ArticlePDF Available

Physiological demands of match-play in elite tennis: A case study

March 2011

DOI:10.1080/17461391.2010.487118

Authors:

Rodrigo Vitasovic Gomes

University of São Paulo

Luis Eduardo Viveiros de Castro

Marcelo Saldanha Aoki

University of São Paulo

The physiological and perceptual demands together with match notation of a four-set tennis match were studied in two elite professional players during the preparation for the 2008 Davis Cup. The design of this case report is unique in that it is the first to describe the demands of prolonged match-play (197 min) over four sets in ecologically valid conditions. The variables measured before and after each set included blood lactate and glucose concentrations, body mass, and perception of effort. Stroke count for each rally and heart rate were recorded during each set while salivary cortisol concentration was determined before and after the match. The rally length decreased as the match progressed. The results showed significant physiological stress, with each player losing greater than 2.5% of body mass (as fluid) and having elevated salivary cortisol concentrations after the match. Heart rate and perception of effort were also increased following each set indicating increasing stress. However, blood lactate decreased following the fourth set while blood glucose was maintained. The results also suggest that elite players may adjust work rates or tactics to cope with the increased perception of effort. This report shows that four sets of tennis are associated with increasing stress and fatigue.

Percentage of time spent in low- (open), moderate- (grey), and high-intensity (black) heart rate (HR) zones for each set, and the overall tennis match.

…

Proportion of strokes per rally during tennis match-play.

…

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Physiological demands of match-play in elite tennis: A case study

RODRIGO V. GOMES

, AARON J. COUTTS

, LUIS VIVEIROS

, & MARCELO S. AOKI

1,4

School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sa

˜o Paulo, Sa

˜o Paulo, Brazil,

School of Leisure, Sport and

Tourism, University of Technology of Sydney, Lindﬁeld, NSW, Australia,

Department of Technology and Science, Brazilian

Olympic Committee, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and

School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sa

˜o Paulo, Sa

˜o

Paulo, Brazil

Abstract

The physiological and perceptual demands together with match notation of a four-set tennis match were studied in two elite

professional players during the preparation for the 2008 Davis Cup. The design of this case report is unique in that it is

the first to describe the demands of prolonged match-play (197 min) over four sets in ecologically valid conditions. The

variables measured before and after each set included blood lactate and glucose concentrations, body mass, and perception

of effort. Stroke count for each rally and heart rate were recorded during each set while salivary cortisol concentration was

determined before and after the match. The rally length decreased as the match progressed. The results showed significant

physiological stress, with each player losing greater than 2.5% of body mass (as fluid) and having elevated salivary cortisol

concentrations after the match. Heart rate and perception of effort were also increased following each set indicating

increasing stress. However, blood lactate decreased following the fourth set while blood glucose was maintained. The results

also suggest that elite players may adjust work rates or tactics to cope with the increased perception of effort. This report

shows that four sets of tennis are associated with increasing stress and fatigue.

Keywords: Racket sports, match analysis, fatigue, physiological demands, perception of effort

Introduction

Tennis requires players to perform short bursts of

high-intensity exercise interspersed with periods of

rest or low-intensity activities for a prolonged peri-

od (Fernandez, Mendez-Villanueva, & Pluim, 2006;

Kovacs, 2007; Mendez-Villanueva, Fernandez-

Fernandez, & Bishop, 2007a). Previous investiga-

tions have reported the heart rate responses, blood

metabolite changes, estimated energy expenditure

and oxygen consumption during competitive tennis

matches and training, providing considerable infor-

mation on the physiological demands of tennis (for

reviews, see Fernandez et al., 2006; Kovacs, 2007;

Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2007a). At present, how-

ever, there is relatively little information available

on the stressors of prolonged tennis match-play,

especially at the elite level (Mendez-Villanueva,

Fernandez-Fernandez, Bishop, Fernandez-Garcia,

& Terrados, 2007b).

