiological and muscle recruitment patterns 5,6 . ...
... Exercise selection is a critical component of a strength training plan 4 , manipulated to target a specific muscle group 5 . Additionally, the equipment used in the RT could differ either in freeweights or machines-based exercises, which both show different physiological and muscle recruitment patterns 5,6 . ...
... In contrast, with pulleys, the line of action of the resistance follows the cable that connects the hand of the subject to the pulley 12 . Exercises performed on machines can interfere with muscle recruitment because exercises with free-weights require greater control, leading to increased activation in the stabilizing muscles 5,10 . Also, it is assumed that the use of machines-based exercises elicits a greater overload on the primary motor muscle by reducing the action of muscle stabilizers 5,13 . ...
Article
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Background: Exercise selection plays a key role in the muscle recruitment pattern of different muscles groups, and the type of external load system may affect the muscle demand due to varying joint torques. Methods: This study aimed to compare the muscle activation of the main muscle groups involved in the bench press performed with two different types of external resistance, a free-weight (i.e., dumbbell), and a pulley system (i.e., cable), in trained individuals. Twelve resistance-trained young adults (26±4.7 years; 26.6±2.0 kg/m2) performed one set of 10 maximal repetitions (RM) with 75% 1RM in dumbbell bench press (DBP) and cable bench press (CBP). The muscle activity of the pectoral major (PM), anterior deltoid (AD), bicep brachii (BB), and triceps brachii (TB) was recorded with surface electromyography (EMG), and the maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) was assessed for each muscle group. The Mann-Whitney U test was used with p≤0.05. Results: There were no significant differences in muscle activity for PM and AD among the exercises (p>0.05). However, the BB showed greater activity on the CBP (p≤0.05), and the activation of the TT was higher on the DBP (p≤0.05). Conclusions: The results suggest that for resistance-trained individuals, the PM and AD were similarly recruited in these two exercises. Nevertheless, the CBP was superior to the BB muscle activity, and the DBP was superior to the TB muscle activity.
... Phase II should involve strengthening major muscle groups, especially the quadriceps. It is recommended to perform an endurance-based strength training program two to three times a week, with a time gap of at least 48 hours for recovery (Stand, 2009). Exercises using light to moderate weights that are less than 50% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) are recommended to be more than 15 repetitions (Claiborne et al., 2006). ...
... Evidence suggests that two to three sessions per week with 48-hour recovery periods optimize endurance gains (Garber et al., 2011). Gradual progression in resistance training, such as quadriceps exercises using light to moderate weights, aligns with recommendations for enhancing neuromuscular control and reducing muscle atrophy (Claiborne et al., 2006;Stand, 2009). Importantly, Phase II aims to achieve full extension and improved flexion while ensuring quadriceps strength development, setting the stage for functional recovery. ...
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Background and Study Aim. ACL reconstruction is the surgical replacement of the anterior cruciate ligament with a tissue graft to restore knee function. To avoid problems including edema, loss of range of motion, muscle weakness, poor balance, and recovery of knee function, rehabilitation treatment should be performed after surgery. Immediate implementation of open kinetic chain exercises, use of criterion-based progressions for various activities such as running, sprinting, and plyometrics, and implementation of a secondary prevention program. This clinical practice review is to discuss the parameters associated with the rate of phase repair for ACL repair and to guide therapists according to the parameters of postoperative healing. Material and Methods. The patient presented with a knee brace still in place, swelling and incision marks above the patella, and atrophy of the dextra quadrisep muscle, the patient still had difficulty bending and straightening his right knee, and used crutches to help him walk. The modalities given are massage, electrotherapy (TENS), various exercises (exercise therapy), stretching, and cryotherapy. Results. There are five phases of rehabilitation: maximal protection, moderate protection, minimum protection (initial strengthening), Neuromuscular Control and Functional Training (strengthening-cardiovascular conditioning), and maintenance and Return to Activity (controlled agility-advanced conditioning). These stages are to help reduce swelling, increase joint range of motion, increase muscle strength, and reduce pain. Conclusion. Periodization theory should be fundamentally understood by sports rehabilitation professionals, especially physical therapists and sports medicine physicians. So that a safe and organized postoperative procedure can be established.
... Acutely, isotonic resistance exercise increases electromyography (EMG) amplitude (e.g., Dankel et al., 2017;Paz et al., 2017), muscle thickness (e.g., Csapo et al., 2011;Yitzchaki et al., 2020) and muscle protein synthesis (Lim et al., 2022). Thus, repeated acute resistance exercise bouts over a period of weeks may lead to muscle morphological adaptations and improvements in performance and health outcomes, such as increased muscle mass, strength, endurance, and control and/or reduction of chronic diseases and musculoskeletal injury (Bennie et al., 2020;Ratamess et al., 2009;Schoenfeld, 2010Schoenfeld, , 2020Suchomel et al., 2016). While chronic resistance exercise is considered a potent means of stimulating muscle hypertrophy and/or preventing muscle atrophy (Lim et al., 2022), traditional isotonic resistance exercise involves alternating concentric and eccentric muscle actions at 2 high-velocities with loads > 65% 1-RM (Ratamess et al., 2009). ...
... Thus, repeated acute resistance exercise bouts over a period of weeks may lead to muscle morphological adaptations and improvements in performance and health outcomes, such as increased muscle mass, strength, endurance, and control and/or reduction of chronic diseases and musculoskeletal injury (Bennie et al., 2020;Ratamess et al., 2009;Schoenfeld, 2010Schoenfeld, , 2020Suchomel et al., 2016). While chronic resistance exercise is considered a potent means of stimulating muscle hypertrophy and/or preventing muscle atrophy (Lim et al., 2022), traditional isotonic resistance exercise involves alternating concentric and eccentric muscle actions at 2 high-velocities with loads > 65% 1-RM (Ratamess et al., 2009). As such, it may be difficult and/or not tolerable to perform with musculoskeletal injury and may not train or reflect the demands of sports that utilise low-velocity movements (Oranchuk et al., 2019). ...
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Traditional isotonic resistance exercise (TRD-RE) improves muscle mass, strength, and overall health. However, TRD-RE may be impractical or unfeasible in injury or sport specific situations. Compared to TRD-RE, eccentric quasi-isometric resistance exercise (EQI-RE) is a low-velocity resistance exercise modality suggested to acutely produce similar and/or greater time under tension, motor unit recruitment, and antagonist co-activation. With limited investigations or comparisons to other forms of resistance exercise, however, evidence is lacking. As differences between males and females exist in time under tension and motor unit behaviour in other resistance exercise contexts, the current study explored sex-differences in time under tension and surface electromyography (sEMG) across 2 sets of TRD-RE and EQI-RE. Twenty-seven (n = 13 females) participants performed unilateral TRD-RE and EQI-RE of the elbow flexors while sEMG was collected from the biceps and triceps brachii. Several main and interaction effects of resistance exercise type, set, and sex were present for time under tension, linear envelope peak (LEpeak), absolute (iEMGabs) and relative (iEMG%) integrated sEMG, with set 1 typically having higher sEMG values than set 2, and EQI-RE having greater time under tension than TRD-RE. Notably, females produced significantly more time under tension, iEMGabs, iEMG%, and co-activation than males during EQI-RE, while males experienced a more significant set-to-set reduction in time under tension and LEpeak during TRD-RE. Overall, TRD-RE may result in quicker voluntary excitation and subsequent fatigue of motor units compared to EQI-RE, while females may accrue more resistance exercise volume than males when performing EQI-RE. Theoretically, these effects could lead to long-term sex-differences in strength and hypertrophy outcomes between males and females, TRD-RE and EQI-RE.
... 5 Notably, 1 variable coaches can manipulate when prescribing exercise is the degree of movement restriction, with the use of free weights (FW) allowing for more degrees of freedom compared to guided machines (eg, Smith machine [SM]). 6 Gaining insight into the long-term effects of movement restriction on the changes in LVP parameters and muscle CSA could facilitate the prescription of more effective training strategies, ultimately contributing to maximize strength and performance outcomes. ...
... After 15 minutes to allow fluid distribution stabilization, VL images were taken. A trained operator blinded to the training group acquired 3 good panoramic images per muscle using a 38-mm linear-array probe (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13). A generous amount of transmission gel (GIMA) was applied to exert minimal pressure. ...
Article
Purpose : Although previous studies have compared strength-training adaptations between free weights (FW) and machine-guided exercises, those studies did not use a Smith machine (SM), which most closely replicates the exercises performed with FW. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the chronic effects of strength-focused, velocity-based training regimens using FW versus SM. Methods : Thirty-seven sport-science students (14 female) were assigned, balanced by sex and relative strength, to either an FW or SM training group. The training program lasted 8 weeks (2 sessions/wk), and participants performed 4 sets per exercise (back squat and bench press) at 70% of their 1-repetition maximum with moderate effort levels (20%–25% velocity loss). Load–velocity profile parameters (load-axis intercept, velocity-axis intercept, and area under the load–velocity relationship line), cross-sectional areas of the vastus lateralis and pectoralis major muscles, and the number of repetitions to failure in the bench-press exercise were assessed before and after the training program. Mechanical variables were assessed using both FW and SM . Results : All variables, with the exception of back-squat velocity-axis intercept ( P = .124), improved in both training groups. The changes in load-axis intercept and area under the load–velocity relationship line were more pronounced when the training and testing conditions matched. Failure in the bench-press exercise and cross-sectional areas of the vastus lateralis and pectoralis major showed comparable improvements for both training groups, while velocity-axis intercept tended to improve more in the SM group. Conclusions : The general population, unconcerned with the specificity of strength adaptations, can choose a training modality (FW or SM) based on personal preferences.
... Rights reserved. [33]. This oversight might explain why several systematic reviews have failed to identify a positive relationship between study duration and increases in muscle function or strength beyond 12 weeks of intervention [22,24,39]. ...
... Notably, the incorporation of periodization regimens is recommended not only for healthy and athletic populations but also in the exercise oncology literature [15]. Second, conventional progression approaches, such as increasing the load by a fixed weight, i.e., a linear progression model or increasing the load by a fixed proportion of the training load (e.g., 2-10%) [33], i.e., an exponential progression model, mismatch the empirical volume-time trajectory. This incongruence might lead to a non-optimal load of the muscles. ...
Article
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Purpose In resistance training (RT), the change in volume-load from training sessions (TS) to TS is an indicator of training progress. Resulting growth trajectories are likely to differ between individuals. Understanding this variation is important for exercise planning in general, but even more for clinical populations. We investigated this variation in breast cancer patients undergoing treatment. Methods Data of 69 patients from two randomized controlled trails were investigated. They conducted a 12-week RT program. We fitted a quadratic Bayesian regression model to the baseline standardized volume-load over the course of the intervention. We allowed all parameters to vary both between exercises and between individuals. Results We observed a positive linear component of 0.093 (95% uncertainty interval (UI) 0.058 to 0.120) and a negative quadratic component of − 0.002 (95% UI -0.008 to 0.001) for the mean trajectory of the change in volume-load. For the different exercises, we observed a dispersion for both the linear (0.043, 95% UI 0.018 to 0.082) and the quadratic component (0.002, 95% UI < 0.001 to 0.004). Variation between individual appears to be approximately four times larger. We also observed between-exercise variation within individuals. Extrapolation of the regression model indicates training progression stagnates after 20.6 TS (95% UI 14.8 to 44.4). Conclusion There is substantial variation in RT response between breast cancer patients undergoing tumor therapy and in-between exercises. The non-linear trajectory indicates that training progression will eventually plateau, demanding periodization and timely modification. Trial registration BEATE Study: NCT01106820, Date: April 20, 2010; BEST Study: NCT01468766, Date: November 9, 2011.
