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Failure Modes and Stability Modelling for Design of Sand Filled Geosynthetic Units in Coastal Structures

Authors:
Leslie Angus Jackson at Griffith University
Leslie Angus Jackson
Bobbie B. Corbett at Griffith University; International Coastal Management
Bobbie B. Corbett
  • Griffith University; International Coastal Management
Simon Restall at GSR International Pty Ltd
Simon Restall
  • GSR International Pty Ltd
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Abstract and Figures

Sand filled bags are becoming increasing popular for coastal structures but there are no definitive guidelines. There are several failure modes and these have been identified fro monitoring of full scale structures and from flume testing. This paper presents this work on failure modes and stability.
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FAILURE MODES & STABILITY MODELLING FOR DESIGN OF
SAND FILLED GEOSYNTHETIC STRUCTURES
Angus JACKSON, International Coastal Management
Bobbie CORBETT, International Coastal Management
Simon RESTALL, Elco Solutions
BACKGROUND
• Sand filled geosynthetic containers [SFGC] and tubes are being increasingly
used as an alternative to rock and concrete to construct coastal structures.
• SFGC are often used for emergency protection or temporary works with limited
design.
• Approval authorities often prefer SFGC structures as they can be easily removed
and do not require haulage of rock or concrete to site.
100- 200m3
0.75m3
2.5m3
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
TYPICAL CONTAINER SIZES USED IN AUSTRALIA
non-woven geosynthetics
DESIGN METHODS STILL IN EARLY STAGES
Rock and concrete armor unit design [and construction] methods are
not suitable.
WHY:
• Flexible
• Porous
• Possible underfilling / deflation
Testing of SFGC has been undertaken in wave flumes by a number of different
researchers such as Oumerarci, Bleck, Cox, Andrews, ……
-results to date vary and not all geotextile parameters have been able to be fully
investigated:
• Stiffness
• Friction
• Permeability
And container fill percentage
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
0.75m3
With this flume data, plus data from prototype structures and measurements:
TO DATE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO GROSSLY OVERDESIGN FOR STABILTY
[ LARGER SFGC ARE USUALLY MORE COST EFFECTIVE]
=> NO FAILURES of permanent works
SAND-FILLED GEOTEXTILE CONTAINER STABILITY
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Volume per metre of wall [m3]
Wa ve H eight [m]
UNSTABLE
STABLE
5t-side on
5t-nose on
MARO OCHY
GROYNES
LUCINDA
GROYNES
GOLDEN BCH
GROYNES
MARO OCHY
WALL
1.5t-side on
MAROOCHY
GROYNES
TOURBRIDGE IS
WALL
MAROOCHY
WALL
25L
150L
TOWRA PT
WALL
1.5t-nos e on
COFFS HARBOUR GROYNE
Submerg ed Single Bag
OUMERACI ET AL.
OUMERACI ET AL.
MAROOCHY
WALL
0.75m3 temporary works -Maroochy
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
EMPIRICAL DATA FOR DESIGN
?????
3-5T armor rock
OBJECTIVE - DESIGN FOR LARGER WALLS
- SUCH AS GOLD COAST SEAWALLS
2 LAYERS X 2.5m3 SFGC ??
NEED MORE THAN DESIGN FORMULAE
NEED TO UNDERSTAND FAILURE MODES AND AVOID BY GOOD DESIGN
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
FAILURE MODES
-Overtopping and Pullout failures in “real world”
similar to observed in flume by Oumeraci et al
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
FAILURE MODES
-To date have concentrated on better understanding pullout failure mode.
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
COMPLEX INTERACTIONS
LOOKED LIKE NEEDED MORE THAN 10 MINS THOUGHT!