The physiological responses to tennis match-play

have been reported to be moderate, with factors such

as individual playing style, court surface, and game

situation all influencing the response (Fernandez

et al., 2006; Kovacs, 2007; Mendez-Villanueva

et al., 2007a). In general, these previous studies

have reported mean heart rates of 60!80% of max-

imum (Ferrauti, Weber, & Wright, 2003; Kovacs,

2007) and mean blood lactate concentrations of less

than 4.0 mmol !l

during matches consisting

of three sets (Fernandez et al., 2006; Fernandez-

Fernandez, Mendez-Villanueva, Fernandez-Garcia,

& Terrados, 2007). However, the major international

tournaments (e.g. Grand Slam events and Davis

Cup) are determined by the best of five sets (the first

player to win three sets wins the match) with the

longest matches lasting for more than 5 h. There have

been few reports of the stressors of tennis in profes-

sional male players, and none have reported on the

responses to matches that are longer than three

Correspondence: M. S. Aoki, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sa

˜o Paulo, Av. Arlindo Bettio 1000, Sa

˜o Paulo, SP

03828-000, Brazil. E-mail: saldanha.caf@usp.br

European Journal of Sport Science, March 2011; 11(2): 105!109

ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online #2011 European College of Sport Science

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2010.487118

Downloaded by [Dr Marcelo S. Aoki] at 05:37 25 October 2011

sets. Therefore, more information is required on the

demands of professional tennis for matches that are

longer than three sets.

Here, we report on the physiological, perceptual,

and time!motion demands of a four-set tennis match

played by top-level professional players during

preparation for the 2008 Davis Cup. The primary

aim of this case report was to describe the stressors

of match-play in elite professional tennis players.

We hypothesized that the physiological and percep-

tual demands would increase as playing time in-

creased and that these would impact on physical

performance. The findings of this repor t are relevant

to a very specific population of professional tennis

players, and provide new information that can be

used to guide the preparation of elite tennis players.

Methods

Experimental approach

It is important to understand the physiological

demands of top-level sporting events, so that specific

training and recovery strategies can be developed.

Limited data are available on the match demands of

professional tennis players, particularly over long

periods (i.e. five sets). This study was designed to

describe the physiological, perceptual, and perfor-

mance demands of professional tennis in conditions

similar to the 2008 Davis Cup. We examined these

responses under match-like conditions in top profes-

sional players who were preparing for international

competition. However, it should be acknowledged

that the competitive training match did not impose

the same psychological stress as a competitive match.

Participants

Two members of the Brazilian team (player 1: ATP

ranking#78, height 1.87 m, body mass 82.4 kg,

age 20 years, maximum heart rate 187 beats !min

˙O

2max

57 ml !kg

!min

; player 2: ATP

ranking#120, height 1.77 m, body mass 76.5 kg,

age 26 years, maximum heart rate 183 beats !min

˙O

2max

53 ml !kg

!min

) agreed to participate

in a best of five-set practice match as part of the

preparation for the 2008 Davis Cup. The Institu-

tional Ethics Review Board provided approval for

the study.

Competition procedures

The players were asked to prepare for the match in

the same way they would for any major competition.

Before the match, they received a standard break-

fast (carbohydrate 1 g !kg

). Ad libitum food and

fluid intake (e.g. water, sports beverages, fruits, and

cereal bars) was recorded during the match. Carbo-

hydrate intakes (solid and liquid) during the match

were similar between the players (player 1: 1.0 g !

; player 2: 0.8 g !kg

). The match started at

10:00 h.

The match was completed under International

Tennis Federation (ITF, 2002) competition regula-

tions, and was officiated by ITF-accredited umpires

and line judges. The match was best of five sets and

was played on an outdoor hard tennis court. The

number of sets (i.e. best of five sets), the balls used

(balls were changed after the first seven games and

then every nine games thereafter), and time breaks

(i.e. between points, change overs and sets were kept

to 20, 90, and 120 s, respectively) were in accor-

dance with ITF regulations. The match was played

in hot environmental conditions (temperature: 26.0!

27.58C; humidity: 66!70%).

Heart rate (HR) was monitored and recorded at

5-s intervals during the match using a chest monitor

(Polar Team System

, Polar, Kempele, Finland).

After the match, the heart rate data were down-

loaded to a computer and then categorized into heart

rate zones to indicate time spent in low- (B70%

max

), moderate- (70!85% HR

max

), and high-

intensity (!85% HR

max

) zones using the Polar

Team System software. Maximum heart rate was

determined prior to testing during regular maximal

oxygen consumption tests conducted in a sports

science laboratory. Exercise intensity was also mea-

sured using the CR-10 ratings of perceived exertion

(RPE) scale at the end of each set (Borg, Ljunggren,

& Ceci, 1985). Session RPE was also measured 30

min after the match (Foster et al., 2001). Changes in

body mass were determined by weighting between

sets, plus adding fluid intake to derive a body mass

difference (as fluid).