... Durante el semestre, los alumnos reciben instrucción en distintas modalidades de ejercicio, promoviendo la actividad física regular y estableciendo las bases para un estilo de vida saludable. Como parte de este enfoque, se implementó un programa de entrenamiento de 10 semanas basado en las recomendaciones de la American College of Sports Medicine (Marrero, 2022b;Ratamess et al., 2009). ...
... Los ejercicios multiarticulares y en circuito se confirman como componentes clave para maximizar los beneficios en poco tiempo, apoyando la implementación de este tipo de programas en diferentes contextos. La literatura sugiere que la adopción de estos programas puede ser una herramienta poderosa para mejorar la salud física en poblaciones con diversas características y necesidades (Ratamess et al., 2009). ...
Article
La fuerza y la resistencia muscular son cualidades físicas esenciales para el bienestar y la salud. La actividad física regular, incluyendo ejercicios de resistencia, contribuye al aumento de la fuerza y la potencia muscular. La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) recomienda realizar al menos entre 150 y 300 minutos por semana de actividad física aeróbica moderada y ejercicios de fortalecimiento muscular. Reconociendo los riesgos potenciales del sedentarismo en estudiantes universitarios, este estudio propuso la implementación y evaluación de un programa de ejercicios para mejorar su salud y bienestar. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar si existía una diferencia significativa en la fuerza y resistencia, antes y después de un programa de ejercicios con una duración de 10 semanas, en un grupo de estudiantes universitarios que cursaban la materia Aptitud Física. Se realizó un estudio observacional, retrospectivo, longitudinal y analítico en estudiantes de esa clase, excluyendo a quienes estaban en grupos deportivos o presentaban lesiones. Se recopilaron datos en una muestra de 97 estudiantes que participaron en pruebas de fuerza y resistencia antes y después de un programa de entrenamiento. Los datos se analizaron utilizando la prueba estadística t de Student para muestras relacionadas. Se observó una mejora significativa en el rendimiento físico después de un programa de ejercicio, en el número de repeticiones de sentadillas, lagartijas, abdominales y burpees por minuto. El programa tuvo un impacto positivo en la resistencia física de la población estudiada. En conclusión, el programa de entrenamiento implementado es una estrategia eficaz para mejorar la fuerza y la resistencia muscular en estudiantes universitarios.
... [18] RT is essential for prevention and treatment of various diseases. [19][20][21][22] In this context, RT improves cardiovascular health and bone mineral density, [23] reduces blood pressure, [21] and reverses specific aging factors in skeletal muscle. [17] It is well known that RT has a positive effect on muscle growth and strength when performed repeatedly. ...
... [23,24] RT has been established as an efficient stimulus for muscular strength and hypertrophy. [22,25,26] In addition, RT significantly improves motor characteristics such as sprint and strength. [27,28] Previous studies have established that RT can improve body composition in untrained, young, [29,30] older, [31,32] and female subjects, among other impacts of RT. ...
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Background The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 8-week resistance training with different training volumes on body composition, maximum strength, peak power, and muscle thickness in non-training women. Methods This was a 3-arm, prospectively designed, randomized controlled trial. A total of 45 adult women aged 20.7 ± 1 years, the mean heights of the participants were 166 ± 0.07 cm, body weight was measured as 54.5 ± 8.8 kg, and body mass index was 19.9 ± 2.1 kg/m ² . They were randomized to low-volume training resistance training (LVT; n = 15, 3 sessions of 12 exercises per week), moderate-volume training resistance training (MVT; n = 15; 4 sessions of 12 exercises per week), and high-volume resistance training (HVT; n = 15; 5 sessions of 12 exercises per week) for 8 weeks. The muscle thickness (MT) of the vastus lateralis was assessed at baseline and 8 weeks later using a portable ultrasound device. Results A total of 39 adult women completed the study, with 2 participants from each group lost to follow-up. All experimental groups 1RM increased ( P = .001, effect size (ES) = 0.463) All groups showed improved muscle thickness (MT) ( P = .001) and CMJ ( P = .004). The group × time interaction is statistically significant ( P = .001) suggests that the changes in muscle thickness over time differ significantly between the different training volume groups (η p ²) is 0.368. Conclusion In untrained young women, resistance training improved muscle hypertrophy, maximal strength, power, and body composition in untrained young women. However, 4 sessions MVT per week were superior to LVT and HVT sessions, suggesting a nonlinear dose-response relationship favoring moderate volume over low or high volumes, at least in previously untrained young women. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT06449300)
... The rest interval between sets may allow for total or partial recovery of energy substrates during exercise, and its duration is normally related to the training objective and the type of energy pathway predominantly used during exercise [1,3]. In this sense, it is traditionally suggested to use recovery intervals of approximately one to two minutes for endurance and muscular hypertrophy-oriented RT sessions and approximately 3 to 5 minutes for strength/power-oriented RT sessions [1,7]. Some studies have already investigated different recovery intervals between sets, especially regarding variables such as the number of repetitions [2,4]. ...
... It is known that the length of the recovery interval is dependent on the training goals, allowing either partial or full recovery [7,22]. The literature indicates that to ensure sufficient energy availability via the resynthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) molecules and the augmentation of Phosphocreatine (PCr) reserves-crucial for strength and power-focused training-approximately 3 min between sets would be optimal [23,24]. ...
Article
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Purpose The percentage loss of speed is used in individualized control of set volume to mitigate unwanted fatigue. However, the effect of this monitoring on mechanical fatigue in the face of different inter-set recovery intervals is not known. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) during a bench press exercise session performed at maximal intentional velocity across different inter-set rest intervals (1, 2 and 3 minutes). Methods Fifteen individuals performing three sets of bench press with rest intervals of 1, 2, and 3 min between sets. Bench press was performed at 75% of 1 RM (repetition maximum), estimated from a load-velocity profile. MPV was measured using a linear position transducer (Encoder®). Results Main results showed that MPV decreased among all three sets for 1 min interval and from set 1 to set 3 for 2 min interval. Only the 3 min rest interval allowed complete recovery of MPV between sets (i.e., no differences of MPV among sets). Conclusions Therefore, professionals should consider at least a 3 min rest interval when performing 3 sets or 2 min when performing 2 sets to maintain movement velocity and effectively mitigate fatigue.
... Neuromuscular function is one of the most important and determining factors in athletic performance (Cormie et al., 2011;Mateluna-Núñez et al., 2022) and a key objective of resistance training (RT), such as weightlifting; however, RT, defined as a physical exercise program designed to maintain and improve muscular strength, endurance, and lean muscle mass (Ratamess et al., 2009;Liguori & ACSM, 2021), is also vital for maintaining health and enhancing functional capacity in both young and older populations (Hillman et al., 2008;Guizelini et al., 2018). In this regard, RT has been associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality, decreased cardiovascular risk and blood pressure (El-Kotob et al., 2020), improvements in glucose metabolism (Colberg et al., 2016), benefits to bone, tendon health, and cartilage loss prevention (Maestroni et al., 2020), cancer treatment (Hojman et al., 2018), the prevention of muscle loss, and reductions in obesity by promoting fat loss (Westcott, 2012). ...
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In this study, we investigated the impact of a 10-week free weight resistance training (RT) program on cognitive function in healthy young adults. In this randomized controlled trial, 18 participants were assigned to either an experimental or control group. We assessed cognitive function by using eye-tracking (ET) technology during text processing tasks. First-pass reading times (FPRTs) and total reading times (TRTs) were measured. Results revealed a significant three-way interaction between group, moment, and syntactic complexity in FPRTs, demonstrating training effects on cognitive processing. The experimental group showed a distinctive shift in processing patterns: from longer times in low complexity pre-intervention to increased times in high complexity post-intervention, particularly in early processing measures (FPRTs). Complementary analyses of strength improvements showed that increased strength was associated with enhanced attention allocation to complex structures and improved processing efficiency for simpler texts, suggesting RT’s potential to modulate cognitive function.
... The American College of Sports Medicine guidelines recommend that people undertake resistance training 2-3 times per week. (Ratamess et al., 2009). While there is no established optimal amount of strength training post-ACLR (Nichols et al., 2021), for the general population, evidence shows greater gains from additional training frequency (Grgic et al., 2018). ...
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Research reports that follicular phase-based resistance training, where females predominantly perform resistance training in the first half of their menstrual cycle (MC), appears to result in better responses than regular training. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of MC phase-based rehabilitation (MCPBR) versus usual care (UC), following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). Forty-three females participated in a 12-week intervention commencing six weeks post-ACLR. The primary outcome was knee extension strength limb symmetry index (LSI), and the secondary outcome was self-reported function (measured using the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score, International Knee Documentation Committee Questionnaire, and Knee Self Efficacy Scale), measured at baseline and endpoint. Participants were randomly assigned to MCPBR (n = 21) or UC (n = 22). Participants’ MCs were monitored using calendar tracking, basal body temperature tracking, and urinary ovulation testing. Thirty-six females provided data for the final analysis. The M (SD) knee extension LSI for participants following MCPBR was 81.2% (13.2%), compared to 73.5% (21.8%) for those following UC (p = 0.17). The M (SD) one repetition maximum knee extension of the injured leg was 38.8 kg (14.1 kg) following MCPBR and 30.4 kg (11.7 kg) following UC (p = 0.06). Self-reported function was similar between groups. The findings of this study show that MCPBR and UC result in similar knee extension LSI and function and therefore do not support the recommendation of MCPBR for ACL rehabilitation in a New Zealand context. Future research should investigate females’ experience of MCPBR following ACLR.
... The internal load control mechanism has been given the realization of the repetition interval by the protocol. The interval between sets was 60 seconds between exercises 180 to 240 seconds (Fleck & Kraemer, 2017;Ratamess et al., 2009). Experimental group B (EGB) performed resistance training with 60% of the maximum load (metabolic), in 4 series of 16 repetitions, with nutritional suggestion. ...
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Introduction and objective: Nutrition sport is characterized by the application of nutritional principles to improve sports performance. In this sense the proper nutrient intake can be a determining factor in sports, especially for resistance training practitioners. The characteristics adaptations of resistance exercise, regardless of the method are dependent upon a proper exercise program associated with a balance between protein synthesis and degradation. So, our goal is to determine whether a simple nutritional suggestion, without the accompaniment of a dietitian, can be an influential factor in these morphological adaptations. Materials and Methods: The sample consisted of 32 men between 18 and 40, and voluntary RT practitioners. They were divided into 4 groups. Two experimental groups (with nutritional suggestion) and two control groups. Used the protocol of Brown and Weir (2001) to determine the maximum load (1RM) and De Rose (1984) for anthropometric assessments. We used two-way ANOVA with Tukey posttest and Student t test for independent samples. Results and Discussion: The results indicate that morphological adaptations resulting from resistance training are not potentiated by a simple nutritional suggestion. Training methods were effective, however, without proper monitoring of a nutritionist, food self-adequacy, was not enough to boost the adaptations. Conclusion: working together with a professional nutritionist is essential for the enhancement of the characteristics of resistance training adaptations. Copyright © 2020, Rafael de Moraes Fischer. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
... Traditionally, increasing muscle strength relies on the "overload" principle [1]. According to this concept, moderate to high mechanical loading (60-70% of one repetition maximum, 1RM) has long been regarded as the primary stimulus for muscle hypertrophy, leading in increased muscle strength [2,3]. High-intensity strength training, which is frequently recommended to prevent atrophy and loss of muscle mass and strength, can also lead to complications such as joint and tissue damages [4]. ...
