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The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance
... Further, expertise is specialized: An expert physician is not necessarily an expert musician, technician, or mathematician (Glaser, 1992). Experts can produce superior performance relative to experienced others in their domain because they possess a large quantity of interconnected declarative and procedural knowledge specific to their domain (Chi, 2006;Chi et al., 1981;Ericsson, 2006;McCarthy & McNamara, 2021). This knowledge is easily accessible via hierarchical knowledge structures composed of interconnected nodes known as schemas (Ghosh & Gilboa, 2014;Kimball & Holyoak, 2000;Rumelhart, 1980). ...
... The characteristics of expertise are a direct result of the training experts undergo to reach their levels of performance (Ericsson, 2006). The performance of generative chatbots can also be traced to the novel methods used to develop these models (T. ...
... Although scaffolding and modeling help learners advance, deliberate practice is crucial to developing expertise (Ericsson, 2006). Deliberate practice deviates from mere experience in that it involves (a) attempting a task with a well-defined goal, (b) intrinsic motivation to improve, (c) feedback, and (d) ample opportunity for repetition and refinement of performance (Ericsson, 2008). ...
General Audience Summary
Generative chatbots are artificial intelligence (AI) programs designed to have natural conversations with users. Since the release of ChatGPT (GPT stands for Generative Pre-trained Transformer), generative chatbots have become widely available. Generative chatbots are especially powerful because they are built on computer neural networks and trained on vast amounts of data. In addition, the text they produce can closely resemble expert knowledge and writing on nearly any topic. Consequently, individuals across industries and governments are interested in the potential for generative chatbots to support cognition in experts and nonexperts. This article reviews the history of chatbots, compares human expertise and artificial expertise, and then describes how individuals attain expertise through observing models, completing scaffolded tasks, and engaging in deliberate practice. Afterward, the article discusses how generative chatbots have been used—and could be used in the future—to support cognition (i.e., thoughts and mental processes) for users with varied amounts of domain knowledge (i.e., experts, novices, and laypersons). Research on potential approaches to leveraging generative chatbots to support cognition by these users is primarily drawn from three applied domains: education, medicine, and law. Research with the current generation of generative chatbots like ChatGPT is new and rapidly progressing, but research thus far suggests that (a) the roles that generative chatbots take on to support thinking vary depending on how much knowledge a user has on a particular topic and (b) generative chatbots show promise in supporting experts’ cognition and the training of novices who might be future experts in their fields, but (c) laypersons’ lack of prior knowledge currently limits generative chatbots’ ability to support their thinking and their agency in engaging with unfamiliar domains more broadly.
... In psychology, intelligence is generally treated as a broadly defined term that usually relates to the human capability to rapidly and effectively learn to handle completely novel situations across different domains (e.g., Gignac & Szodorai, 2024;Gottfredson, 1997;Legg & Hutter, 2007;Whiten & van Schaik, 2007). Because it relates to dealing with principally novel problems across domains, intelligence, or more precisely general intelligence, differs from expertise which assumes high levels of performance on already familiar types of tasks in a specific domain due to the acquisition of well-organized biologically secondary knowledge structures and extensive experience in the domain (Ericsson, 2006). Therefore, while the former, the ability to reason and problem solve in novel situations, is frequently defined as general fluid intelligence, the latter, as the accumulated organized secondary knowledge structures (e.g., facts, principles, procedures, and schemas) in the person's long-term memory, is defined as general crystallized intelligence (Cattell, 1963). ...
... This direction is effectively related to the acquisition of domainspecific expertise-starting from the expertise in one or several very narrow areas (e.g., even within school subjects), then possibly extending it to a broader domain or domains. The means of enhancing the acquisition of expertise have been investigated in specialized theories of expertise (e.g., deliberate practice theory by Ericsson, 2006), as well as in general instructional theories (e.g., worked example effect, fading guidance effect, or expertise reversal effect in cognitive load theory, Sweller et al., 2011), or in combinations of both (e.g., Pachman et al., 2014). ...
Human cognitive architecture represents an intelligent natural information processing system that is described by six operational principles: information store, randomness as genesis, borrowing and reorganizing, narrow limits of change, environmental organizing and linking, and explicit intention to learn principles. The last principle, added recently, is critical, as it distinguishes this system from other, lower-level natural information-processing systems and is responsible for controlled information processing and explicit learning as opposed to implicit cognitive mechanisms of lower-level systems. The paper provides a theoretical overview of the updated model of intelligent natural information processing systems. In this model, the explicit intention to learn principle affects the operation of other principles and is directly related to intelligence as an emergent characteristic of such systems. Human intelligence and explicit, intentional learning (and motivation that is required for such learning to happen) caused the emergence of human culture on a distinct, grand scale in the process of transition from biological to cultural evolution. The paper concludes with some important educational implications emanating from the new model focusing on strengthening human intelligence.