A lancet was used to puncture the ear lobe and

draw capillary blood. Blood lactate and glucose

concentrations were determined by Accucheck

monitors (Roche

, Germany). All blood samples

were drawn while the players were seated during

breaks after each set. Cortisol was assessed by saliva

samples collected before the warm-up and immedi-

ately after the match using Salivettes

swabs. Saliva

was analysed in duplicate for cortisol concentration

using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits

(Salimetrics

, USA).

A simple match notation analysis was conducted

by line judges manually with pen and paper by

counting the number of strokes each player played

during each rally.

Results

Total match duration was 197 min. Player 2 won

the match in four sets: 5!7 (60 min; player 2 won),

106 R. V. Gomes et al.

Downloaded by [Dr Marcelo S. Aoki] at 05:37 25 October 2011

3!6 (48 min; player 2 won), 7!6 (45 min; player 1

won), 4!6 (44 min; player 2 won). Figure 1 shows the

proportion of time spent in the low-, moderate-, and

high-intensity heart rate zones during each set and

the entire match. The proportion of strokes per rally

during the tennis match play is shown in Figure 2.

During the match, player 1 and player 2 lost 3.5%

and 2.6% of body mass, respectively (Table I). The

physiological and perceptual responses during the

match of both players are shown in Table II. Salivary

cortisol concentration increased by 25% (from 17.1

to 21.3 mmol !l

) and 16% (from 22.9 to 26.6

mmol !l

) in player 1 and player 2, respectively.

Session RPE scores were 8 and 6 for player 1 and 2,

respectively.

Discussion

In agreement with our initial hypothesis, the present

results show that four sets of elite-level tennis played

provides significant physiological and perceptual

stress. Together with an increase in internal training

load, we observed a decrease in rally length as the

match progressed. Collectively, these results also

show that players may adopt a different playing

strategy in an attempt to cope with increasing

physiological and perceptual stress.

In the present study, rally length was reduced as

the match progressed. Indeed, in the third and fourth

sets more than 60% of the rallies had two strokes or

less, whereas in the first two sets most rallies were of

2!4 strokes. It is not clear if this was due to a change

in tactics or fatigue (i.e. carbohydrate depletion or

dehydration); however, it is possible that an increased

sense of effort was involved in regulating the external

loads during the match.

The heart rate responses during the match were si-

milar to those in previous tennis studies (Fernandez

et al., 2006; Hornery, Farrow, Mujika, & Young,

2007; Smekal et al., 2001) that demonstrated a

moderate aerobic load in professional tennis. A novel

finding of the present study is the upward drift in

the proportion of time spent in the moderate and

higher heart rate zones by both players as the sets

progressed. This effect was greater in player 1 who

also lost most body mass (3.5%). These findings

suggest that ‘‘cardiovascular drift’’ may occur during

prolonged tennis match-play and highlight the im-

portance of appropriate hydration strategies when

playing in the heat. In fact, both players suffered a

significant body weight loss due to dehydration.

It is well known that training strain modulates

the secretion of stress hormones, par ticularly cate-

cholamines and glucocorticoids (Hill et al., 2008;

Leal-Cerro et al., 2003). As expected, post-match

salivary cortisol concentration was increased com-

pared with pre-match values, reinforcing our initial

hypothesis that a prolonged match imposes a sig-

nificant internal load.

The blood lactate concentration of the players in

this match were similar to the values reported during

a round robin tournament in eight professional

tennis players on a clay court (3.890.2 mmol !

) (Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2007b), but higher

than that of 20 nationally ranked players (2.190.9

mmol !l

) (Smekal et al., 2001) during three-set

tennis. It has previously been reported that blood

lactate concentration in tennis players is influenced

Figure 1. Percentage of time spent in low- (open), moderate- (grey), and high-intensity (black) heart rate (HR) zones for each set, and the

overall tennis match.

Figure 2. Proportion of strokes per rally during tennis match-play.