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Purpose The present study explores the synergistic impact of tDCS and low-intensity exercise with practical blood flow restriction on the thickness, strength, and electrical activity of the biceps brachii muscle. Methods The study involved 44 healthy young men, divided into four groups: tDCS-pBFR (n = 11), Sham-pBFR (sham-tDCS) (n = 9), tDCS (n = 10), and control (n = 8). Six participants were unable to complete the exercises. Anodal tDCS was applied over the M1 with an intensity of 1.5 (mA). The participants executed dumbbell curls for the biceps at 80% of their 1RM. Following initial assessments, a covariance analysis was performed. The researchers measured biceps muscle strength, volume, and electromyography activity. Results The results found that the increase in arm muscle circumference was significant in the groups that performed pBFR exercises (p < 0.05), regardless of whether tDCS was applied or not. We observed no significant difference in strength and electromyography between the tDCS-pBFR and Sham-pBFR groups. Conclusions The present study provides experimental evidence of the lack of synergistic effects of using tDCS in combination with low-intensity exercises with practical blood flow restriction after 4 weeks of training.
... Some of these benefits are distinct from those induced by aerobic exercise, such as increasing strength, and promoting Skm hypertrophy (Schoenfeld et al. 2017a;Grgic et al. 2018). Indeed, recognized exercise physiology and sports medicine organizations recommend that adults ≥ 18 years old perform RT at least 2 days per week, using loads varying from 30%-50% to 80% of maximal strength (Ratamess et al. 2019;Fragala et al. 2019;Ross et al. 2020). ...
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Resistance training (RT) promotes skeletal muscle (Skm) hypertrophy, increases muscular strength, and improves metabolic health. Whether changes in fat-free mass (FFM; a surrogate marker of muscle hypertrophy) moderate RT-induced improvements in glucose homeostasis has not been determined, despite extensive research on the benefits of RT for health and performance. The aim of this meta-analysis is to examine whether RT-induced Skm hypertrophy drives improvements in glucose metabolism and to explore confounders, such as biological sex and training parameters. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed using variance random effects. Meta-regressions were performed for confounding factors depending on the heterogeneity (I²). Analyses from 33 intervention studies revealed significant within-study increases in FFM with a moderate effect size (within-studies: (effect size; ES = 0.24 [0.10; 0.39]; p = 0.002; I2 = 56%) and a tendency for significance when compared with control groups (ES = 0.42 [−0.04–0.88]; p = 0.07). Within-study significant increases in glucose tolerance (2 h glucose: ES = −0.3 [−0.50; −0.11]; p < 0.01; I2 = 43%; glucose area under the curve (AUC): −0.40 [−0.66; −0.13] I2 = 76.1%; p < 0.01) and insulin sensitivity (ES = 0.38 [0.13; 0.62]; I2 = 53.0%; p < 0.01) were also apparent with RT. When compared to control groups, there was no significant difference in 2 h glucose, nor in glucose AUC from baseline in RT intervention groups. Meta-regression analyses failed to consistently reveal increases in FFM as a moderator of glucose homeostasis. Other mixed-effect models were also unsuccessful to unveil biological sex or training parameters as moderators of FFM increases and glucose homeostasis changes. Although Skm hypertrophy and improvements in glycemic control occur concurrently during RT, changes in these variables were not always related. Well-controlled trials including detailed description of training parameters are needed to inform RT guidelines for improving metabolic health. Registration and protocol number (Prospero): CRD42023397362.
... 1 One of the key strengths of RT lies in its versatility -the ability to manipulate numerous variables to achieve specific training outcomes. 2 These variables include, but are not limited to, load intensity, exercise selection, volume, and rest intervals, each contributing uniquely to the athlete's development. 3 Within the spectrum of RT methodologies, cluster (CL) and rest redistribution (RR) set structures stand out as innovative alternatives to traditional sets, offering unique advantages in training efficiency and effectiveness. ...
Article
Purpose: This study's purpose is to investigate the midterm effects of alternative set configurations (cluster [CL] and rest redistribution [RR]) on lower-and upper-body neuromuscular capacities in female athletes. Method: Twenty team sport female athletes were randomly assigned to a CL (n = 10) or RR (RRG; n = 10) training group. The study protocol comprised 2 pretests, 12 training sessions, and a posttest. Both groups engaged in identical exercises (squat and bench press), load intensity (75% of 1-repetition maximum), and volume (18 repetitions per exercise). The distinction between the groups lay in the total session rest time: CL group had 23 minutes (3 sets of 6 repetitions with 30 s of intraset rest every 2 repetitions and 3 min of interset rest), whereas RRG had 17 minutes (9 sets of 2 repetitions with 45 s of interset rest). Countermovement jump height and load-velocity relationship variables (load-intercept [L 0 ], velocity-intercept [v 0 ], and area under the load-velocity relationship line) were assessed during the squat and bench press exercises. Results: All dependent variables revealed greater values at post-compared with pretest (P ≤ .040; averaged Hedges g = 0.35 for CL group and 0.60 for RRG), but "time" × "group" interactions never reached statistical significance (P ≥ .144). Likewise, the comparison of the magnitude of changes between the 2 groups revealed only trivial differences, except for a small greater change in bench press area under the load-velocity relationship line for RRG (Hedges g = 0.40). Conclusions: RR is a more efficient strategy than CL for inducing strength gains in female athletes.
... Its efficacy extends to improving athletic performance and facilitating activities of daily living by fostering gains in both strength and muscle mass (2). Key adaptations observed in ST include heightened strength levels and muscle hypertrophy, driven by the orchestrated release of myokines (2)(3)(4)(5). Notably, the methodological framework governing training practices, encompassing parameters such as intensity (load magnitude in kilograms, execution velocity, recovery intervals, range of motion), and volume (repetition and set count, exercise sequencing, and weekly training frequency), significantly influences these physiological responses (4,(6)(7)(8). The manipulation of training prescription variables elicits diverse adaptive outcomes, thus addressing potential plateaus in physiological progression (2). ...
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Introduction: Strength training (ST) is a strategy to enhance quality of life through increased strength, muscle hypertrophy, and functional capacity. Training systems are associated with manipulation of volume and intensity, generating different stimuli, such as Rest-Pause (RP) and Sarcoplasmic Stimulating Training (SST). These systems induce greater mechanical and physiological stress, leading to increased strength and muscle hypertrophy. However, the metabolic and psycho-affective effects of advanced systems in experienced practitioners remain inconclusive. The purpose of the study is to analyze the acute effects of RP, SST, and Traditional (TMS) systems on metabolic and psycho-affective responses in adult men. Methods: This experimental crossover study assessed 15 subjects (30.38 ± 2.06 years; 88.40 ± 6.50 kg; 1.74 ± 0.07 cm) experienced in ST, evaluated under TMS, RP, and SST during flat bench press and leg press 45° exercises. Body composition, muscular strength via 1-RM testing, lactate concentration (LAC), and psycho-affective measures (Rating of Perceived Exertion-RPE; Visual Analog Scale-VAS; Feeling Scale-FS) were determined. Statistical analysis was performed using the Minitab software, with p ≤ 0.05, IC-95%). Results: The finals results showed SST exhibited a 38.10% lower LAC concentration post-training session compared to TMS, while RP showed 37.20% lower LAC concentration than TMS post-session. Average RPE values for RP and SST were higher (8.50 ± 1.10 and 8.60 ± 0.90, respectively) than TMS (6.00 ± 1.10). VAS displayed higher average values for RP and SST (8.00 ± 2.00 and 8.00 ± 1.00, respectively) compared to TMS (5.00 ± 1.00), with affective ratings indicating positive values for TMS and values between 0 and −5 for RP (40%) and SST (60%) post-training sessions, suggesting that RP and SST induced less affective response than TMS. Discussion: The results lead to the conclusion that manipulation of training volume and intensity led to higher RPE and pain (VAS). The data suggest that inappropriate prescription of these systems could lead to greater displeasure, leading us to hypothesize that a higher likelihood of discontinuation from strength training programs would occur, suggesting that greater repetition volumes (RP and SST) should be targeted at individuals with a higher training level.
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Background Persistent pain is a complicated phenomenon associated with a wide array of complex pathologies and conditions (e.g., complex regional pain syndrome, non-freezing cold injury), leading to extensive disability and reduced physical function. Conventional resistance training is commonly contraindicated in load compromised and/or persistent pain populations, compromising rehabilitation progression and potentially leading to extensive pharmacological intervention, invasive procedures, and reduced occupational status. The management of persistent pain and utility of adjunct therapies has become a clinical and research priority within numerous healthcare settings, including defence medical services. Main Body Blood flow restriction (BFR) exercise has demonstrated beneficial morphological and physiological adaptions in load-compromised populations, as well as being able to elicit acute hypoalgesia. The aims of this narrative review are to: (1) explore the use of BFR exercise to elicit hypoalgesia; (2) briefly review the mechanisms of BFR-induced hypoalgesia; (3) discuss potential implications and applications of BFR during the rehabilitation of complex conditions where persistent pain is the primary limiting factor to progress, within defence rehabilitation healthcare settings. The review found BFR application is a feasible intervention across numerous load-compromised clinical populations (e.g., post-surgical, post-traumatic osteoarthritis), and there is mechanistic rationale for use in persistent pain pathologies. Utilisation may also be pleiotropic in nature by ameliorating pathological changes while also modulating pain response. Numerous application methods (e.g., with aerobic exercise, passive application, or resistance training) allow practitioners to cater for specific limitations (e.g., passive, or contralateral application with kinesiophobia) in clinical populations. Additionally, the low-mechanical load nature of BFR exercise may allow for high-frequency use within residential military rehabilitation, providing a platform for conventional resistance training thereafter. Conclusion Future research needs to examine the differences in pain modulation between persistent pain and pain-free populations with BFR application, supporting the investigation of mechanisms for BFR-induced hypoalgesia, the dose-response relationship between BFR-exercise and pain modulation, and the efficacy and effectiveness of BFR application in complex musculoskeletal and persistent pain populations.
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Background The effectiveness and practicality of blood flow restriction training (BFRT) as a nonsurgical intervention for treating patients with knee injuries are uncertain because of the small size of BFRT trials and inconsistent results. Purpose To conduct a meta-analysis comparing the effectiveness of BFRT versus traditional resistance training in patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA) in terms of pain, muscle strength, functional performance, self-reported function, muscle size, and adverse events during exercise. Study Design Systematic review; Level of evidence: 1. Methods Under the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, we searched the Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, and other databases for randomized controlled trials of BFRT interventions in patients with knee OA. Methodological and quality evaluations, heterogeneity analysis, and subgroup analysis of the included studies were conducted, and effect sizes were evaluated using mean differences or standardized mean differences (SMDs). Subgroup and sensitivity analyses were used to explore the sources of heterogeneity. Results Of 2826 initial studies, 6 studies (N = 228 patients) were included. The results of the meta-analysis indicated that compared with resistance training, BFRT did not significantly affect pain relief (SMD, −0.02 [95% CI, −0.30 to 0.26]; P = .88), muscle strength (SMD, 0.32 [95% CI, −0.33 to 0.96]; P = .33), functional performance (SMD, 0.25 [95% CI, −0.29 to 0.80]; P = .36), or self-reported function (SMD, −0.252 [95% CI, −0.88 to 0.45]; P = .52). However, BFRT reduced the risk of adverse events (risk ratio, 0.45 [95% CI, 0.20 to 1.01]; P = .05). Subgroup analysis revealed that compared with low-load resistance training, BFRT significantly increased muscle size (SMD, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.09 to 1.68]; P = .02). The quality-of-evidence assessment indicated that the evidence level for the above outcomes was low and that the strength of the recommendation was weak. Conclusion The results of our meta-analysis indicated that compared with resistance training, BFRT did not significantly improve symptom outcomes in patients with knee OA. It is important to acknowledge that the findings were limited by the small number of studies and sample sizes that were included.