... However, this may cause a lack of intentional scaffolding and sequences in PSTs' learning experiences. Given the importance of lesson planning in teacher education programs, having consistent and intentional learning opportunities could help PSTs learn and develop in this area (Ericsson, 2006). To do this, effective communication among faculty members is the key. ...
... Setting goals to improve is one of the first steps to being a better teacher (Rink, 2020). This also aligns with the notion of deliberate practice, as Ericsson (2006) describes the importance of intentional practice for improvement. Including a section for PSTs to write their objectives/areas of improvement within a lesson could be an effective practice. ...
Purpose : This study aimed to explore current practices associated with lesson planning in physical education teacher education programs. Method : The study employed a descriptive quantitative research design using survey and lesson plan templates as data sources. A total of 64 physical education teacher education faculty members’ survey responses and 38 lesson plan templates were collected. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the survey results, and content analyses were employed to examine the lesson plan templates. Results : The majority of the participants responded that they increased the demands on lesson plans as preservice teachers progressed through the program and spent less than 30 min per lesson plan review. The lesson plan templates primarily consisted of three major areas, including lesson overview, tasks and activities, and reflection. Discussion/Conclusion : The practice associated with lesson planning varies at each program. Further investigation into effective practice for lesson planning is essential in future studies.
... Drawing inspiration from language learning apps and cognitive load theory (Mayer, 2009), VMI employs diverse learning interactions and interfaces, including multiple-choice questions, dialogue coding, and free-response scenarios, to provide practice opportunities across 15 foundational skills based on principles and skills from Miller and Rollnick outlined in their 3rd edition of Motivational Interviewing (2013). Guided by the Theory of Deliberate Practice (Ericsson, 1996(Ericsson, , 2006, learners are provided repeated practice opportunities, scaffolded exercises, and receive immediate feedback provided by a virtual coach, whose coaching is informed by motivational interviewing and child welfare experts. ...
... This study fits within a schedule of research in an effort to develop an effective application. Previous frameworks for learning technology Davis et al., 2021;Ericsson, 1996Ericsson, , 2006Mayer, 2009) have guided the development of VMI. The present study then explored the usability, satisfaction, and initial efficacy of VMI. ...
This article presents two studies exploring the usability, satisfaction, and initial efficacy of the Virtual Motivational Interviewing (VMI) phone application's potential to enhance skill acquisition among child welfare workers. Motivational Interviewing (MI) has been recognized for its effectiveness in positive behavior change and reducing resistance in various contexts, including child welfare. The necessity for alternative training methods is underscored by resource intensity and the limited effectiveness of traditional training. VMI aims to provide a structured, evidence-based platform for practicing MI skills, leveraging the principles of Deliberate Practice, Multimedia Learning Theory, and Cognitive Load theory. Study 1 evaluated VMI's usability and satisfaction revealing positive feedback and potential effectiveness, alongside analyzed and implemented suggestions for improvement. Study 2, a randomized controlled trial, assessed VMI's preliminary efficacy compared to traditional role-play training, showing no significant differences in observational performance between the groups, while also seeing significant increases in self-reported competence. These findings suggest VMI's potential as a viable supplement to conventional training, offering benefits in terms of accessibility, efficiency, and reduced resource dependency. Future research directions include larger, multi-site studies to further assess VMI's efficacy and its real-world impact on skill application in child welfare settings.
... Such a personalised approach requires an educational dialogue in which trainees and supervisors share knowledge to establish learning goals (Muhonen et al., 2021). A nurturing workplace also proved vital in trainees' learning to develop expertise, especially one that, consistent with deliberate practice theory offered regular opportunities to practise and evaluate communication behaviour (Hoffman & Donaldson, 2004;Swanwick, 2005;Ericsson, 2006;Zimmerman et al., 2006;van de Wiel et al., 2011). Ericsson argues that developing expertise requires deliberate practice, including actively setting new learning goals to counteract automatic behaviours (Ericsson, 2006(Ericsson, , 2008. ...
... A nurturing workplace also proved vital in trainees' learning to develop expertise, especially one that, consistent with deliberate practice theory offered regular opportunities to practise and evaluate communication behaviour (Hoffman & Donaldson, 2004;Swanwick, 2005;Ericsson, 2006;Zimmerman et al., 2006;van de Wiel et al., 2011). Ericsson argues that developing expertise requires deliberate practice, including actively setting new learning goals to counteract automatic behaviours (Ericsson, 2006(Ericsson, , 2008. Billett builds further upon Ericsson's line of argument by emphasising the interdependence between learning and the workplace, highlighting the importance of affording learning activities, such as joint consultation hours, tailored to trainees' learning preferences to stimulate reflection, evaluation, and repeated practice (Billett, 2001(Billett, , 2004(Billett, , 2016). ...