Table I. Changes in body mass, ﬂuid intake, and sweat rate during

the tennis match

Player 1 Player 2

Change in body mass (%) 3.5 2.6

Fluid intake (ml) 1970 2530

Sweat rate (ml !h

) 1500 1360

Physiological demands of tennis 107

Downloaded by [Dr Marcelo S. Aoki] at 05:37 25 October 2011

by playing style, court surface, and even the ambient

conditions. In this study, blood lactate concentration

decreased during the fourth set in both players,

despite maintaining blood glucose concentration and

having elevated salivary cortisol at the end of the

match. The attenuation in blood lactate concentra-

tion coincided with shorter rallies but higher hear t

rates and RPE response in the fourth set, suggesting

a progressive increase in fatigue during the last sets

of a prolonged tennis match. It is not clear if this was

due to tactical changes during the match.

This is the first study to report blood glucose

responses in four-set tennis match-play. In agree-

ment with previous investigations of competitive

three-set match-play (Bergeron et al., 1991; Hornery

et al., 2007) and match simulations (Christmass,

Richmond, Cable, Arthur, & Hartmann, 1998;

Mitchell, Cole, Grandjean, & Sobczak, 1992), the

current investigation showed that hypoglycaemia

does not manifest during match-play. Participants

displayed relatively high post-match blood glucose

concentrations that are comparable to those in

studies of simulated tennis match-play over shorter

durations (Hornery et al., 2007). The elevated

salivary cortisol concentration at the end of the

match, in line with findings from soccer (Bangsbo,

1994; Haneishi et al., 2007), indicates that glyco-

genolysis may be activated to maintain the blood

glucose demands during prolonged, high-intensity

intermittent exercise.

The players’RPE, mean heart rate, and times in

high heart rates zones all increased as the match

progressed, showing increasing perceptual and phy-

siological stress. It is likely that the increased stress,

and in particular the increased effort perception,

contributed to the change in match notation data

(Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009). Session RPE

has been shown to be a valid global indicator of

internal stress during prolonged, high-intensity in-

termittent exercise. (Foster et al., 2001; Impellizzeri,

Rampinini, Coutts, Sassi, & Marcora, 2004). Inter-

estingly, the higher session RPE score shown by

player 1 was associated with more pronounced chan-

ges in physiological markers (e.g. heart rate, cortisol

concentration, and dehydration status).

Conclusions

This case report is the first to describe the physio-

logical, perceptual, and time!motion responses to

four sets of tennis in elite professional players. The

results indicate that prolonged tennis match-play

is associated with increased fatigue and that these

elite players may adjust work rates or tactics to cope

with the increased perception of effort. Moreover,

it would appear that the greater stress associated

with longer tennis matches, as in the Grand Slam

events and Davis Cup, demands greater focus on

pre-, within-, and post-match recovery strategies

(Kraemer et al., 2000; Mitchell, Schiller, Miller, &

Dugas, 2001). We suggest that coaches should

encourage fluid and carbohydrate replenishment

and adopt recovery interventions (e.g. pre-cooling,

massage) that may alter perception of fatigue during

prolonged tennis matches.

Acknowledgements

Rodrigo V. Gomes would like to thank CAPES for

the scholarship. We also would like to thank the

CNPq (grant #563967/2008-0) for funding this

research.

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The aim of our pilot study was to investigate the effects of offensive and defensive strategy conditions on external and internal training load factors in male tennis players. This study included six elite junior male tennis players (chronological age: 15.7 ± 1.0; body height: 180.7 ± 6.5 cm; body mass: 71.0 ± 10.8 kg) who had to play two simulated matches. Among the external training load variables, running activities were measured with a GPS sensor operating at 10 Hz and a 100 Hz tri-axial piezoelectric linear accelerometer integrated into it; furthermore, tennis shot activities were measured with a tennis racket-mounted smart sensor. Internal training load was measured subjectively using the RPE method. The results show that players scored significantly higher on the PlayerLoad (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) and IMA CoD low right (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) running variables and on the forehand spin (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) and backhand spin (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) when using a defensive strategy. There were no significant differences between the two strategy conditions in all other external and internal training load parameters. The defensive strategy has more acceleration in all three planes of motion, suggesting that conditioning training should be placed in the intermittent endurance capacities for players who predominantly use this strategy.