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY UNDERGRAD PLUS FLUME
USED TO INVESTIGATE FAILURE MODES
STILLING CHAMBER
– NOT CONNECTED
PULL OUT FAILURE MODE
HYPOTHESIS - pressure differentials at draw down
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
PULL OUT FAILURE MODE
HYPOTHESIS
x
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
STABILITY WILL BE AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING WALL VARIABLES:
•Permeability of geosynthetic at back of wall and backfill material
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
STABILITY WILL BE AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING WALL VARIABLES:
• Permeability of geosynthetic at back of wall and backfill material
•Type of geosynthetic for containers
•friction coefficient
•permeability
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
STABILITY WILL BE AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING WALL VARIABLES:
• Permeability of geosynthetic at back of wall and backfill material
• Type of geosynthetic for containers
• friction coefficient ÆVelcro? Ædurability???
• permeability
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
STABILITY WILL BE AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING WALL VARIABLES:
• Permeability of geosynthetic at back of wall and backfill material
• Type of geosynthetic for containers
• friction coefficient
• permeability
•Weight and stacking of containers
•Type of fill
•% full
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
X
FORCES ON CRITICAL CONTAINER(S)
X
STABILITY WILL BE AFFECTED BY THE FOLLOWING WALL VARIABLES:
• Permeability of geosynthetic at back of wall and backfill material
• Type of geosynthetic for containers
•friction [coefficient]
• permeability
• Weight and stacking of containers
• Type of fill
•% full
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
“100”%
“100”%
“80”%
“80”%
Higher contact area
SOME FLUME TESTS DONE WITH SAND FILL, OTHERS WITH GRAVEL FILL
- Decided to test sand vs gravel filled containers leaving other variables
constant
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
THANKS TO:
ZOE ELLIOT
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
WALL DESIGN FROM STUDIES
Suitable for Gold Coast type wave conditions
1
1.5
TYPICAL WALL X-SECTION
Height to minimise overtopping.
Containers placed to maximise unit weight along crest
Min of double layer x 2.5m3 orientated
and stacked to maximise friction.
Add velcro to increase friction.??
Toe at adequate depth for scour
with additional container to seaward
Provide maintenance area behing wall.
OVERTOPPING
PULLOUT / DISLODGEMENT
TOE SCOUR
Jackson, Corbett
& Restall
Thankyou
... For walls, wave heights are typically depth-limited but can still be substantial depending on location and condition of the beach and this typically drives the selection of container size and configuration. During service, four typical failure modes have been identified from monitoring and modelling of SFGC structures [22]. For walls these are as per Figure 2. ...
... Examples of the four typical failure modes for SFGC walls. (Source:[22]) ...
Sand Filled Geotextile Containers in Australia -Is There a Future?
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Sep 2019
Australia was an early adopter of sand filled geotextile/geosynthetics containers (SFGC) for coastal structures and has been a global leader in application and the R&D of the technology. Large engineered "sandbags" were a natural progression from the small sandbags used, and still used, very effectively despite their low mass, for emergency wave erosion. The SFGC technology has optimum applications and positive drivers for their use include: • Increasing shortage and increasing cost of good quality rock. • Suitability for emergency and temporary protection works. • Providing soft, user friendly and safer structures for longer term works in high recreational use areas. • Suitability for low crested structures. • Environmental benefits as the geotextile provides a good substrate for marine growth. Up to the early 2000's the technology evolved rapidly facilitating innovative projects. However, the use of SFGC in Australia appears to be declining due to a number of issues including: • Design; Being "soft" and flexible structures, they are more difficult to design for stability compared to traditional materials. • The R&D and monitoring to date has provided a good understanding of failure modes and product-specific guidelines but there are still no comprehensive and widely accepted design guidelines such as the Rock Manual for rock. • Construction; Contractors have tried, often unsuccessfully, to apply rock construction methods to SFGC structures resulting in construction delays, cost escalations and structural failures. • Durability; Being relatively thin skinned and vulnerable to UV exposure, the life of the units and structure can be short, if not well designed, protected and maintained. Research into materials continues but the last significant improvement in material durability was in 2000 for Narrowneck reef. Conclusion: The future widespread use of SFGC technology will depend on improved guidelines for design and construction as well as innovative development of more durable materials.