Doctor-patient communication is a core competency in medical education, which requires learners to adapt their communication flexibly to each clinical encounter. Although conceptual learning models exist, information about how skilled communication develops over time is scant. This study aims to unpack this process of communication learning and to identify its facilitators. We conducted a longitudinal qualitative study employing a constructivist grounded theory approach in a General Practice training setting. Over a 6-month period, we closely monitored 8 first-year and 5 third-year trainees (n = 13) by means of clinical observations, stimulated recall interviews and audio diaries. In an iterative process of data collection and analysis, we triangulated these sources across trainees (horizontal analysis) and over time (vertical analysis) to identify how themes evolved. This analysis led us to the construction of a six-stage cyclic conceptual model during which trainees: (1) have an impactful experience; (2) become aware of own communication; (3) look for alternative communication behaviours; (4) experiment with new behaviours; (5) evaluate the effectiveness; and (6) internalise the new communication behaviours. Additionally, conditions were found to support learning and reflection. Becoming a skilled communicator seems to require a continuous approach, with repeated practice and reflection to adapt and internalise communication in the clinical encounter. Consequently, we recommend that trainees be supported with tailored feedback to strengthen their communication repertoire. Ideally, they should be guided by supervisors who serve as coaches in a safe learning environment with regular, planned learning activities.
... Our quantitative understanding of how scientists choose and shift their research focus over time is highly consequential, because it affects the ways in which scientists are trained, science is funded, knowledge is organized and discovered, and excellence is recognized and rewarded [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. Despite extensive investigations of various factors that influence a scientist's choice of research topics [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21], quantitative assessments of mechanisms that give rise to macroscopic patterns characterizing research interest evolution of individual scientists remain limited. Here we perform a large-scale analysis of publication records, finding that research interest change follows a reproducible pattern characterized by an exponential distribution. ...
... ranging from age [10,11] to gender [12,13], to training and mentorship [9,14], from funding or collaboration opportunities [15][16][17], to serendipity [18], to scientist's attitudes and abilities [19], including risk aversion and creativity [8,20,21]. Yet, little is known about the macroscopic patterns underlying the research interest evolution. ...
Our quantitative understanding of how scientists choose and shift their research focus over time is highly consequential, because it affects the ways in which scientists are trained, science is funded, knowledge is organized and discovered, and excellence is recognized and rewarded. Despite extensive investigations of various factors that influence a scientist's choice of research topics, quantitative assessments of mechanisms that give rise to macroscopic patterns characterizing research interest evolution of individual scientists remain limited. Here we perform a large-scale analysis of publication records, finding that research interest change follows a reproducible pattern characterized by an exponential distribution. We identify three fundamental features responsible for the observed exponential distribution, which arise from a subtle interplay between exploitation and exploration in research interest evolution. We develop a random walk based model, allowing us to accurately reproduce the empirical observations. This work presents a quantitative analysis of macroscopic patterns governing research interest change, discovering a high degree of regularity underlying scientific research and individual careers.
... The 4 Es suggest that moral education requires processes to support emergent integration of excellent ethics toward transcendent ends. The emergence of domain excellence is well understood, through research on expertise (Ericsson, 2006) and cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, 2006), among other educational approaches. However, broader moral excellence requires proper integration of excellence within and across domains into a more comprehensive moral identity (Lapsley et al., 2020) and/or purpose (Schnitker et al., 2019). ...
... Moral education for purpose fosters precision, wisdom, integrity, imagination, and creativity, among other virtues. Precision relates to skills and more narrow excellence in tasks and domains (Baehr, 2011;Roberts & Wood, 2007) and can be considered acquired expertise, developed through processes like deliberate practice (Ericsson, 2006), cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, 2006), and other routine parts of education. ...
Virtuous purpose development and education are considered. Life design education is presented as exemplifying some key facets of education for virtuous purpose. This draws on the 4 Es approach to virtues, which emphasizes ends, ethic, excellence, and emergence. Virtuous purpose is addressed in light of the 4 Es. Both moral and intellectual virtues are considered, with special focus on wisdom, integrity, imagination, and creativity as virtues supporting virtuous purpose. Educational implications of this approach are explored, especially relating to educational practices supporting the development of wisdom, integrity, imagination, and creativity. These include constructive and critical engagement with philosophy, autonomy support, and providing examples of an opportunity for creative exploration and expression. Limitations and future directions in current research are considered, especially regarding educating for virtuous purpose outside of secondary and tertiary education.
... In two foundational articles, Ericsson and colleagues (Ericsson, 2006;Ericsson & Pool, 2016) described key deliberate practice features. From these, we extracted features we (1) "Deliberate practice involves feedback and modification of efforts in response to that feedback" (Ericsson & Pool, 2016, p. 99). ...
... Salas [47] referred to educated intuition as expertise-based intuition, where leaders have deep and rich knowledge due to extensive experience within a domain. Expertise is a high level of skill and knowledge, and leaders can achieve a high level of skill and knowledge through domain-specific knowledge, focused experience, and practice over time [66,67]. The use of the term "intuition" in this study must not be accepted in its general sense. ...