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As a novel, low-velocity resistance exercise method, eccentric quasi-isometric resistance exercise (EQI-RE) results in greater time under tension than traditional isotonic resistance exercise (TRD-RE) and is surmised to increase muscle mass and strength. However, females may be more fatigue resistant than males when performing acute EQI-RE, which could lead to long-term differences in time under tension and resistance exercise volume. At present, studies have yet to compare muscle hypertrophy or strength improvements following TRD-RE and EQI-RE training, and whether sex-differences exist in these outcomes. Twenty-two (n = 13 females) untrained individuals completed ~8-weeks of effort matched unilateral TRD-RE and EQI-RE of the elbow flexors. Muscle thickness and estimated one-repetition maximum (E-1RM) were evaluated before and after training. TRD-RE produced significantly larger relative increases in muscle thickness (6.7% ± 3.9% vs. 4.0 ± 3.3%, p =.004) and E-1RM (19.6 ± 8.5% vs. 12.8 ± 6.2%, p = .001) than EQI-RE. Although females accrued greater resistance exercise volume than males across the TRD-RE and EQI-RE training, there were no relative sex-differences in muscle thickness or E-1RM improvements (p > .25). Sex-differences in fatiguability may therefore manifest in differences in resistance exercise volume between males and females after 8-weeks of TRD-RE and EQI-RE of the elbow flexors, but this does not lead to relative differences in muscle thickness or E-1RM improvements. Although EQI-RE did produce significant increases, TRD-RE of the elbow flexors appears more effective at increasing muscle thickness and E-1RM.
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Objective Resistance training has been demonstrated an effective approach for preventing the cognitive function decline through physiological mechanisms; however, the effect of acute resistance training at different intensities on growth factor and homocysteine levels remains unclear. This study aimed to compare the impact of resistance training at varying intensities on peripheral neurobiological factors and homocysteine levels in young adults. Methods Twelve young male adults, predominantly engaged in various sports activities but without prior strength training experience, were recruited to participate in a randomized controlled cross-over trial. They implemented two different resistance training protocols: high intensity (HIRT, 12 repetitions at 80% 1RM) and low intensity (LIRT, 24 repetitions at 40% 1RM). Blood samples were collected at three time points: pre-training, post training, and after 30 min of rest to measure changes in serum lactate, serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), irisin, and plasma homocysteine (Hcy) levels. Results Both resistance training protocols significantly increased blood lactate and perceived exertion compared to pre-training (HIRT, p < 0.01; LIRT, p < 0.01), with higher levels observed in HIRT. Acute HIRT significantly elevated serum BDNF, IGF-1, and VEGF levels post training compared to LIRT (p < 0.05), while no difference was observed in irisin levels between the two protocols at any time point. Both training protocols significantly reduced plasma Hcy levels post training (p < 0.01) and maintained lower levels than pre-training and after 30 min of rest (p < 0.05), with no significant differences between the two protocols. Conclusions This study demonstrates that high intensity training appears to have a greater impact on specific neurobiological factors; however, regardless of intensity, resistance training can significantly decrease plasma homocysteine. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT06114550. Date of registration 01/30/2024. https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06114550.
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En la actualidad, las consecuencias del sedentarismo y la falta de actividad física (AF) constituyen uno de los mayores retos de la salud pública a nivel mundial. La inactividad física se ha convertido en el cuarto factor de riesgo de mortalidad a nivel global, contribuyendo a más de 3 millones de muertes anuales. Según datos de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS)1, aproximadamente el 28% de los adultos en el mundo no cumplen con las recomendaciones mínimas de AF. En el contexto español, la situación no difiere significativamente. Datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística revelan que casi el 40% de la población adulta no alcanza los niveles recomendados de AF2. Este fenómeno no solo afecta a la salud individual, sino que también ejerce una presión significativa sobre los sistemas de atención médica, contribuyendo al aumento de enfermedades crónicas y sus costos asociados. La rápida urbanización, los cambios en los estilos de vida y la prevalencia de trabajos sedentarios han contribuido a este fenómeno, asociándose directamente con un aumento en la incidencia de enfermedades no transmisibles, como la patología cardiovascular, diabetes tipo 2 y obesidad. La inactividad física no solo está relacionada con la mayor prevalencia de enfermedades crónicas, sino que también contribuye a la disminución de la calidad de vida, la pérdida de productividad laboral y el aumento de los costos de atención médica. Además, afecta de manera desproporcionada a grupos vulnerables, exacerbando las desigualdades en salud. Ante este panorama, la medicina familiar y comunitaria se convierte en el agente crucial para la incorporación del ejercicio físico tanto desde un enfoque terapéutico como por ser una herramienta preventiva de gran impacto. Esta guía busca formar y sensibilizar a los profesionales de la salud sobre la necesidad de integrar la prescripción de ejercicio físico en la atención primaria, fortaleciendo así la relación entre médico y paciente para motivar y adherir en la práctica de AF y lograr cambios sostenibles en el tiempo en los hábitos de vida saludables. En las siguientes secciones, exploraremos los fundamentos teóricos, las estrategias prácticas y las consideraciones médico-legales para empoderar a profesionales de medicina familiar y comunitaria en la prescripción efectiva de ejercicio físico, con el objetivo de mejorar la salud individual y colectiva de la población.
Article
Objective To assess the therapeutic quality of exercise interventions delivered in chronic low back pain (cLBP) trials using the international Consensus on Therapeutic Exercise aNd Training (i-CONTENT) tool and its inter-rater agreement. Methods We performed a meta-research study, starting from the trials’ arms included in the published Cochrane review (2021) ‘Exercise therapy for chronic low back pain’. Two pairs of independent reviewers applied the i-CONTENT tool, a standardised tool designed to ensure the quality of exercise therapy intervention, in a random sample of 100 different exercise arms. We assessed the inter-rater agreement of each category calculating the specific agreement. A percentage of 70% was considered satisfactory. Results We included 100 arms from 68 randomised controlled trials published between 1991 and 2019. The most assessed exercise types were core strengthening (n=27 arms) and motor control (n=13 arms). Among alternative approaches, yoga (n=11) and Pilates (n=7) were the most representative. Overall, most exercise interventions were rated as having a low risk of ineffectiveness for patient selection (100%), exercise type (92%), outcome type and timing (89%) and qualified supervisor (84%). Conversely, some items showed more uncertainty: the safety of exercise programmes was rated as ‘probably low risk’ in 58% of cases, exercise dosage in 34% and adherence to exercise in 44%. The items related to exercise dosage (31%) and adherence (29%) had heterogenous judgements, scoring as high risk of ineffectiveness or probably not done. Among all exercise types, Pilates scored best in all domains. A satisfactory specific agreement for ‘low risk category’ was achieved in all items, except dosage of exercise (60%) and adherence to exercise (54%). Conclusion Exercises delivered for patients with cLBP generally demonstrate favourable therapeutic quality, although some exercise modalities may present poor therapeutic quality related to dosage and adherence. While the i-CONTENT judgements generally showed satisfactory specific agreement between raters, disagreements arose in evaluating some crucial items.
Article
Background Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) often involves harvesting a bone–patellar tendon–bone (BPTB) autograft. How graft harvest affects tendon strain across the 3 distinct regions (medial, lateral, and central) is not known. Purpose To (1) quantify strain in the 3 regions of the patellar tendon during 60% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) in 90° of knee flexion and (2) assess how effort level in 2 different knee joint angles (60° and 90°) impacts strain in the medial and lateral regions of the patellar tendon, in 2 cohorts of patients after ACLR using a BPTB autograft (one group <24 months after surgery and another group ≥24 months after surgery). Study Design Descriptive laboratory study. Methods Effort levels ranging from 20% to 100% of MVIC were performed at 90° and 60° of knee flexion on an isokinetic dynamometer, with simultaneous ultrasound imaging of tendon length to calculate regional strain. Linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate regional strain at 60% of MVIC in 90° of knee flexion. The fixed effects of percentage of MVIC, joint angles, and time from surgery groups on patellar tendon strain were evaluated using separate models for the medial and lateral regions. Results Fourteen participants in the short-term group (7.5 ± 1.9 months from surgery) and 15 participants in the long-term group (71.5 ± 16.5 months from surgery) were included. At 60% of MVIC in 90° of knee flexion, the short-term group demonstrated lower patellar tendon strain than the long-term group regardless of region ( P < .01). The central region also had lower strain than the medial and lateral regions regardless of group (both P < .01). Finally, the rate at which strain increased with increasing effect levels differed between time from surgery groups in both medial and lateral regions. Conclusion The short-term group had lower strain in all regions of the patellar tendon after ACLR using BPTB autograft. The medial and lateral regions showed varying strain based on time from surgery and effort level. Varying knee joint angles and effort levels for graft site rehabilitation may have to be considered to target specific regions of the patellar tendon. Clinical Relevance Clinicians should consider the time elapsed since surgery and the manipulation of knee angle as factors that can exert varying levels of strain on different regions of the patellar tendon after ACLR. Accelerating quadriceps strengthening to enhance strain distribution across the patellar tendon to promote tendon healing may be of benefit for optimizing postsurgery rehabilitation.
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Objectives. This study aimed to examine the effects of three high intensity interval training (HIIT) protocols on VO 2 max and leg strength in recreational football athletes. Materials and methods. Thirty-one participants were recruited and randomly assigned to one of three HIIT protocols: HIIT20/20, HIIT40/10, or HIIT60/5. The training programs spanned 6 weeks with a frequency of 3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days. Baseline testing for VO 2 max and leg strength was conducted using an incremental exercise test with blood gas analysis and an isokinetic machine, respectively, at 1 week before the intervention, and post-intervention testing occurred 1 week after the last training session. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was employed to compare changes between groups and across time points. Results. The results demonstrated that there was a significant increase in VO 2 max in both the HIIT40/10 (∆ 10.4 %, CI 95 % = 1.67-7.42 ml/kg/min, ES = Moderate) and HIIT60/5 (∆ 12 %, CI 95 % = 2.28-8.84, ES = Moderate) groups, while no considerable changes were observed in leg strength across any group (p > 0.05). Additionally, a Weak but substantial correlation between leg strength and VO 2 max was found at both pre-intervention (r = 0.39) and post-intervention (r = 0.38) periods. Conclusions. In conclusion, if the training goal was to improve VO 2 max through HIIT, both the HIIT40/10 and HIIT60/5 protocols were more effective than HIIT20/20.