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... Due to the flexibility and lower specific gravity of GSCs as compared to rock or concrete armour units, they behave differently and the established design formulae for rock or concrete units are not applicable. Furthermore, the stability of GSC is more complex and GSC-structures show a number of particular failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006). Figure 1 shows many of the different potential failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006;Van Steeg and Klein Breteler, 2008;Lawson, 2008;Oumeraci and Recio, 2010). ...
... Furthermore, the stability of GSC is more complex and GSC-structures show a number of particular failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006). Figure 1 shows many of the different potential failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006;Van Steeg and Klein Breteler, 2008;Lawson, 2008;Oumeraci and Recio, 2010). Most of these failure modes are influenced by the engineering properties of GSCs which depend on the sand fill ratio, the type of geotextile, etc. (Dassanayake, 2013). ...
SETTING UP MONITORING PLANS TO ASSESS THE PERFORMANCE AND THE DURABILITY OF EXPOSED GEOTEXTILE ENCAPSULATED SAND ELEMENTS IN COASTAL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Mar 2013
In recent decades, coastal structures with exposed Geotextile Encapsulated Sand Elements; (GESE) became increasingly popular (e.g. Geotextile tubes, Geotextile Sand Containers; GSCs, etc.). Their applications as submerged and exposed structures are still growing, mainly due to their low cost, which allows significant savings when compared to conventional shore protection structures. However, due to the lack of knowledge about their durability, GESE-structures are still considered as temporary structures, thus inhibiting their application in large scale projects. It is expected that a detailed monitoring plan will also generate valuable information to assess the durability of exposed geotextile tubes and GSCs. Despite several publications on the different tools to monitor the performances and durability issues of coastal structures made of geotextile tubes and GSCs, the available literature on monitoring methodologies are still far from providing a comprehensive guideline for the development of long-term monitoring plans for new projects. Therefore, this ongoing study aims at the development of tentative guidelines to prepare monitoring plans for future coastal structures made of geotextiles. Furthermore, this study will be the basis for the development of a decision support system (DSS) for monitoring, including the countermeasures to be taken and the assessment of the durability of geotextile tubes and GSCs, based on the monitoring results. This paper discusses the progress of the study, including key results related to the factors affecting the durability of GESEs applied in shore protection and their relative importance. Furthermore, recommendations for setting up long monitoring plans for exposed GESE in coastal and marine environments are also provided.
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... Due to the flexibility and lower specific gravity of GSCs as compared to rock or concrete armour units, they behave differently and the established design guidelines for rock or concrete units are not applicable. Furthermore, the stability of GSC is more complex and GSC-structures show a number of particular failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006). Figure 4 shows many of the different potential failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006;Van Steeg and Klein Breteler, 2008;Lawson, 2008;Oumeraci and Recio, 2010). ...
... Furthermore, the stability of GSC is more complex and GSC-structures show a number of particular failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006). Figure 4 shows many of the different potential failure modes (Jackson et al., 2006;Van Steeg and Klein Breteler, 2008;Lawson, 2008;Oumeraci and Recio, 2010). Most of these failure modes are influenced by the engineering properties of GSCs which depend on the sand fill ratio, the type of geotextile, etc. (Dassanayake, 2013;Dassanayake and Oumeraci, 2012a). ...
Are Geotextile Encapsulated Sand Elements only Temporary Solutions in Coastal Engineering?
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Oct 2016
Pioneering coastal engineers introduced innovative costal structures with Geotextile Encapsulated Sand Elements (GESE) about 60 years ago and some of those structures were failed to survive, but some structures constructed a few decades ago, still performing well. The structures suffered damages taught us many valuable lessons, which ultimately lead to advancements in GESE technology, including geotextile manufacturing technology. However, there are serious lapses in communicating outcomes of recent research studies on their durability to the engineering community at large. Hence, GESE-structures are still considered as temporary structures by practicing engineers and owners. This inhibits their applications in large scale projects. This paper attempt to provide an overview of the present GESE technology, which a special emphasize to Geotextile Sand Containers (GSCs)
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... Field studies of coastal geobag structures have shown that failure mechanisms can be greatly influenced by wave action. Overtopping, sliding, puncturing, pull-out, and toe scour have been identified as the most common failure modes [10][11][12]; friction, inertia, drag, and lift forces are the main forces which govern these failures [8]. However, the perpendicular wave action found in coastal scenarios is not significant in fluvial applications, where the flow direction is generally parallel to the riverbank, so the performance and failure mechanisms of geobag revetments in rivers are considerably different from that of coastal structures. ...