On the distribution of rally length in professional tennis matches

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

In the literature, information on the rally length distribution is quite incomplete, fragmented and non-homogeneous. In this paper we fill the gap deeply analyzing the distribution of rally length in professional tennis matches in the following directions: i) we provide the empirical distribution of the rally length, not only for some categories, but for each single length; ii) we consider different distributions for men and women and for different surfaces; iii) we find the statistical distribution best fitting the data for each surface; iv) we show how the rally distribution depends on some variables, such as the probabilities of winning a point at serve and players’ heights; v) previous points are based on a much larger sample size than other works leading to very reliable results. Our analyses point out that the best distribution for rally length is a zero-one-modified Geometric distribution, whose parameters are functions of the probabilities of winning a point at serve and of the players’ heights. Results suggest that the the players’ heights is the most impacting variable on the rally length distribution.

On the distribution of rally length in professional tennis matches

Preprint

Full-text available

Mar 2023

In the literature, information on the rally length distribution is quite incomplete, fragmented and non-homogeneous. In this paper we fill the gap deeply analyzing the distribution of rally length in professional tennis matches in the following directions: i) we provide the empirical distribution of the rally length, not only for some categories, but for each single length; ii) we consider different distributions for men and women and for different surfaces; iii) we find the statistical distribution best fitting the data for each surface; iv) we show how the rally distribution depends on some variables, such as the probabilities of winning a point at serve and players' heights; v) previous points are based on a much larger sample size than other works leading to very reliable results. Our analyses point out that the best distribution for rally length is a zero-one-modified Geometric distribution, whose parameters are functions of the probabilities of winning a point at serve and of the players' heights. Results suggest that the the players' heights is the most impacting variable on the rally length distribution .

Distribution des intensités et quantification de la charge d’entraînement chez de jeunes joueurs de tennis élite U15

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Les objectifs de cette étude étaient de quantifier l’intensité d’entraînement en fonction du temps passé dans trois zones d’intensité métabolique, de comparer l’intensité programmée, l’intensité mesurée (Fréquence cardiaque) et l’intensité estimée (RPE : Perception de l’effort), et ensuite, de déterminer les charges d’entraînement chez 8 joueurs de tennis masculins de haut niveau. Aucune différence n’a été constatée entre le temps programmé dans les zones 1 (69.9 ± 4.8 %) et 2 (22.8 ± 4.4 %) et les temps passés à une fréquence cardiaque inférieure au Seuil Ventilatoire 1 (SV1) (78.9 ± 9.4 %) et comprise entre le SV1 et le Seuil Ventilatoire 2 (SV2) (18.3 ± 9.5 %) (p > 0.05). Ainsi, ils s’entraînaient de manière conforme à la distribution des intensités programmée et recommandée en adoptant un modèle « pyramidal » de répartition de l’intensité. De plus, des différences significatives ont été constatées entre les pourcentages de temps programmé et les pourcentages de temps perçu (RPE) pour toutes les zones (p < 0.05). La surestimation de l’intensité estimée peut s’expliquer par leur âge et la nature intermittente du tennis. Enfin, nous pouvons remarquer que la charge d’entraînement programmée est similaire à celle observée pour des joueurs du même âge et du même niveau.

Practice and match workload of a female tennis player in two annual seasons: A single-case study

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

The aim of this single case study was to monitor the external workload of a professional female tennis player between 314 training sessions and 115 matches. A wearable device was used during two fully consecutive tennis seasons (24 months). External workload was determined using time indicators (total and active session times), shots indicators (shots per week, session, hour, rally and minute) and frequency distribution of rallies. This case study showed that the workload during practice sessions was higher compared to matches in terms of active time, percentage of active time, shots per hour and rally, and frequency distribution of rallies with more than nine shots. The number of shots executed per minute was lower in the practice sessions than in the match. It is concluded that the recommended number of shots per hour in a 90-min practice session is for the player to perform 400 to 800 shots. The recommended average number of rallies in practice sessions is 144 and 70% of the rallies should consist of four shots. The pace of rallies in open match situations in the practice sessions should reach the level of official matches. These conclusions could be useful guidelines for determining the workload of female tennis players participating in entry-level professional tournaments.