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Objective To investigate the effectiveness of 12-weeks hybrid virtual coaching on health-related quality-of-life (HrQoL) in patients with stable COPD. Methods We equipped all patients with a CAir Desk for telemonitoring, the intervention group additionally received hybrid virtual coaching through the built-in smartphone. The multimodal intervention based on the Living well with COPD programme, containing educational content, physical activity coaching, and home-based exercises. Primary outcome was HrQoL as measured by the SGRQ. Secondary outcomes were symptom burden, physical activity, functional exercise capacity, and lung function. Between-group differences were calculated using linear regression models, controlling for baseline differences. Results We included 30 participants with COPD (13/17 women/men; 63 [9] years; FEV1 54 [22] % predicted), 24 (80%) completed the study. SGRQ improved in both groups (intervention: −4.5 [20.1]; control: −2.7 [7.4] points) without statistically significant or clinically relevant between-group differences (B = −2.5 points, 95% CI = −24.3, 19.3, p = 0.81). Physical activity increased only in the intervention group (313 [1561] vs −364 [2399] steps) without statistically significant but clinically relevant between-group difference (B = 2147 steps, 95% CI = −86, 4395, p = 0.06). Symptom burden decreased in both groups (−4.2 [6.7] vs −1.0 [2.8] points) without statistically significant but clinically relevant between-group difference (B = −3.0 points, 95% CI = −10.8, 5.0, p = 0.43). Conclusion Twelve-weeks hybrid virtual coaching did not improve HrQoL more than telemonitoring only in patients with stable COPD. The intervention group improved their physical activity and symptom burden clinically relevant more than the control group.
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This study aims to examine the effects of 4-week combined blood flow restriction - TheraBand training on functional capacity and quality of life in healthy individuals aged 55-65 years. A total of 24 women aged 55-65 participated in the study voluntarily. Participants were divided into three groups consisting of 8 people: TheraBand group (TG), blood flow restriction+TheraBand group (BFR+TG), and control group (CG). Participants were administered a 30-second sit-to-stand chair test, a 6-minute walk test (6MWT), and Modified Borg Scale (MBS) for quality of life. In intra-group comparisons, both the Borg scale and 6MWT showed statistically significant improvements favouring the final test in TG and BFR+TG groups (p= 0.05). Inter-group comparisons revealed that the BFR+TG group exhibited higher improvement compared to the other groups. Significant differences favouring the final test were also observed in the intra-group comparison of the 30-second sit-to-stand test in TG and BFR+TG groups (p= 0.05), with the BFR+TG group showing higher improvement compared to the CG in inter-group comparisons. Moreover, no statistically significant differences were found in intra-group and inter-group comparisons of quality of life (p= 0.05). In conclusion, it can be recommended that lower-intensity strength training with TheraBands, combined with BFR where possible, be applied to elderly individuals instead of high-intensity strength training and, if possible, use the BFR method in these training.
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Chronic medical conditions caused by the inadequate adaptation of the body to modern lifestyles, such as physical inactivity and unhealthy diets, are on the rise. This study assessed whether a comprehensive lifestyle intervention, including high volumes of supervised exercise, could improve health outcomes. Eight volunteers with lifestyle‐related diseases received a 6‐month lifestyle intervention consisting of 8000–10 000 steps/day, 6 moderate‐intensity endurance and 3 resistance training sessions per week, a 5‐week long hike, and dietary advice. This was followed by 7 months of limited remote supervision, ending 13 months from baseline. The participants (3 females, 5 males; mean age 42.9 years) had conditions including type 2 diabetes (T2D), depression/stress, and metabolic syndrome (MS). After 6 months, body weight decreased significantly by 23 kg (95% CI; −33.7 to −12.2), with a minor non‐significant decrease in lean body mass of 1.96 kg (95% CI; −4.34 to 0.27). Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) increased by 18.5 mL/O2/kg/min. (95% CI; 13.8–23.1) and systolic and diastolic blood pressures decreased by 33 (95% CI; −39 to −26) and 18 mmHg (95% CI; −23 to −14), respectively. Three of the 4 participants with T2D had normalized glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, and all showed improved 2‐h oral glucose tolerance (OGTT) without pharmacological treatment. Participants with T2D continued to lower HbA1c during the 7‐month follow‐up period. This 6‐month lifestyle intervention restored metabolic health and improved cardiovascular health in 8 participants with lifestyle‐related diseases while reducing the need for pharmacological treatments. These findings suggest that comprehensive lifestyle changes can reverse several medical conditions caused by evolutionary mismatch.
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BACKGROUND: Little evidence exists regarding the return to sport outcomes of American football players following multiligament knee injuries (MLKI), specifically following an injury that does not include the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). CASE PRESENTATION: The patient is a 22-year-old American football offensive lineman, who sustained a posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL) and medial meniscus root tear. OUTCOME: The patient underwent surgery to repair the PCL, MCL, and medial meniscus root tear. The patient completed physical therapy and was able to return to his prior level of function, playing collegiate football 11 months after surgery. DISCUSSION: This case highlights the decision-making process of the sports medicine team regarding the diagnosis and management of the acute injury, details the surgical, rehabilitation, and return to sport processes following a MLKI that does not include the ACL.
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Low‐intensity resistance exercise with slow movement and tonic force generation (LRST) effectively improves cognitive inhibitory control (IC) while heightening the subjective perception, which is a barrier to exercise adherence. Compared with concentric (CON) contractions, eccentric (ECC) contractions have greater brain activation related to cognitive functions while decreasing subjective perception. Therefore, we examined whether LRST with a longer duration of ECC contraction (ECC‐LRST) could further enhance exercise‐induced IC improvement while reducing the subjective perception, compared with traditional LRST. Fourteen healthy, young males performed both ECC‐LRST and LRST, with 30% of their one‐repetition maximum. The subjective perceptions of exertion and pain associated with exercise were assessed. IC was evaluated at baseline, immediately post‐exercise, and 15‐min post‐exercise. IC improved immediately after both ECC‐LRST and LRST (both Ps < 0.05). However, the improvement in IC persisted until 15 min post‐exercise for ECC‐LRST compared with baseline (p = 0.031) but not for LRST, which showed a significantly smaller improvement than ECC‐LRST (p = 0.042). A lower perceived pain (p = 0.039) and a trend toward a lower perceived exertion (p = 0.078) were observed during ECC‐LRST than during LRST. ECC‐LRST is an effective resistance exercise protocol for improving IC while reducing the perception of exertion.
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Background Currently, great debate exists over the proposed superiority of some resistance exercises to induce muscular adaptations. For example, some argue that unilateral exercise (meaning one limb at a time) is superior to bilateral exercises (meaning both limbs). Of note, an evidence-based answer to this question is yet to be determined, particularly regarding muscle hypertrophy. Objective This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare the effects of unilateral versus bilateral resistance training on muscle hypertrophy and strength gains. Methods A thorough literature search was performed using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. The Cochrane Risk of Bias tool 2 (RoBII) tool was used to judge the risk of bias. Meta-analyses were performed using robust variance estimation with small-sample corrections. Results After retrieving 703 studies, 9 met the criteria and were included in the meta-analyses. We found no significant differences in muscle hypertrophy between bilateral and unilateral training [effect size (ES): − 0.21, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): − 3.56 to 3.13, P = 0.57]. Bilateral training induced a superior increase in bilateral strength (ES: 0.56, 95% CI: 0.16–0.96, P = 0.01). In contrast, unilateral training elicited a superior increase in unilateral strength (ES: − 0.65, 95% CI: − 0.93 to − 0.37, P = 0.001). Overall, studies presented moderate risk of bias. Conclusion On the basis of the limited literature on the topic, we found no evidence of differential muscle hypertrophy between the two exercise selections. Strength gains appear to follow the principle of specificity.
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Objective To evaluate the relationship between adherence to muscle-strengthening guidelines in young adulthood and inflammation markers over a 17-year follow-up period. Additionally, it aims to examine whether body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) act as mediators in this relationship. Methods The study analysed data from young adults aged 18–26 years who participated in waves III (2001–2002), IV (2008–2009) and V (2016–2018) of the Add Health Study. Adherence to muscle-strengthening guidelines was self-reported, and participants were classified as adherent if they engaged in strength training ≥2 days per week across all waves. Venous blood samples were collected at participants’ homes to measure high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels and various cytokine concentrations, including interleukin (IL)−6, IL-1beta, IL-8, IL-10 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). A global inflammation score was also calculated using z-scores of these markers. Results A total of 2320 individuals participated (60.8% females). Participants adhering to muscle-strengthening guidelines exhibited significant reductions in hs-CRP, IL-6 and the inflammation z-score, with mean difference (MD) of −1.556 mg/L (95% CI BCa −2.312 to −0.799), −0.324 pg/mL (95% BCa CI −0.586 to −0.062), and −0.400 (95% BCa CI −0.785 to −0.035), respectively. Mediation analysis revealed that BMI and WC levels at wave V significantly mediated the relationship between strength training and inflammation z-score, with significant indirect effects of −0.142 (95% CI −0.231 to −0.055) for BMI and −0.210 (95% CI −0.308 to −0.124) for WC. Conclusion Adherence to muscle-strengthening guidelines alone may not be sufficient to achieve a notable decrease in inflammation without concurrent reductions in these obesity parameters.
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The use of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is now well established in healthcare as an essential support tool for patient management in various clinical settings. Its use in sports is rapidly expanding due to the valuable insights it offers, helping to better structure athletes’ diets and training programs, thereby optimizing their performance. In the context of sport, however, there is a consensus regarding the importance of proper interpretation of BIA-derived data, which cannot be limited to mere estimation of body composition. In this sense, therefore, the evaluation and interpretation of raw bioelectrical parameters, including resistance, reactance, and phase angle (PhA) is of relevant importance. The assessment of PhA is particularly significant in the context of sports, as it is closely linked to key factors such as muscle mass, strength, and overall muscle quality. However, the existing relationship between PhA and systemic, and loco-regional inflammation, which, in a broader sense, is the rationale behind its use for assessing and monitoring localised muscle damage. Thus, the importance of PhA monitoring during training becomes evident, as it plays a crucial role in assessing and potentially identifying functional impairments, such as overtraining syndrome, as well as muscle injury and related changes in fluid distribution, at an early stage. The aim of this review is to provide the scientific basis necessary to consider the use of whole-body PhA as an indicator of overtraining. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-024-05918-w.
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Background Postoperative rehabilitation exercise is commonly prescribed after total hip arthroplasty (THA), but its efficacy compared to no or minimal rehabilitation exercise has been questioned. Preliminary efficacy would be indicated if a dose-response relationship exists between performed exercise dose and degree of postoperative recovery. The objective was to evaluate the preliminary efficacy of home-based rehabilitation using elastic band exercise on performance-based function after THA, based on the association between performed exercise dose and change in performance-based function (gait speed) from 3 (start of intervention) to 10 weeks (end of intervention) after surgery. Methods A prospective cohort study was conducted. Following primary THA, patients were prescribed home-based rehabilitation exercise using elastic bands. Performed exercise dose (repetitions/week) was objectively measured using attached sensor technology. Primary outcome was change in gait speed (40 m fast-paced walk test). Secondary outcomes included patient-reported hip disability. In the primary analysis, a linear regression model was used. Results Ninety-four patients (39 women) with a median age of 66.5 years performed a median of 339 exercise repetitions/week (1st-3rd quartile: 209–549). Across outcomes, participants significantly improved from 3 to 10-week follow-up. The association between performed exercise dose and change in mean gait speed was 0.01 m/s [95% CI: -0.01; 0.02] per 100 repetitions. Conclusions We found no indication of preliminary efficacy of home-based rehabilitation exercise using elastic bands, as no significant and clinically relevant associations between performed exercise dose and changes in outcomes were present. Trials comparing postoperative rehabilitation exercise with no exercise early after THA are warranted. Trial registration Pre-registered: ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier: NCT03109821, 12/04/2017).