There is a pressing need for public administration leaders to exhibit expertise-based intuitive leadership traits for developing countries to respond to sustainability challenges. While the importance of explicit and tacit knowledge to underpin expertise-based intuitive decision-making is known, public service leaders of developing countries can lack these traits. It is necessary to explore the reasons for leadership skills gaps in order to define remedial actions, such as better executive development training. This study conducts 28 in-depth interviews with public administration leaders, managers, and executive training professionals in Pakistan to address the challenge of how to build expertise-based intuitive leadership traits in public administration leaders. The main findings highlight deficiencies in domain-specific knowledge and soft skills. Deficits in the formal training of leaders and the negative contribution of cultural preconditions both result in explicit and tacit knowledge gaps that undermine expertise-based intuitive decision-making. An "iceberg of expertise-based leadership" model is conceptualized, extending on previous models, to describe the intangible role that explicit and tacit knowledge play in the visible expression of leadership skills. The relevance of this model for the success of public sector-led initiatives for sustainable development is highlighted.
... It implies continuous monitoring of one's own performance, its analysis and future planning on the grounds of the current level of expertise (Ericsson, 2008). In other words, professional development and learning is the result of conscious and deliberate changes in certain aspects of practice (Ericsson, 2006). Optimal professional performance can be achieved by structured training of the elements that work in deliberate practice so that they become a regular part of everyday work practice (Ericsson, 2004). ...
In the last 30 years, career-long professional development and learning, in-service teachers’ professional development and adaptive teacher expertise have been key concepts associated with positive educational changes. Career-long professional learning and development is defined as a collection of lifelong processes and activities aimed at improving teaching competencies and the general professional well-being of teachers, and consequently the learning of students. In-service teachers’ professional development is defined as a time-limited series of activities with clearly defined teachers’ learning outcomes. The purpose of career-long professional development and learning and in-service teachers’ professional development as its component is to contribute to the development of adaptive teacher expertise. As an adaptive expert, the teacher is skillful in finding creative solutions to everyday challenges in the classroom, while applying a research-reflexive approach to teaching and thus building a flexible base of professional competences. Professional vision is one of the most important components of adaptive teacher expertise, which is defined as the ability to observe and interpret selected elements of teaching practice, as well as make decisions on how to act based on what is observed. In order to achieve the optimal development of these competences, it is necessary to create a stimulating environment in which teachers will prepare, perform and video-record classes, reflect on them and receive feedback on their teaching within a learning community. Since the usual in-service teachers’ professional development in Croatia does not correspond to the above-mentioned guidelines, this paper aims to describe new possibilities of developing adaptive teacher expertise in professional development programs with the use of classroom video.
... Achievement relates to recognized levels of performance in a domain following a period of instruction and/or practice. Expertise EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE ON INTELLIGENCE 5 is an exceptionally high level of performance in a domain because of the acquisition of comprehensive and well-organized knowledge structures following extensive deliberate practice and experience in the domain (Ericsson, 2006). Both achievement and expertise assume performance on already familiar types of tasks, while intelligence assumes principal novelty of the tasks: "intelligence is what one does when one does not know what to do" (Gignac & Szodorai, 2024, p. 4). ...
Based on an analogy with biological evolution by natural selection, Sweller (2003) classified human cognitive architecture as a natural information processing system that is described by five principles common to all such systems: randomness as genesis, borrowing and reorganizing, narrow limits of change, information store, and environmental organizing and linking principles. However, the need to integrate evolved implicit cognitive mechanisms with controlled explicit processes within the same cognitive architecture requires adding another emergent principle—explicit intention to learn. This principle is needed to describe a system at the level of human cognition, denoted as the intelligent natural information processing system, as distinguished from other, lower-level natural information processing systems. This article argues that this principle is directly related to intelligence as an emergent characteristic of evolved natural information processing systems as they transit from biological to cultural evolution stages. It is also suggested that this principle remains the driving force of the transition to technological phase of cultural evolution as truly intelligent artificial information processing systems develop. The article concludes with implications for evolutionary behavioral sciences, instructional science, practice, and policy concerning the technological evolution phase.
... Practice has been found to improve performance through learning, whereby information used to execute one task can be referenced to execute a future task, reducing the time to complete the task and generally improving performance accuracy (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). Thus, practice increases automaticity (Ericsson, 2006;Holt & Rainey, 2002;Logan, 1985;Thorndike, 1898;Thurstone, 1918), the point where skills practiced do not require conscious thought and perhaps allow quicker. Automaticity also facilitates entry into psychological flow state, which as we have shown is associated with higher RFT marksmanship performance scores and higher rifle marksmanship levels. ...
Weapons training in the U.S. Army has followed a time-tested curriculum. The U.S.