Laboratory Investigation of Geobag Revetment Performance in Rivers
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2021
Geobag (sand-filled geotextile bags) revetments have recently emerged as long-term riverbank protection measures in developing countries; however, their performance is still not well understood. The hydraulic stability of geobag revetments used for riverbank protection has been studied within an extensive laboratory programme to improve our understanding of the complete failure processes of geobag revetments. A 1:10 scale distorted physical model was tested in a laboratory flume, comparing a range of different construction methods and revetment side slopes, subjected to different flow loading. The results indicate that whilst failure mechanisms are highly dependent on water depth and revetment slope, the construction method had no noticeable impact. It was thus concluded that the dominating factor is the friction between individual geobags, which itself is dependent on bag longitudinal overlap rather than a specific construction method.
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... Major failure modes or wave-induced damages of GSC structures are identified to be pullout, sliding, overturning, puncturing and toe scour (Akter et al., 2013;Jackson et al., 2006;Recio and Oumeraci, 2009). Overturning of GSC units is observed in the crest layers while pullout and sliding instability is reported in units within critical layers. ...
Physical model studies on damage and stability analysis of breakwaters armoured with geotextile sand containers
Article
  • Dec 2020
  • GEOTEXT GEOMEMBRANES
Harnessing the advantages of geotextile sand containers (GSCs), numerous submerged breakwaters and shoreline protection structures have been constructed worldwide. But an emerged breakwater structure with geotextile armour units, capable of replacing the conventional structures, is rarely discussed. A 1:30 scaled physical experimentation is chosen as a preliminary investigation to test the feasibility of using GSCs as breakwater armour units. Structural design is evolved based on a comprehensive literature survey. The paper focuses on the stability parameters and damage characteristics of the proposed structure. Four different configurations are subjected to waves, confining to Mangaluru's wave parameters. Effect of armour unit size and sand fill ratio on the stability of the structure is analysed and it is concluded that changing sand fill ratio from 80% to 100% shot up the structural stability to a maximum of 14%. Increasing bag size also resulted in the increased stability up to 8%. Experiments revealed that the best performing configuration could withstand wave heights up to 2.7 m. Stability curves for all tested configurations are discussed and can serve as an effective guideline for designing GSC breakwaters.
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... Most previous studies have been undertaken in laboratory wave flumes or basins to experimentally investigate the stability of geotextile sandbags. The common failure modes of geotextile sandbags observed in laboratory wave basins were found to be sliding puncturing, dislodgement, and toe scouring (Jackson et al., 2006;Mori et al., 2008;Recio and Oumeraci, 2009). The 126 kg geotextile bag was shown to be stable when the average depth velocity is less 3.0 m/s under the 1:20 scaled physical model (NHC, 2006). ...