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Low-load resistance training with blood flow restriction (LRT-BFR) has shown potential to improve muscle strength and mass in different populations; however, there remains limited evidence in sarcopenic people diagnosed with sarcopenia criteria. This study systematically compared the effectiveness of LRT-BFR and conventional high-intensity resistance training (CRT) on clinical muscle outcomes (muscle mass, strength and performance), cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and sarcopenia-related biomarkers of older people with sarcopenia. Twenty-one older individuals (aged 65 years and older) diagnosed with sarcopenia were randomly assigned to the LRT-BFR (20%–30% one-repetition maximum (1RM), n = 10) or CRT (60%–70% 1RM, n = 11) group. Both groups underwent a supervised exercise program three times a week for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was knee extensor strength (KES), and the secondary outcomes included body composition (body mass, body mass index and body fat percentage), muscle mass [appendicular skeletal muscle mass index (ASMI)], handgrip strength, physical performance [short physical performance battery (SPPB) and 6-m walk], CVD risk factors [hemodynamic parameters (systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate (SBP, DBP and HR)) and lipid parameters (total cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein)], sarcopenia-related blood biomarkers [inflammatory biomarkers, hormones (growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1) and growth factors (myostatin and follistatin)] and quality of life [Short Form 36 Health Survey (SF-36)]. Both interventions remarkably improved the body composition, KES, 6-m walk, SBP, HDL, TG, GH, FST and SF-36 scores. CRT significantly improved the ASMI (p < 0.05) and SPPB (p < 0.05). A significant improvement in HR was observed only after LRT-BFR. No significant between-group differences were found before and after the interventions. This study suggested that LRT-BFR and CRT are beneficial to the clinical muscle outcomes, CVD risk factors and certain sarcopenia-related biomarkers of older people with sarcopenia. By comparison, CRT seems more effective in improving muscle mass, while LRT-BFR may be more beneficial for improving cardiovascular health in this population. Therefore, LRT-BFR is a potential alternative to CRT for aging sarcopenia.
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Objective This study aimed to compare the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) combined with resistance training (RT) versus HIIT alone on body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness and glycolipid metabolism in young women with overweight/obesity. Methods This randomized controlled trial divided 40 subjects into an experimental group (HIIT+RT) and a control group (HIIT). Both groups underwent training three times per week for eight weeks. Body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness and glycolipid levels were assessed before and after the intervention. Results The results revealed that compared to baseline, both the experimental and control groups showed significant improvements in body weight, body mass index (BMI), Body fat, waist circumference (WC), waist-hip ratio (WHR), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), vital capacity (VC), oxygen pulse (VO2/HR), minute ventilation, resting heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (p<0.05). Additionally, a significant increase in muscle mass and a significant reduction in 2-hour postprandial glucose were observed in the experimental group (p<0.05). Muscle mass (mean difference: 2.75%), VO2peak (mean difference: 1.61 mL/min/kg), VC (mean difference: 334mL), and VO2/HR (mean difference: 0.51mL/beat) showed greater improvement in the HIIT+RT group compared to the HIIT group (p<0.05). Conclusion In conclusion, an 8-week regimen of either combined HIIT and RT or HIIT significantly improves body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness and glycolipid metabolism in women with overweight/obesity. However, the combined training appears to offer more benefits than HIIT alone. Further research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects and feasibility of combined training. Trial registration https://www.chictr.org.cn/, identifier ChiCTR2300075961.
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Background: Strength training is widely recognized for its potential to enhance physical health and motor skills across various populations. However, its specific effects on children with intellectual disabilities, who often face unique physical and developmental challenges, are not as well-documented. Understanding these effects could lead to better-targeted interventions to improve their overall quality of life.(Skowroński et al., 2009) Objectives: This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to comprehensively examine and quantify the impact of strength training on physical health outcomes (such as muscle strength and cardiovascular fitness) and motor skills (such as coordination and balance) in children with intellectual disabilities. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted across several databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, and PsycINFO. The search strategy incorporated keywords such as "strength training," "physical health," "motor skills," "children," and "intellectual disabilities." Studies were included if they met the following criteria: involvement of children with intellectual disabilities, implementation of a strength training intervention, and measurement of outcomes related to physical health and motor skills. Peer-reviewed articles and clinical trials were prioritized. Data were extracted on sample size, study design, details of the strength training intervention, outcome measures, and results. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of
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Objectives Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is a leading cause of global disability with conventional exercise yielding only modest improvements. Here we aimed to investigate the benefits of integrating blood flow restriction (BFR) into traditional exercise programmes to enhance treatment outcomes. Methods The Vascular Occlusion for optimizing the Functional Improvement in patients with Knee Osteoarthritis randomised controlled trial enrolled 120 patients with KOA at Ghent University Hospital, randomly assigning them to either a traditional exercise programme or a BFR-enhanced programme over 24 sessions in 12 weeks. Assessments were conducted at baseline, 6 weeks, 12 weeks and 3 months postintervention using linear mixed models with Dunn-Sidak corrections for multiple comparisons. Primary outcome was the Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) questionnaire at 3 months follow-up with knee strength, Pain Catastrophizing Scale questionnaire and functional tests as secondary outcomes. Analysis followed an intention-to-treat approach ( NCT04996680 ). Results The BFR group showed greater improvements in KOOS pain subscale (effect size (ES)=0.58; p=0.0009), quadriceps strength (ES=0.81; p<0.0001) and functional tests compared with the control group at 12 weeks. At 3 months follow-up, the BFR group continued to exhibit superior improvements in KOOS pain (ES=0.55; p=0.0008), symptoms (ES=0.59; p=0.0004) and quality of life (QoL) (ES=0.66; p=0.0001) with sustained benefits in secondary outcomes. Drop-out rates were similar in both groups. Conclusion Incorporating BFR into traditional exercise programmes significantly enhances short-term and long-term outcomes for patients with KOA demonstrating persistent improvements in pain, symptoms, QoL and functional measures compared with conventional exercise alone. These findings suggest that BFR can provide the metabolic stimulus needed to achieve muscle strength and functional gains with lower mechanical loads. Reduced pain and increased strength support a more active lifestyle, potentially maintaining muscle mass, functionality and QoL even beyond the supervised intervention period. Trial registration number NCT04996680 .
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To explore the genetic architecture underlying exercise-induced fat mass change, we performed a genome-wide association study with a Chinese cohort consisting of 442 physically inactive healthy adults in response to a 12-week exercise training (High-intensity Interval Training or Resistance Training). The inter-individual response showed an exercise-induced fat mass change and ten novel lead SNPs were associated with the response on the level of P<1×10−5. Four of them (rs7187742, rs1467243, rs28629770 and rs10848501) showed a consistent effect direction in the European ancestry. The Polygenic Predictor Score (PPS) derived from ten lead SNPs, sex, baseline body mass and exercise protocols explained 40.3% of the variance in fat mass response, meanwhile importantly the PPS had the greatest contribution. Of note, the subjects whose PPS was lower than −9.301 had the highest response in exercise-induced fat loss. Finally, we highlight a series of pathways and biological processes regarding the fat mass response to exercise, e.g. apelin signaling pathway, insulin secretion pathway and fat cell differentiation biological process.
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ABSTRACT Purpose: This overview of systematic reviews with meta-analysis aimed to summarize the effects of resistance training (RT) on physical fitness of people with Down syndrom (DS). Material and methods: A comprehensive search was conducted across multiple databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus, up until January 30th, 2024. The search included key terms like resistance training, strength training, weight training, intellectual disability, and Down syndrome. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration assessment tool. Eighteen articles were reviewed, with nine included in the meta-analysis. Results: The results demonstrated that RT interventions positively impacted physical fitness in individuals with DS, with significant improvements in both upper and lower limb strength and cardiorespiratory endurance, as indicated by VO2peak (p = 0.000). Eleven studies were classified as high quality with low risk of bias, four had some methodological concerns, and three non randomized studies exhibited a high risk of bias. Conclusion: RT interventions appear to significantly enhance physical fitness, including muscle strength, functional abilities, cardiorespiratory fitness, and balance, among individuals with DS, regardless of variations in training methods or program designs.
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American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand on Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 34, No. 2, 2002, pp. 364-380. In order to stimulate further adaptation toward a specific training goal(s), progression in the type of resistance training protocol used is necessary. The optimal characteristics of strength-specific programs include the use of both concentric and eccentric muscle actions and the performance of both single- and multiple-joint exercises. It is also recommended that the strength program sequence exercises to optimize the quality of the exercise intensity (large before small muscle group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises, and higher intensity before lower intensity exercises). For initial resistances, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 8-12 repetition maximum (RM) be used in novice training. For intermediate to advanced training, it is recommended that individuals use a wider loading range, from 1-12 RM in a periodized fashion, with eventual emphasis on heavy loading (1-6 RM) using at least 3-min rest periods between sets performed at a moderate contraction velocity (1-2 s concentric. 1-2 s eccentric). When training at a specific RM load, it is recommended that 2-10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number. The recommendation for training frequency is 2-3 d.wk(-1) for novice and intermediate training and 4-5 d.wk(-1) for advanced training. Similar program designs are recommended for hypertrophy training with respect to exercise selection and frequency. For loading, it is recommended that loads corresponding to 1-12 RM be used in periodized fashion, with emphasis on the 6-12 RM zone using 1- to 2-min rest periods between sets at a moderate velocity. Higher volume, multiple-set programs are recommended for maximizing hypertrophy. Progression in power training entails two general loading strategies: 1) strength training, and 2) use of light loads (30-60% of 1 RM) performed at a fast contraction velocity with 2-3 min of rest between sets for multiple sets per exercise. It is also recommended that emphasis be placed on multiple-joint exercises, especially those involving the total body. For local muscular endurance training, it is recommended that light to moderate loads (40-60% of 1 RM) be performed for high repetitions (> 15) using short rest periods (< 90 s). In the interpretation of this position stand, as with prior ones, the recommendations should be viewed in context of the individual's target goals, physical capacity, and training status.