The importance of aerobic fitness for tennis: training and testing (part 2)

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2019

Cyril Genevois

In part 1 of this series we discussed why aerobic fitness is important for tennis players (Genevois, 2019). Scientific studies have revealed that High Intensity Intermittent Training (HIIT) is an efficient way to improve aerobic fitness either off- or on-court, depending on the training phase. The intensity of the training sessions can be individualized based on the final speed reached during the 30/15 Intermittent Fitness Test.

Chapitre 1. Analyse de l’activité du joueur de tennis

Chapter

Jan 2018

Caroline Martin

Tennis Physiology

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2007

Mark Kovacs

The game of tennis has evolved from the wooden-racket era of long, crafty points based on style and finesse, to the current fast paced, explosive sport based on power, strength and speed, where 210 km/h serves are common. This evolution over the last 20 years has led to an increased interest in tennis research. Competitive tennis athletes need a mixture of anaerobic skills, such as speed, agility and power, combined with high aerobic capabilities. The work-to-rest ratios of competitive tennis athletes range between 1: 3 and 1: 5, and fatigue has been shown to greatly reduce the hitting accuracy. Competitive male tennis athletes maintain body fat <12% and have maximal oxygen uptake values >50 mL/kg/min, and as high as 70 mL/kg/min. Results from lactate testing in tennis players are inconclusive as some studies have shown increased levels, whilst other studies have shown little or no change. Further investigation is required to determine the production and utilisation effects of lactate from playing tennis. The average length of time to play a point in tennis is <10 seconds and this has declined substantially in the last 20 years. Further research is needed to investigate tournament performance and its effect on fatigue, recovery, hormonal and injury levels. As the game of tennis continues to change, the physiological parameters must be continually investigated to help provide athletes, coaches and trainers with information that will aid in the development of efficient and productive tennis performance and injury prevention programmes.

Exercise and circulating Cortisol levels: The intensity threshold effect

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2008

This study examined the influence of exercise intensity upon the cortisol response of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis. Specifically, we examined exercise at intensities of 40, 60, and 80% maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in an attempt to determine the intensity necessary to provoke an increase in circulating cortisol. Twelve active moderately trained men performed 30 min of exercise at intensities of 40, 60, and 80% of their VO2max, as well as a 30-min resting-control session involving no exercise on separate days. Confounding factors such as time of day — circadian rhythms, prior diet — activity patterns, psychological stress, and levels of exercise training were controlled. Cortisol and ACTH were assessed in blood collected immediately before (pre-) and after (post-) each experimental session. Statistical analysis involved repeated measures analysis of variance and Tukey posthoc testing. The percent change in cortisol from pre- to post-sampling at each session was: resting-control, 40, 60, and 80% sessions (mean±SD) =−6.6±3.5%, +5.7±11.0%, +39.9±11.8%, and +83.1±18.5%, respectively. The 60% and 80% intensity magnitude of change was significantly greater than in the other sessions, as well as from one to another. The ACTH responses mirrored those of cortisol, but only the 80% exercise provoked a significant (pACTH). In contrast, low intensity exercise (40%) does not result in significant increases in cortisol levels, but, once corrections for plasma volume reduction occurred and circadian factors were examined, low intensity exercise actually resulted in a reduction in circulating cortisol levels.

Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2009

Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state caused by prolonged periods of demanding cognitive activity. Although the impact of mental fatigue on cognitive and skilled performance is well known, its effect on physical performance has not been thoroughly investigated. In this randomized crossover study, 16 subjects cycled to exhaustion at 80% of their peak power output after 90 min of a demanding cognitive task (mental fatigue) or 90 min of watching emotionally neutral documentaries (control). After experimental treatment, a mood questionnaire revealed a state of mental fatigue (P = 0.005) that significantly reduced time to exhaustion (640 +/- 316 s) compared with the control condition (754 +/- 339 s) (P = 0.003). This negative effect was not mediated by cardiorespiratory and musculoenergetic factors as physiological responses to intense exercise remained largely unaffected. Self-reported success and intrinsic motivation related to the physical task were also unaffected by prior cognitive activity. However, mentally fatigued subjects rated perception of effort during exercise to be significantly higher compared with the control condition (P = 0.007). As ratings of perceived exertion increased similarly over time in both conditions (P < 0.001), mentally fatigued subjects reached their maximal level of perceived exertion and disengaged from the physical task earlier than in the control condition. In conclusion, our study provides experimental evidence that mental fatigue limits exercise tolerance in humans through higher perception of effort rather than cardiorespiratory and musculoenergetic mechanisms. Future research in this area should investigate the common neurocognitive resources shared by physical and mental activity.