Construction of In-situ Coastal Experimental Station to Continue Assessing Shoreline Protection Performance of Geotextile Sandbags
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2020
Li Y.-Q.; You Z.-J.; Shi H.-Y., and Ren, B., 2020. Construction of in-situ coastal experimental station to continue assessing shoreline protection performance of geotextile sandbags. In: Malvárez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 267–271. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Storm-induced coastal erosion is one of main natural hazards on the coast of China and appears over one-third of the Chinese coastline. How to protect the valuable coastline from extensive erosion is of enormous economic and social values. In this study, a 74 m-long erosive coastline with high dune of about 8 m on the coast of Chudao in China has been ecologically protected with durable geotextile sandbags and then served as an in-situ permanent experimental station to continuously assess the shoreline protection performance of geotextile sandbags. The in-situ station consists of three different test segments (S1, S2, S3) and each of them was designed differently to optimize the stability and construction cost of geotextile sandbags. The sand-filled geotextile bags are designed to have the same dimensions of 1.3 m long, 0.8 m wide, and 0.2 m high and last for about 20∼30 years. Before and after the in-situ station has been built, the essential field data are collected: (1) monthly surveying of 20 permanent beach profiles to evaluate the beach profile changes; (2) monthly collection of numerous sand samples to analyze sediment grain size changes; and (3) monthly monitoring of maximum wave runup levels and sandbags stability. In analyzing the collected filed data, it is found that high wave runup is main driver for the shoreline erosion at this study site and the test segment (S2) together with geogrids is most effective and economic of the three test segments. The test segment (S2) will be redesigned to further assess the effects of sandbag size, revetment height and geogrid meshing on the performance of geotextile sandbags at this in-situ station.
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... Sand-filled geotextile containers result in flexible structures which can accommodate some movement without failure (Jackson et al, 2006). They can also be reconfigured, raised or lengthened to optimise performance. ...
Case Study: Stabilisation of a Rapidly Eroding Point Using an Insitu-Filled Geotextile Container Groyne Field
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Jan 2016
Munna Point is a premiere recreational beach in the Noosa River which has been maintained by regular nourishment for over 20 years. As longevity of each nourishment was less than 6 months, the long-term costs were high and efforts were eventually suspended resulting in loss of the beach. In an effort to reinstate the amenity and provide a more stable beach, a groyne field accompanied by nourishment was proposed. To provide a low-impact, low-risk and low-cost solution, the groynes were designed with a low crest using sand-filled geotextile containers. To achieve the design, containers and scour mattresses were filled in-situ using a dredge, which was an innovative application of a methodology typically adopted for much larger containers. The first 3 groynes have successfully been installed as part of the first stage and 12 months of monitoring subsequently undertaken. The groynes have clearly been effective at extending the longevity of the nourishment and the wider intertidal profile has remained very stable. The beach is now successfully enhancing the amenity of the community and experiencing a high level of usage.
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... They have been used in a pilot project at Rerik and Glowe on the island of Rugia (Baltic Sea) in Germany, and all around the world for example in Australia and Gambia. They are often used for emergency protection or temporary works with limited design (Jackson et al., 2006;Oumeraci et al., 2003). ...
Applications of Geosynthetic Membranes in Soil Stabilization and Coastal Defense Structures
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2017
The use of geosynthetic in soil and coastal engineering is increasing and improving due to improvements in its engineering properties and fabrication techniques. While some geosynthetic coastal structures have attained advanced stage in terms of applications and efficiency, others still lack well-structured design formulas and specifications on a sound scientific basis, hence continued experimental works for the better understanding of the hydraulic performance, stability and modes of failure of these structures. Coastal areas are dynamic with unique geomechanical feature such as soil instability, which in any case, may affect the overall performance of coastal defense structures constructed on soft soil or weak foundation. This paper reviews the developments and applications of geosynthetics in soil stabilization and protection of coastal areas with emphasis on shoreline protection. Relevant empirical research data are presented as well as the present and likely future challenges in the use of geosynthetics in soil stabilization and coastal defense structures.