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Four Olympic-style weightlifters and six athletes from other sports volunteered to perform maximal and submaximal vertical jumps with countermovement and/or snatch lifts on a Kistler force plate to compare the kinetics of the two activities at different levels of effort. Parameters studied included maximum vertical ground reaction force generated during a snatch lift or jump for both maximal and submaximal efforts and force duration at magnitudes greater than 50, 80 and 90 percent of max during the propulsion phase of each activity. Results indicated that in both activities, as the level of performance (intensity) increased, maximal propulsion force magnitudes generally decreased, whereas the duration of force at higher percentages of maximum increased. Qualitative similarities in the temporal pattern of vertical ground reaction force for each activity were observed in both unweighting and propulsion phases. Use of a double knee bend lifting technique accounted for an unweighting phase during the snatch lifts. Data indicated that the athletes used adjustments in temporal pattern of propulsive force application, rather than an increase in the magnitude of force generated for maximal versus submaximal efforts in both activities. Athletes who require improved jumping ability may benefit from utilizing Olympic lifting movements as part of their strength training program due to the applied overload and the similarities found between the propulsive force patterns of each activity. (C) 1992 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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Explosive leg power is a key ingredient to maximizing vertical jump performance. In training, the athlete must use the most effective program to optimize leg power development. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of three training programs - squat (S), plyometric (P) and squat-plyometric (SP) - in increasing hip and thigh power production as measured by vertical jump. Forty-eight subjects were divided equally into four groups: S, P, SP or control (C). The subjects trained two days a week for a total of seven weeks, which consisted of a one-week technique learning period followed by a six- week periodized S, P or SP training program. Hip and thigh power were tested before and after training using the vertical jump test, and the alpha level was set at 0.05. Statistical analysis of the data revealed a significant increase in hip and thigh power production, as measured by vertical jump, within all three treatment groups. The SP group achieved a statistically greater improvement (p < 0.0001) than the S or P groups alone. Examination of the mean scores shows that the S group increased 3.30 centimeters in vertical jump, the P group increased 3.81 centimeters and the SP group increased 10.67 centimeters. The results indicate that both S and P training are necessary for improving hip and thigh power production as measured by vertical jumping ability. (C) 1992 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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This study investigated the effects of a high volume 5-wk weight training program and different exercise/rest intervals on measures of power, high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE), and maximum strength. Subjects, 33 weight trained men (M age 20.4+/-3.5 yrs), were divided into 3 equal groups. The groups used the same exercises and set-and-repetition scheme. Rest intervals were 3 min for Gp 1, 1.5 min for Gp 2, and 0.5 min for Gp 3. Pre/post changes were analyzed using G x T ANOVA. Peak power, average peak power, and average total work, as measured during 15 five-sec cycle max-efforts rides and the 1-RM squat, increased significantly (N = 33, p < 0.05). The vertical jump and vertical jump power index did not show a statistically significant change. The 1-RM squat increased significantly more in Gp 1 (7%) than in Gp 3 (2%). Data suggest that, except for maximum strength, adaptations, to short-term, high-volume training may not be dependent on the length of rest intervals. (C) 1995 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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Ten eumenorrheic women (age 24.1 +/- 4.3) performed 2 randomly assigned heavy-resistance exercise protocols (HREP) on separate days during the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Multiple-set (MS) HREP consisted of 3 sets of 10 RM of 8 resistance exercises with a 1-min rest between exercises and sets. Single-set (SS) HREP consisted of 1 set of 10 RM of the same 8 exercises in the same order, with 1-min rest between consecutive exercises. SS total work was about one-third that of the MS. Immunoreactive serum growth hormone (GH), cortisol, and blood lactate were measured pre- and postexercise (0, 15, and 30 min). The MS produced significant (p < 0.05) increases in serum GH and cortisol above resting levels at all postexercise times. The SS significantly increased serum GH at 15 min postexercise, and cortisol at 0 and 15 min postexercise. Both protocols yielded significant increases in blood lactate above rest at all postexercise times. The MS produced the most significant hormonal and metabolic responses, indicating that exercise volume may be an important factor in hormonal and metabolic mechanisms related to resistance exercise in women. (C) 1996 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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This study examined the effects of different volumes of resistance training on muscle size and function over a 10-wk period. Low volume = 3 sets per muscle group per week; moderate = 6 sets; high = 12 sets. Twenty-seven men with 1-4 yrs weight training experience were randomly assigned to the different training volumes and trained 4 days a week. A periodized routine was used; exercises, training intensity, and number of training days were the same for each group. The only variation between conditions was the number of sets per exercise. Pre and post measurements assessed muscular size via ultrasound; strength via maximum squat and bench press; and power via vertical jump and bench press throw. Urinary concentrations of test-osterone and cortisol were also analyzed to assess the responses to training conditions. All 3 training volumes significantly (p < 0.05) increased muscle size, strength, and upper body power, with no significant between-group differences. There were no significant changes in hormonal concentrations. The results support the use of low volume training for muscular development over a 10-wk period. (C) 1997 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Book
Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is a guide to developing individualized training programs for both serious athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Two of the world’s leading experts on strength training explore how to design scientifically based resistance training programs, modify and adapt programs to meet the needs of special populations, and apply the elements of program design in the real world. The fourth edition presents the most current information while retaining the studies that are the basis for concepts, guidelines, and applications in resistance training. Meticulously updated and heavily referenced, the fourth edition contains the following updates: A full-color interior provides stronger visual appeal.Sidebars focus on a specific practical question or an applied research concept, allowing readers to connect research to real-life situations.Multiple detailed tables summarize research from the text, offering an easy way to compare data and conclusions.A glossary makes it simple to find key terms in one convenient location.Newly added instructor ancillaries make the fourth edition a true learning resource for the classroom (available at www.HumanKinetics.com/DesigningResistanceTrainingPrograms). Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is an essential resource for understanding and applying the science behind resistance training for any population.
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McCall, G. E., W. C. Byrnes, A. Dickinson, P. M. Pattany, and S. J. Fleck. Muscle fiber hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and capillary density in college men after resistance training. J. Appl. Physiol. 81(5): 2004–2012, 1996.—Twelve male subjects with recreational resistance training backgrounds completed 12 wk of intensified resistance training (3 sessions/wk; 8 exercises/session; 3 sets/exercise; 10 repetitions maximum/set). All major muscle groups were trained, with four exercises emphasizing the forearm flexors. After training, strength (1-repetition maximum preacher curl) increased by 25% ( P < 0.05). Magnetic resonance imaging scans revealed an increase in the biceps brachii muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) (from 11.8 ± 2.7 to 13.3 ± 2.6 cm ² ; n = 8; P < 0.05). Muscle biopsies of the biceps brachii revealed increases ( P < 0.05) in fiber areas for type I (from 4,196 ± 859 to 4,617 ± 1,116 μm ² ; n = 11) and II fibers (from 6,378 ± 1,552 to 7,474 ± 2,017 μm ² ; n = 11). Fiber number estimated from the above measurements did not change after training (293.2 ± 61.5 × 10 ³ pretraining; 297.5 ± 69.5 × 10 ³ posttraining; n = 8). However, the magnitude of muscle fiber hypertrophy may influence this response because those subjects with less relative muscle fiber hypertrophy, but similar increases in muscle CSA, showed evidence of an increase in fiber number. Capillaries per fiber increased significantly ( P < 0.05) for both type I (from 4.9 ± 0.6 to 5.5 ± 0.7; n = 10) and II fibers (from 5.1 ± 0.8 to 6.2 ± 0.7; n = 10). No changes occurred in capillaries per fiber area or muscle area. In conclusion, resistance training resulted in hypertrophy of the total muscle CSA and fiber areas with no change in estimated fiber number, whereas capillary changes were proportional to muscle fiber growth.
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We conducted a 12-wk resistance training program in elderly women [mean age 69 +/- 1.0 (SE) yr] to determine whether increases in muscle strength are associated with changes in cross-sectional fiber area of the vastus lateralis muscle. Twenty-seven healthy women were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. The program was satisfactorily completed and adequate biopsy material obtained from 6 controls and 13 exercisers. After initial testing of baseline maximal strength, exercisers began a training regimen consisting of seven exercises that stressed primary muscle groups of the lower extremities. No active intervention was prescribed for the controls. Increases in muscle strength of the exercising subjects were significant compared with baseline values (28-115%) in all muscle groups. No significant strength changes were observed in the controls. Cross-sectional area of type II muscle fibers significantly increased in the exercisers (20.1 +/- 6.8%, P = 0.02) compared with baseline. In contrast, no significant change in type II fiber area was observed in the controls. No significant changes in type I fiber area were found in either group. We conclude that a program of resistance exercise can be safely carried out by elderly women, such a program significantly increases muscle strength, and such gains are due, at least in part, to muscle hypertrophy.
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Resistive exercise is employed to increase functional performance. Weight lifting has been the traditional program of resistive exercise to increase muscular force (strength). Ten years ago Hellebrandt found that the amount of work done is not as important as the rate at which it is done. The purpose of this study was to determine the specific effects on muscular endurance and on muscular force of two different training speeds. The two training programs administered totwo different groups were slow maximal exercise (low power) and rapid maximal exercise (high power). Speed of exercise was found to be specific for muscular endurance and for force increases at and below the exercise speed.
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To investigate the influence of strength training on the electrical and mechanical behaviour of leg extensor muscles during concentric and various stretch-shortening cycles exercises, eleven male subjects went through dynamic heavy resistance strength training with loads of 70 to 120% one maximum repetition three times a week for 24 weeks. The heavy resistance strength training resulted in specific changes in neuromuscular performance. This was demonstrated by the great (p< 0.001) shift of primarily the high force portions of the force velocity curves measured both during squat (SJ) and counter movement jumping (CMJ) conditions. An increase of 30.2% (p<0.001) in maximal strength was noted during the training, while the increases became gradually smaller near the high velocity portions of the curve, where an increase of 7.3% (p<0.05) in the jumping height in SJ and a non-significant increase in the maximal extension velocity with free loads were noted. The increases in positive work phases of force production were accompanied by significant (p<0.05) increases in the neural activation (IEMG) of primarily the vasti medialis and lateralis muscle, while only slight changes were noted in the RF muscle. Only minor and mostly nonsignificant changes were observed during the strength training in the neural activation and force production of the leg extensor muscles in various drop jumps, in which high contraction velocities are utilized. When the training was followed by a 12-week detraining, a great (p<0.001) decrease in maximal strength was observed, while the changes in various parameters of explosive force production were either small (p<0.05) or nonsignificant. The present findings regarding the changes in the electrical and mechanical behaviour of the leg extensor muscles during heavy resistance strength training give additional support to the concept of specificity of training.
Article
Purpose: Our goal was to determine the effects resistance training on circulating IGF-I and on two of its major binding proteins, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3. Additional goals were to compare the time course of hormonal changes with the time course of strength changes and to determine the effect of training volume on the extent of hormonal changes, Methods: Thirty-one men and women (mean age = 37 +/- 7 yr) completed a 25-wk, 3 d . wk(-1) program in which they performed single-set resistance training (I-SET, N = 11), multiple-set resistance training (3-SET, N = 11), or no exercise (Control, N = 9). Before training, and after 13 and 25 wk of training, blood hormones were analyzed and strength was assessed as the sum of one-repetition maximum (I-RM) far leg extension and chest press exercises. Results: During the first 13 wk of resistance training, circulating IGF-I increased by approximately 20% in both the I-SET and 3-SET groups (P = 0.041). No further increases occurred between 13 and 25 wk. In the 3-SET group, IGFBP-3 decreased 20% between 13 and 25 wk (P = 0.008). Training did not alter IGFBP-1. Increases in 1-RM strength occurred mainly during the first 13 wk of training and were significantly higher with 3-SET training compared to 1-SET. Conclusions: These findings indicate that increased circulating IGF-I may, at least in part, mediate increases in strength that result from resistance training.
Article
The purpose of this study was to investigate the force-velocity response of the neuromuscular system to a variety of concentric only, stretch-shorten cycle, and ballistic bench press movements. Twenty-seven men of an athletic background (21.9 +/- 3.1 years, 89.0 +/- 12.5 kg, 86.3 +/- 13.6 kg 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) performed 4 types of bench presses, concentric only, concentric throw, rebound, and rebound throw, across loads of 30-80% 1RM. Average force output was unaffected by the technique used across all loads. Greater force output was recorded using higher loading intensities. The use of rebound was found to produce greater average velocities (12.3% higher mean across loads) and peak forces (14.1% higher mean across loads). Throw or ballistic training generated greater velocities across all loads (4.4% higher average velocity and 6.7% higher peak velocity), and acceleration-deceleration profiles provided greater movement pattern specificity. However, the movement velocities (0.69-1.68 m.s(-1)) associated with the loads used in this study did not approach actual movement velocities associated with functional performance. Suggestions were made as to how these findings may be applied to improve strength, power, and functional performance.