Army’s metric of marksmanship proficiency is the Basic Rifle Marksmanship (BRM) record fire test (RFT). The traditional scoring method requires a minimum score of 23 to pass, with a maximum score of 40 possible. In addition to assessing performance by RFT, USARIEM has developed a friend vs foe challenge (FFC) that examines performance based on ability to detect and properly respond to friend or foe targets. Both of these assessments use scoring methods which do not address the lethality of the shot, but rather only address whether the target was hit. Weapons simulation systems that use the same weaponry and mimicked responses to firing a live round are employed across U.S. Army training sites. These systems are an effective augmentation to the live fire range, providing trainees with a safe, practical option to practice marksmanship skills before attempting the live-fire qualification test. Research is needed to further identify factors that facilitate or impair acquisition or performance of marksmanship proficiency, with the goal of reducing training time and costs while yielding better training outcomes, such as higher passing rates and levels of basic proficiency. In this technical report, we present data from two studies in which the EST2000 and psychosocial tools were used to assess factors that impact marksmanship performance and subjective experiences during marksmanship as well as explore new methods of assessing marksmanship performance.
Part I of the report explored the influence of experience or practice with weapons prior to-military service on marksmanship proficiency in 33 junior enlisted Soldiers. Participants completed the RFT and FFC using the EST2000 and answered questions regarding their prior experience with weapons use and training, including exposure to First Person Shooter video gaming (FPS). Results indicated that higher marksmanship proficiency scores on RFT and FFC were independently associated (p < 0.05) with having an infantry military occupational specialty (MOS). In addition, weapons experience prior to entering the military and first firing a weapon at a younger age were associated with higher RFT and FFC. No FPS experience factors were independently associated with any of the marksmanship outcomes. Backwards regression elimination analysis yielded a significant final model (F(2,25)= 4.36, p < 0.05; R2 = 0.259), containing two of the possible experiential factors, specifically the age at which the participant first participated in FPS and the age that the participant first fired a live weapon. In this model, FP1 was positively related to record fire score and LW1 was inversely related to record fire score.
Part II of this report focused on the relationship between subjective psychological states, including psychological flow state (an experienced state of balance between situational demands and one’s ability to meet those demands) and perceived task workload measured on six subscales (mental, physical, and temporal demands, and performance, effort, and frustration levels.) In general, higher reported levels of flow are associated with increased familiarity and proficiency with a given task and a more positive mood state. RFT score improvements were evaluated in 48 active-duty Soldiers who had previously never scored higher than 30 on the RFT, indicating a lower level of basic marksmanship proficiency. Results indicated positive associations between RFT score and the perceived task workload (performance) and several flow state elements (clear goals, sense of self-control, unambiguous feedback, and challenge-skill). Participants who began their study participation as unqualified marksmen (basic RFT score < 23 points) took an average 8 of 2.8 trials, or 112 shots to attain basic marksmanship qualification. After two days of participation, all participants achieved RFT qualification, with most (91.7 %) scoring in the advanced marksmanship range. Participants who showed the greatest gains in marksmanship performance across successive trials also reported higher overall flow state. Moreover, prior real or simulated weapons experience was associated with RFT performance. Specifically, participants who started FPS gameplay at an older age, played fewer hours of weekly FPS, and/or first fired a live weapon at a younger age showed the greatest improvement over time on RFT.
In Part III of this report, data from the two studies described in Parts I and II were
analyzed with the aim of providing a method for quantifying shot lethality based on shot location on the target. Dependent t-tests on data from FFC revealed no significant difference in latency (time lapse between target presentation to the moment of trigger pull) of lethal hits (2875.25 ± 354.4 msec) and non-lethal hits (2941.06 ± 387.9 msec), and no difference between the probability of a hit being lethal (52.9%) versus non-lethal (47.1 %). Strong, positive correlations were observed between the original and lethality-based scoring methods. In addition, – the age
at which a participant first fired a weapon and having weapons experience before entering the military were significantly associated with FFC score, regardless of scoring method, and belonging to the Infantry MOS was significantly associated with RFT score calculated with either method. Similar findings were observed when exploring differences in scoring approaches in models predicting marksmanship proficiency based on age first fired a weapon or played FPS, weapons or FPS experience before entering the military and Infantry MOS. However, when looking at changes in marksmanship performance over time (Part II), differences in scoring
methods were observed. Specifically, when using the traditional scoring methods, performance on the RFT continued to improve through Trial 6 but then plateaued, whereas improvements in the lethality of hits was shown to continue to improve across all trials. Similarly, the probability of hitting the target, and of a hit being a lethal hit continued to improve after Trial 6, although overall RFT score did not show significant changes. Examining changes across time, total points based on lethality, or location of shots on the target, resulted in an overall 5% worse decline than hits
alone.