Tennis: A Physiological Profile during Match Play

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1991

Heart rate (HR), hematocrit, hemoglobin, blood glucose, and plasma concentrations of lactate, cortisol, and testosterone were monitored in 10 male subjects (Division I, 20.3 +/- 2.5 yrs, VO2max: 58.5 +/- 9.4 ml.kg-1.min-1) during singles tennis and a treadmill test. During the on-court session, HR was 144.6 +/- 13.2 beats.min-1 for the 85 min of play. Plasma lactate rose 50% from a post-warmup value of 1.6 +/- 0.6 mmol.l-1 to 2.3 +/- 1.2 mmol.l-1 during play (p greater than 0.05). Blood glucose slightly decreased (8%, p greater than 0.05) from a pre-exercise value of 4.6 +/- 0.8 mmol.l-1 as a result of the 10-min warmup. This was followed by a 23% rise (p less than 0.05) from 4.2 +/- 1.0 mmol.l-1 to 5.2 +/- 0.6 mmol.l-1, measured after the first 30 min of play. Blood glucose subsequently remained steady at slightly above the pre-exercise value. Plasma cortisol rose (9%, p greater than 0.05) during the warmup and subsequently decreased (p less than 0.05) from a post-warmup value of 558.2 +/- 285.2 nmol.l-1 to 337.1 +/- 173.3 nmol.l-1 (a 40% decrease), and remained decreased during recovery. Plasma testosterone rose 22% (p less than 0.05) from pre-exercise to recovery (13.5 +/- 3.8 nmol.l-1 and 16.5 +/- 2.6 nmol.l-1, respectively). Although tennis is characterized by periods of high-intensity exercise, the overall metabolic response resembles prolonged moderate-intensity exercise.

The increase of perceived exertion, aches and pain in the legs, heart rate and blood lactate during exercise on a bicycle ergometer

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1985
Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol

This study was designed to show the general increase in perceived exertion, perception of aches or pain in the legs, heart rate (HR), and blood lactate, and the covariance between these variables during bicycle ergometer work, and to describe individual differences both within and between power levels by testing a large group (28 male students). Estimates of perceived exertion and feelings of aches or pain in the legs were recorded using Borg's category-ratio scale (CR-10). The subjects were tested with a stepwise increase of power levels with 40 W increments up to a voluntary maximum. Though HR increases fairly linearly with power, the other variables follow positively accelerating functions with exponents of about 1.6–2 for the perceptual variables, and an exponent of about 3 for blood lactate. The results from the 8 most fit subjects could be described in the same way as for the whole group except for blood lactate, where there was a need to include a threshold value (b), that, together with a rest value (a), shows the starting point of the function (R=a+c(W−W 0)n ). The data support the idea that a combination of heart rate and blood lactate is a better predictor of perceived exertion and feelings of aches and pain in the legs, than is each of the single physiological variables taken alone.

The Effect of a Carbohydrate Beverage on Tennis Performance and Fluid Balance During Prolonged Tennis Play