Article
To investigate the influence of explosive type strength training on electromyographic and force production characteristics of leg extensor muscle during concentric and various stretch-shortening cycle exercises, ten male subjects went through progressive training three times a week for 24 weeks. The training program consisted mainly of several jumping exercises performed without weights and with light extra weights. The training resulted in specific enhancement of the neuromuscular performance. This was demonstrated by great (p<0.001) improvements in the high velocity portions of the force-velocity curve measured both in the squatting (SJ) and counter movement jumping (CMJ) conditions. An increase of 21.2% (p<0.001) in the jumping height of SJ was noted during the training, while the corresponding increase in maximal strength was only 6.8% (p<0.05). Great (p<0.01-0.001) increases were also noted during the training in jumping heights and in various mechanical parameters in the positive work phases of the examined drop jumps in which high contraction velocities were utilized. The increases in explosive force production both in the pure concentric and in the examined stretch-shortening cycle exercise were accompanied by and correlated (p<0.05-0.01) with significant (p<0.0 5-0.01) increases in the neural activation (IEMG) of the vastus medialis and lateralis muscles. Only slight (ns.) changes were noted in the IEMG of the rectus femoris muscle. During a following 12-week detraining, significant (p<0.05) decreases observed in various parameters of explosive force production were correlated (p<0.05) with significant (p<0.05) decreases in the averaged IEMG of the leg extensors. The present findings indicate that considerable training-induced neural adaptations may take place, explaining the improvement of explosive force production, and that these changes differ greatly from e.g. high load strength training. The present findings thus further support the concept of specificity of training.
Article
Fifty college women were randomly assigned to one of three resistance training protocols that employed progressive resistance with high resistance/low repetitions (HRLR), medium resistance/medium repetitions (MRMR), and low resistance/high repetitions (LRHR). The three groups trained on the same resistance exercises for 9 weeks at 3 sets of 6 to 8 RM, 2 sets of 15 to 20 RM, and 1 set of 30 to 40 RM, respectively. Training included free weights and multistation equipment. The 1-RM technique was used for strength testing, and muscular endurance tests consisted of maximum repetitions either at a designated resistance or at a percentage of 1-RM. There were significant pre/post strength increases in both upper and lower body tests, but no significant posttreatment difference in muscular strength among the three protocols. Absolute muscular endurance increased significantly on 4 of 6 pre/post comparisons, while relative endurance increased significantly on only 4 of 12 comparisons. HRLR training yielded greater strength gains. LRHR training generally produced greater muscular endurance gains, and the percentage increase in absolute endurance was approximately twice the increase in strength for all groups. Lower body gains in both strength and endurance were greater than upper body gains.
Article
This study examined the angular specificity and test mode specificity of strength training. Six males and six females (X̄ = 22.6 years) were assigned to groups which trained either isometrically (90°) or isokinetically (30°/second). They trained their left elbow extensors at 80% of their maximum voluntary contraction on a modified Cybex® apparatus for 10 weeks, three sessions per week, with 50 contractions per session. Before and after training, both groups were tested isometrically (70, 90, 110°) and isokinetically (30°/second). When tested isometrically, both groups improved equally, and strength was increased at all three test angles to about the same extent. When tested isokinetically, both groups improved, but the isokinetic group improved to a greater extent. In conclusion, no angular specificity of training was demonstrated within 20° of the training angle, and no test mode specificity was seen for isometric testing. However, isometric training showed less transfer to an isokinetic test.
Article
The purpose of the study was to determine the optimum number of repetitions with which to train for quickest strength improvement. Nine groups, consisting of a total of 199 male college students, were tested before and after 12 weeks of progressive resistance exercise. Each group trained differently in repetitions per set. Resistances employed were 2 RM, 4 RM, 6 RM, 8 RM, 10 RM, and 12 RM for one set. The optimum number of repetitions was found to be between 3 and 9.
Article
O'Shea (1969) described the use of functional isometric training in isotonic strength training programs. Maximum isometric contractions were used at isotonic contraction sticking points, the weakest combination of joint angle and muscle length, to provide maximal overload at the critical point in an isotonic lift. The purpose of the present study was to determine if a combination of functional isometrics and standard isotonic training would be superior to a standard isotonic training program in an instructional setting. Subjects were volunteer, college males enrolled in weight training classes of a required activity program. They were assigned to two training groups. The experimental group (n =33) trained for 10 weeks, 3 days per week, using a 6-to-8RMlifting regimen on the bench press. The experimental group also followed an isometric program which consisted of 6 maximal voluntary contractions at a predetermined sticking point in the bench press(BP)exercise. A power rack was adjusted to provide an immovable resistance. The control group(n =26) followed the same 6-to-8RM BPlifting program as the experimental group but with no isometric component. All subjects were pre- and posttested for 1RM BPstrength values. Analysis of data indicated no significant differences on the pretest between the experimental and control conditions, significant improvements for both groups, and on the posttest the experimental group was significantly stronger than the control group. These results provide support for functional isometrics as an enhancement to standard isotonic training regimens where achievement of maximum strength is the goal.
Article
Seven alternative resistance training techniques, performed using a bench press exercise, were compared with heavy weight training (HWT) on a number of variables. These resistance training techniques included isokinetics, eccentrics, functional isometrics, super slow motion, rest pause, breakdowns, and maximal power training. The main results were that eccentrics and isokinetics had significantly (p < 0.05) greater levels of force and integrated electromyography than HWT during the eccentric phase. Likewise, functional isometrics had significantly more force and breakdowns significantly higher triceps brachii electromyography than HWT in the concentric phase. Super slow motion and maximal power training both recorded significantly lower levels of force and integrated electromyography than HWT in each phase. However, super slow motion resulted in significantly greater time under tension (61.70 +/- 2.12 vs. 21.15 +/- 0.92 seconds) than HWT. Maximal power training recorded significantly greater levels of power production than HWT in both the eccentric and concentric phases. Although no alternative resistance training techniques were found to produce significantly greater levels of blood lactate response than HWT, maximal power training and eccentrics produced significantly lower levels. (C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Article
Previously untrained young men (n = 38) were compared in terms of selected changes in leg function following 7 weeks of differential repetition exposures during heavy-resistance training. Subjects were randomly placed into 1 of 4 groups. Groups I, II, and III completed 3 workouts per week, including a warm-up and 4 sets of squats for a 3-5 repetitions maximum (3-5RM), 13-15RM, or 23-25RM, respectively. A fourth (control) group did not participate in formal physical training during this interim. Selected tests of leg function included dynamic constant external resistance (DCER) squat strength, isokinetic knee extension and flexion peak torque at both 60 and 300 x *S-1, and vertical jump. Following the 7-week training period, both DCER squat strength and knee extension peak torque at 60 [middle dot]-S-1 were significantly increased in all 3 treatment groups more (p < 0.01) than in the control group. In addition, squat strength was improved more in group I than in group III (p < 0.05). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found between any of the 4 groups for changes in either vertical jump distance, knee extension and flexion peak torque at 300 [middle dot]-S-1, or knee flexion peak torque at 60 [middle dot]*S-1. These results indicate that short-term low-, moderate-, and high-repetition heavy-resistance squat training programs have little effect on jumping distance or high-velocity strength but do enhance DCER squat strength and maximal low-velocity knee extension strength. In addition, the low-repetition program appears to be superior to the high-repetition program for improving squat strength. The absence of improvements in vertical jump distance and fast-velocity isokinetic knee extension and flexion peak torque suggests that short-term DCER weight training, performed as described above, may have minimal direct impact on "explosive" physical activities for young men having limited training experience. (C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Article
Fifty college women were randomly assigned to one of three resistance training protocols that employed progressive resistance with high resistance/low repetitions (HRLR), medium resistance/medium repetitions (MRMR), and low resistance/high repetitions (LRHR). The three groups trained on the same resistance exercises for 9 weeks at 3 sets of 6 to 8 RM, 2 sets of 15 to 20 RM, and 1 set of 30 to 40 RM, respectively. Training included free weights and multistation equipment. The 1-RM technique was used for strength testing, and muscular endurance tests consisted of maximum repetitions either at a designated resistance or at a percentage of 1-RM. There were significant pre/post strength increases in both upper and lower body tests, but no significant post-treatment difference in muscular strength among the three protocols. Absolute muscular endurance increased significantly on 4 of 6 pre/post comparisons, while relative endurance increased significantly on only 4 of 12 comparisons. HRLR training yielded greater strength gains. LRHR training generally produced greater muscular endurance gains, and the percentage increase in absolute endurance was approximately twice the increase in strength for all groups. Lower body gains in both strength and endurance were greater than upper body gains. (C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Article
Information concerning frequency of training for resistance trained individuals is relatively unknown. Problems in designing training programs for student athletes are frequently encountered due to differential time constraints placed upon them. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of self-selection of resistance training frequency on muscular strength. Sixty-one members of an NCAA. Division IAA football team participated in a 10-week winter conditioning program. Each subject was given the option of choosing from a three-day (3d, n=12) four-day (4d, n=15), five-day (5d, n=23) or six-day (6d, n=ll) per week resistance training program. In addition to the strength training, the subjects participated in a football conditioning program twice a week. Testing was conducted before and after the 10-week training program. Field tests common to football off-season conditioning programs were utilized to evaluate strength (1 RM squat and bench press), speed (40-yard sprint), endurance (two-mile run), vertical jump and anthropometric measurements. Posttests revealed significant changes for the 3d group in decreased time for the two-mile run (2mi), decreased sum of skinfolds (SF) and an increased chest girth (CH). The 4d program revealed significant decreases in body weight, 2mi, SF, and increases in 1 RM squat, CH and thigh girths (TH). The 5d group significantly decreased 2mi, and SF, and increased both 1 RM squat and bench press and CH and TH. The 6d group revealed significant decreases in 2mi, and SF, and an increase in 1 RM squat. Of the total variables measured, 4d and 5d frequency groups revealed the greatest amount of improvement. In conclusion, when resistance training frequency is self-selected by athletes (i.e., college football players) it appears that four or five days per week are the optimal choices for developing strength, endurance and muscle mass. (C) 1990 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Article
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of maximum concentric acceleration training versus traditional upper-body training on the development of strength and power of collegiate NCAA Division 1AA football players. Power was tested with a seated medicine ball throw (n = 30) and a force platform plyometric push-up test (n = 24). Upper-body strength was tested by using a bench press with 1 repetition maximum (1RM) (n = 30). All players were on an identical off-season weight-training program. The control group performed exercises with conventional concentric velocity and the experimental group performed the concentric phase of each repetition as rapidly as possible. Two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to determine training and group differences. Significant training effects for all strength and power measures indicated that both groups increased strength and power. Significant training by group interaction indicates the experimental group increased significantly more than the control group in the bench press (+9.85 kg vs. +5.00 kg) and throw (+0.69 m vs. +0.22 m). Significance was not reached for any of the training by group interactions for force platform variables (amortization time -0.46 seconds for the experimental group vs. -0.22 seconds for the control group; average power was +365 W for the experimental group vs. +108 W for the control group). The results of this study support the use of maximal acceleration of concentric contractions by collegiate football players during upper-body strength and power training. (C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association