Overall, results from these combined analyses provide compelling evidence that military marksmanship proficiency can be influenced by FPS gameplay and pre-military weapons experience. Moreover, the observation that proficient marksmanship is associated with psychological flow and perceived workload underscores the potential value of such measures as a training aid or guide to inform and further quantify marksmanship skill development. Flow state in particular could be used to support optimized marksmanship performance as it has been shown to benefit factors, such as focus, breath, and interoception, that positively influence
marksmanship performance. Results of these analyses also highlight the potential benefits of conceptualizing EST2000 scores in terms of lethality. Notably, a novel lethality-based marksmanship scoring method revealed continued improvements in shot lethality even after the standard scoring method indicates a plateau in performance (total hits). Together, these findings can be used to inform, and improve, marksmanship training programs and guide future research efforts.
... Being engaged in deliberate practice means that one has a task with a well-defined goal, is motivated to improve, and receives feedback and ample opportunities for repetition, all of which result in gradual refinements of their performance (Ericsson, 2008;Ericsson et al., 1993). In general, deliberate practice is defined by four characteristics (Bronkhorst, Meijer, Koster, & Vermunt, 2013;Ericsson et al., 1993;Ericsson, 2006;Gog, Ericsson, Rikers, & Pass, 2005). First, the practice involves activities designed for self-improvement. ...
This study examined how a ninth grade teacher improved an Algebra I lesson through a lesson study approach. We used multiple data sources to investigate the improvement of the lesson towards student-centered mathematics instruction, perceived benefits of the teacher, and factors associated with the improvement of teaching. The lesson group substantially improved the lesson through appropriately launching and effectively implementing worthwhile mathematical tasks and strategically orchestrating students’ work. The teacher improved his teaching skills and reflection ability, changed his views about mathematics teaching, and acknowledged the importance of repeated teaching, expert feedback, and self-reflection in improving his teaching.
... For most genAI, their strength is the sheer volume of information they have at their disposal relatively easily. When we say it easily, we mean that a human expert typically takes years or even decades to accumulate the amount of knowledge necessary to be considered and perform as an expert (Ericsson, 2006). However, there are two caveats to this enormous amount of knowledge. ...
Many genAI (generative Artificial Intelligence) enthusiasts and much of the broader public see genAI as a substantial force for good within education. Unfortunately, some of those calling for or directly introducing genAI into formal education fail to fully understand one or both of the following realities: a. what genAI’s knowledge is, b. how humans learn in any given domain of knowledge. The failure to understand and therefore engage with these foundations for genAI use in education has consequences for students internationally. The present paper addresses this gap and considers how genAI (in its current form) is useful for a learning tool. The Model of Domain Learning is provided as one meaning means of recursively engaging with this question as genAI continues to grow and change.
... Level 2 Variables While our hypotheses testing focuses on international experience (H6) and mode experience (H7) only, we included two additional experience mea- sures as level 2 variables: professional experience and functional experience. This is in line with Ericsson (2006), who suggests that individuals accumulate different experiences over time, such that a broader spectrum of experience measures should be controlled for. ...
This study investigates the decision criteria that entrepreneurs apply when choosing growth modes to internationalize their business. Specifically, we examine how market characteristics and experience impact the selection of organic, acquisitive, or collaborative growth strategies. Data on 1,080 mode decisions were collected in conjoint experiments and analyzed using hierarchical multinomial logistic regression. We find that barriers to entry and competitive intensity are the most determining market factors, and that international and mode-related experiences have considerable moderating effects. Our findings indicate that imitative behavior and normative preferences are less prevalent in entrepreneurial than in corporate decision-making.
... Achieving a high level of mastery for SQL requires deliberate practice (Hauser et al., 2020). Deliberate practice is facilitated by solving many tasks with well-defined learning objectives, personalized feedback and a task difficulty that exceeds the competency-level of the learner slightly (Ericsson, 2006). Other educational theories, such as scaffolding and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), support the underlying concepts of the theory of deliberate practice further (Raslan, ). ...
SQL is still one of the most popular languages used in todays industry across many fields. Poorly written SQL remains one of the root causes of performance issues. Thus, achieving a high level of mastery for SQL is important. Achieving mastery requires practicing with many SQL assessment items of varying complexity and content. The manual creation of such items is very labor-some and expensive. Automatic item generation reduces the cost of item creation. This paper proposes an approach for automatically generating SQL-query items of varying complexity, content, and human-like natural language problem statements (NLPS). The approach is evaluated by human raters regarding the complexity and plausibility of the generated SQL-queries and the preference between two alternative NLPS. The results show agreement on the plausibility of the generated SQL-queries, while the complexity and the NLPS preference show higher variance.
... Therefore, GenAI has the potential to enhance expert cognition, particularly as a collaborative tool for offloading lower-level cognitive tasks [30], fostering creativity through iterative questioning [9], improving text comprehension [80], and facilitating learning through approaches such as the Socratic method [77]. However, even for experts, over-reliance on AI poses risks, as it could hinder the deliberate practice necessary for refining and sustaining high levels of expertise [23]. ...