Article

Jan 1992

The physiology of soccer

Article

Jan 1994

Jens Bangsbo

The present thesis is based on 14 original articles published in international journals (I-XIV, see page 8) and a summarizing review. The thesis deals with the physiological demands of soccer, with a particular focus on the physiological response to repeated intense exercise. In chapter I the specific issues are presented and in chapter II the physiological demands in soccer are discussed based on the results of the studies performed. Chapter III contains a short survey of the experiments performed to study specifically muscle metabolism and muscle fatigue with repeated intense muscle contractions. With reference to the topics covered in chapters II and III, fatigue during a soccer match is discussed in chapter IV, and chapter V deals with applications for physical training in soccer. Measurements have been performed during soccer matches and training, as well as in experiments simulating the activities of a soccer match. The information obtained has been compared to results from studies of the physical capacity of top-class soccer players and from laboratory experiments aimed at investigating metabolism and fatigue in intermittent exercise. Studies with whole-body and single muscle group exercises have been performed, the latter mainly with the application of a knee-extension model. In the studies on isolated muscle groups, biopsies taken from exercising muscles as well as arterial and femoral venous blood samples have allowed for detailed analysis of muscle ionic transportation and metabolism. In addition, the magnetic resonance technique has been used for the continuous determination of changes in muscle metabolites and pH during intermittent exercise. Analysis of activities during soccer matches showed that a top-class soccer player covers an average distance of approximately 11 km during a match. The distance differs highly between players and is partly related to the position in a team. Midfield players run more at low speed than defenders and forwards, whereas no difference appears to exist between groups when comparing the distance covered at high speed. The distance covered at high speed is the same in the beginning as in the end of a match. The total distance covered by a player during a soccer match is only to a limited extent a measure of the physiological demands on the player during the match. In addition to running, a player is engaged in many other energy demanding activities, i.e. tackling, jumping, accelerating and turning. A more precise evaluation of the total energy demand during a soccer match may be achieved by performing physiological measurements in connection with soccer matches (I). Based on measurements of variables such as heart rate and body temperature, the relative energy demand during a soccer match is estimated to be approximately 70% of maximal oxygen uptake. The aerobic energy production accounts for more than 90% of the total energy consumption. Although the anaerobic energy production is of minor quantitative importance, it does play an essential role during a soccer match. During an intense exercise period of a game both creatine phosphate (CP) and to a lesser extent the stored adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are utilized. Both variables are partly restored during a subsequent rest period. In blood samples taken after top-class soccer matches the lactate concentration averages 3-8 mmol·l-1 (I), and individual determinations often exceed 10 mmol·l-1 during match-play. The latter values indicate that lactate production can be very high during periods of a match. Glycogen in the working muscle seems to be the most important substrate for the energy production during a soccer match. However, muscle triglycerides, blood free fatty acids and glucose are also used as substrates for the oxidative metabolism of the muscles.

The Official Rules

Article

Jan 1979
INTERDISCIPL SCI REV

Denys Parsons

The Effect of a Carbohydrate Beverage on Tennis Performance and Fluid Balance During Prolonged Tennis Play

Article

May 1992

The fluid needs of tennis players competing in hot environments have not been examined; thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a carbohydrate (CHO) drink on performance, and on fluid balance and tolerance, during prolonged tennis play. Twelve competitive players completed two, three-hour tennis matches during which they ingested 11.4 ml•kg•h-1(200 ml•15 min-1) of either a 7.5 g CHO•100 ml-1drink (CHO) or a water placebo (WP). Before and after each match, severe velocity (SV) and a 183-meter shuttle run (SR) were completed as performance tests. Blood samples were taken after 15 minutes of rest before and after each trial and at 60 and 120 minutes during the trials, and were analyzed for percent change in plasma volume (PV) and blood glucose (BG). Weight (BW) was measured before and after each trial. Heart rates (HR), ratings of stomach fullness (RF, scale of 1-5), serve percentage and unforced errors were monitored throughout the matches. Environmental conditions were measured using the WBGT index, which was 26.70 and 26.65 degrees in the WP and CHO conditions, respectively. The mean differences in pre- versus post-(Δ) and three- hour means (± SD) are shown below. © 1992 Journal of Applied Sport Science Research. All rights reserved.

The Effects of NCAA Division 1 Intercollegiate Competitive Tennis Match Play on Recovery of Physical Performance in Women

Article

Aug 2000

The effects of 2 days of Big Ten National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 tennis match play were studied in 7 women. The unique design of this study was the first to use an actual collegiate match-play situation incorporating all of the actual stresses involved in the multidimensional game of tennis. Physical strength, power, and several physiological measures were evaluated in an attempt to identify specific variables created by the demands of actual play that may not recover from fatigue. The test battery included determination of peak ball velocity in the serve, peak torque of both internal and external shoulder rotation, maximal grip strength, vertical jumps on the force plate, and salivary cortisol concentrations. Prior to the study, baseline measures for the test battery were established with reliabilities of intraclass correlation coefficients of R ≥ 0.95. Each performance variable sufficiently recovered after 24 hours; no significant differences were observed between baseline and the test session 24 hours postmatch. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were observed between force variables of the dominant playing arm and the performance variable of serve velocity (r = 0.75-0.82). It appears that a 24-hour recovery period will allow a majority of a tennis player's neuromuscular performance characteristics to recover from successive days of collegiate match-play competition; however, mental and physical perceptions of fatigue may still exist.