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LOW CRESTED REEF BREAKWATERS-THEORY ILLUSTRATED BY ARABIAN GULF PROJECTS
Conference Paper
  • Sep 2010
Low crested reef type breakwaters are becoming increasingly popular for coastal protection. As they are entirely offshore, there are no structures on the beach to impact the amenity and safety of the beach itself. They may also offer attractive marine habitat and recreational amenity benefits. Their effectiveness increases with wave height. Fully submerged and semi-submerged low crested structures such as "reef" type breakwaters behave differently from conventional fully emerged structures and require appropriate design methods. This has restricted the use of low crested structures by designers without the design expertise in this field. Design parameters include crest level, length, width and distance offshore. Typical emerged breakwaters have a wave transmission coefficient, however, reef breakwaters reduce the wave height [1> Kt >0] rather than stopping all of the wave energy in the lee of the breakwater. To add to the complexity, Kt for a specific structure varies with both wave and tide conditions. However, design formulae have been developed from physical modelling and as well as monitoring the behaviour of artificial reef breakwaters and investigations of naturally occurring nearshore reefs found along coastlines and around atolls worldwide Submerged and semi-submerged "reef" breakwaters have proven to be a simple and robust coastal management tool for Arabian Gulf wave and tide conditions. Construction of low crested structures such as reef breakwaters has been assisted by the development of durable mega geo-containers as they are stable even with the high wave forces on the crest. Two coastal protection reef breakwater designs for application in the Arabian Gulf are reviewed.
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Coastal Stabilisation – Advancements in Geotextile Design & Construction Methods As An Alternative To Rock
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Nov 2016
INTRODUCTION Globally, the use of rock in coastal design and construction projects has been common practice. This is largely due to the availability of material, relative cost and extensive research and development in rock design. Formulated equations, such as the ‘Hudson’ or ‘van Der Meer’ are used to produce standardized breakwaters, groynes, revetments and offshore reefs, however the structures are typically ‘over designed’, using larger volumes of material than necessarily required for site conditions. With the increase in rock costs globally and specifically in the UAE, this year of 7.00AED/tonne for trucks traveling in the Emirates of Ras Al Khamiah and Fujairah (Shabaan, 2016) coastal projects are becoming increasingly costly and designs should consider more site-specific alternatives with the integration of alternative construction materials, specifically geotextile containers. HISTORY OF GEOTEXTILES IN COASTAL DESIGN There has been significant development of geotextiles in coastal design since their beginning in the 1960’s. International Coastal Management (ICM) has been at the forefront of material and construction methodology development since the early 90’s with the completion of various, successful global coastal projects. Some notable (ICM) projects, utilizing site-specific design and construction methodologies include the following: 1. Narrowneck Artificial Reef, Gold Coast, Australia. Development of new in-situ filling techniques using split hull barge and material strengths for extended durability (15 years since installation). 2. Maroochydore Groyne, Sunshine Coast, Australia. Development of geotextile containers and filling frame for onsite constructability of innovative design. 3. Nearshore Berms, Ullal, India. Development of construction apparatus for efficient methodology. 4. Private Submerged Seawall, Ajman, UAE. Design and construction methodology for the installation of sand filled geotextile containers for emergency erosion protection. Figure 1 Various geotextile containers and methodologies developed by ICM on international projects WHEN TO USE ROCK vs. GEOTEXTILE CONTAINERS Coastal sites vary greatly from location to location and therefore it is highly unlikely that a standardised or ‘textbook’ type solution will be the most site-effective. In some locations the use of both rock and geotextile containers will be more cost/end user efficient, as per recent works in Ajman, UAE (ICM). Some key factors when applying site-specific designs are:  Site Weather Conditions (Wind, Waves, Tides, etc.)  Site Accessibility for Construction  End User Requirements (Beach access, Visual Impact, Environmental Impact, etc.)  Material Supply Costs  Expected Structure Duration Use  Capital vs. Maintenance Costs In some cases, capital costs and construction times can be greatly reduced using temporary geotextile structures to provide an agile coastal solution which can be easily updated/extended/removed etc. as the site requirements and/or coastal processes in the location change. In other cases, rock may be better suited; this may occur when integration into existing structures, greater durability or visual consistency is required. SITE-EFFECTIVE DESIGN As mentioned, there has been significant advancement in the design and construction methodologies of geotextile containers for coastal stabilization. Each site is however unique and requires site-effective design to achieve the most cost and outcome efficient results. Agile designing can enhance and stabilise a coastal location for low capital costs, allowing the site/structure(s) to develop over time as site requirements/conditions change. REFERENCES Shabaan, A. (2016, January 27), Trucks to pay Dh7 for a tonne of rock, Khajeel Times, pp. 7
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