The rapid adoption of Generative AI (GenAI) is significantly reshaping human cognition, influencing how we engage with information, think, reason, and learn. This paper synthesizes existing literature on GenAI's effects on different aspects of human cognition. Drawing on Krathwohl's revised Bloom's Taxonomy and Dewey's conceptualization of reflective thought, we examine the mechanisms through which GenAI is affecting the development of different cognitive abilities. Accordingly, we provide implications for rethinking and designing educational experiences that foster critical thinking and deeper cognitive engagement and discuss future directions to explore the long-term cognitive effects of GenAI.
... A QOFormulación, aquests estan dissenyats no només per avaluar l'alumne, sinó també per reforçar el seu aprenentatge mitjançant la pràctica activa. Seguint el principi de "practicar per aprendre" (Ericsson, 2006), l'app ofereix exercicis variats i interactius que cobreixen diferents habilitats, com ara l'aplicació de regles teòriques, la identificació visual i la formulació de compostos químics orgànics. Aquest exercici ajuda l'estudiant a relacionar cada estructura amb el seu nom correcte, a identificar diferències entre elles i a reforçar la comprensió de les regles bàsiques de nomenclatura orgànica per als grups funcionals estudiats. ...
La formulación en química orgánica a menudo se percibe como un desafío para el alumnado. QOFormulación es una aplicación educativa gratuita, disponible en Google Play Store, que introduce la gamificación como estrategia para hacer este proceso más accesible, atractivo y efectivo. A través de niveles progresivos, actividades interactivas y retroalimentación inmediata, la app fomenta un aprendizaje activo y personalizado. Su estructura pedagógica incluye breves introducciones teóricas, ejemplos detallados y tres tipos de ejercicios, lo que facilita la consolidación de los conocimientos. Disponible en varios idiomas, permite llegar a estudiantes de diferentes orígenes lingüísticos. Además, QOFormulación ofrece herramientas para docentes, como la creación de clases virtuales y el seguimiento del progreso del estudiantado, adaptándose tanto a necesidades individuales como grupales.
... Indeed, to comprehend the notation provided, students dedicated ample time to rigorous practice. Students must first achieve proficiency in scales and the rhythmic system of music to effectively develop their musical skills (Ericsson, 2006). ...
Music education promotes students' cultural and intellectual development, particularly in preserving traditional music. Sundanese traditional music in Indonesia, mainly through the concept of titilaras, encapsulates cultural identity and history. Modern music education encounters a hurdle as Western musical notation predominates courses, resulting in students needing help comprehending and performing Sundanese music due to the disparities in notation systems. This research examines the imperative of safeguarding Sundanese titilaras by investigating the incorporation of Western musical notation in its pedagogy to improve students' proficiency in reading and composing traditional Sundanese music. The research utilized a qualitative action research technique at the Indonesian University of Education, engaging 48 students from various cultural origins and differing levels of music education. The research evaluated students' skills in titilaras before and after integrating Western notation through surveys, aural assessments, and music transcription activities. The findings revealed that most pupils encountered difficulties with Sundanese musical notation while demonstrating proficiency in Western notation. Utilizing Western musical notation as an instructional instrument, students exhibited enhanced comprehension and execution of Sundanese scales, particularly in practical contexts such as transcription and melody interpretation. The study indicates that integrating Western notation into the curriculum can enhance accessibility to traditional music for students acquainted with Western systems. Thus, Sundanese music maintains its cultural integrity while fulfilling modern educational requirements. This research underscores the necessity of modifying music education to preserve local musical traditions within an increasingly international framework.
... As indicated in Table 1, both study groups had on average elite bouldering skills and over 10 years of bouldering experience, thereby confirming the extensive, domainspecific expertise of the participants (Ericsson, 2006). In this context, the RS group had an average of 10 years of professional routesetting expertise, whereas NR group had no such expertise. ...
Bouldering is an Olympic climbing discipline performed on low-height climbing walls, referred to as boulders. Strategic decision-making is an essential, cognitive skill in Olympic bouldering, as climbers have limited time to solve a series of boulders. In developing strategic solutions, climbers draw upon their repertoire of climbing movements, which is conceptualised as high-level knowledge structures stored in long-term memory. Routesetters, those climbers who design and set boulders, possess an extensive movement repertoire, enabling them to create innovative boulders that challenge even highly skilled climbers. This study examined the movement repertoire paradigm as a cognitive system underlying strategic decision-making in Olympic bouldering. We conducted an in situ investigation under ecologically valid conditions by comparing the strategic decision-making skills and bouldering performances of elite climbers with extensive routesetting expertise (RS) to that of elite climbers without such expertise (NR) when tasked with solving an Olympic boulder. Data collection encompassed both strategic and performance-related parameters, including boulder previewing time, decision-making, strategic adjustments, and successful boulder completion. Findings revealed that RS demonstrated superior strategic decision-making, as evidenced by shorter previewing times, higher decision-making scores, fewer strategic adjustments, and were more successful at solving the boulder than NR. Findings provide evidence that routesetting expertise is beneficial for optimising strategic decision-making in Olympic bouldering. The diversity of movements routesetters encounter in their practice expands their movement repertoire. Such an extensive repertoire enables climbers to accurately decode movements and identify specific movement characteristics based on climbing hold configurations, thereby helping them to optimise their strategic decisions.
... By taking a structured approach to performance improvement, organizations can enhance their ability to address performance issues effectively, support employee development, and achieve sustainable performance improvement over time. These models can be applied at various levels within the organization, from individual employees to teams and departments, to address performance issues comprehensively and systematically (Ericsson, 2006). By identifying performance gaps and implementing targeted interventions, organizations can improve productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness, ultimately contributing to their overall success and competitiveness in the marketplace. ...
The study examines the intricacies of training programs within Accenture Solutions, emphasizing the importance of clear communication, alignment with participant needs, continuous evaluation, investment in high-quality resources, and optimal session duration and frequency. Findings reveal a nuanced landscape where participants express varying levels of engagement, perceptions, and preferences towards training initiatives. While a significant portion of participants acknowledges the relevance and effectiveness of training, areas for improvement, such as clarity of objectives, sufficiency of session duration, and the need for diverse learning opportunities, are identified. The study underscores the necessity for organizations to foster a culture of continuous learning and adaptation, leveraging feedback and data-driven insights to refine training strategies. By investing in robust communication channels, innovative resources, and flexible delivery methods, organizations can enhance engagement, skill acquisition, and overall effectiveness of training initiatives. Ultimately, aligning training programs with participant needs and organizational objectives is paramount for driving performance improvement and ensuring long-term success in a competitive business landscape.
... Usually, this dichotomy is positioned to emphasise the importance of environmental influences on developmental or performance outcomes. For instance, perspectives emphasising the primacy or sufficiency of practice for athlete development and skill acquisition, most notably as they relate to the Deliberate Practice Framework advocated by Ericsson (see [18,19] for recent reviews and below for more discussion), position athlete development and expertise from an almost exclusively environmentalist perspective. As articulated by Davids and Baker [16], this dichotomy is inadequate for capturing the complexity of relationships occurring between humans and their environments. ...
Many areas of mainstream psychology have embraced the notions that understanding human behaviour can be improved by integrating developments from evolutionary science; however, evolutionary principles have not been as widely applied among sport researchers or practitioners, especially those examining athlete development and the psychology of competition and performance. In this paper, we discuss the distinction between ultimate and proximate explanations of psychological outcomes, and the relevance of this distinction for exploring issues related to skill acquisition and athlete development. We use three examples—deliberate practice, early sport play and sustained engagement—to highlight the benefits and challenges of applying evolutionary theories to sport contexts. Embracing our species’ evolutionary history has the potential to inform ongoing debates in athlete development and performance, among other areas of sport science.
... Creating such problems can be seen as an act of acquiring significant knowledge by the expert. This perspective is in line with Ericsson's (2006) one, who wrote that experts tend to engage themselves in deliberate practices in order to extend their already well-developed knowledge base and to sharp their professional skills. In the problem-posing context the journey from the desire to innovate to the feeling of innovation may be accompanied by positive "research" feelings such as excitement of scientific exploration, the thrill of discovery and the sense of ownership for the result (e.g. ...
This paper is one of the reports on a multiple-case study concerned with the intertwining between affect and cognition in the mechanisms governing experts when posing new mathematical problems. Based on inductive analysis of a single case of an expert poser for mathematics competitions, we suggest that the desire to experience the feeling of innovation may be one of such mechanisms. In the case of interest, the feeling was realized through expert’s reflections on the problems he created in the past, by systematically emphasizing how a new problem was innovative in comparison with other familiar problems based on the same nesting idea. The findings are discussed in light of past research on expert problem posers and expert problem solvers.
... These practices should not only focus on extending the domain-specific knowledge and skills base, but in addition consider the required interplay of cognitive, motivational, and affective adaptations and social interactions with surrounding stakeholders. Regarding the length of a development trajectory, HR/D should consider that acquiring expertise in emerging domains can take less time than the ten-year average because of less competition and know-how of other experts (Ericsson, 2006). Developing expertise in an adjacent domain requires around a year because one can build upon existing expertise (e.g., Cusson & Strange, 2008), and utilize a network of people that provides resources and support by giving recognition of the worker's achievements (Frie et al., 2019). ...
... It can directly provide information about cognitive processes in real-time (Neramballi et al., 2022), reflect how participants deal with tasks in the mind, and gain direct access to participants' thoughts, cognitive information, and the patterns and sequences of the thought (Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2013;Lloyd et al., 1995). Through think-aloud, researchers can elicit what is the sequence of cognitive factors of participants in the creative design process (Ericsson, 2006;Peskin & Ellenbogen, 2019). ...
Cognitive factors such as association, memory, and combination have been verified to be related to the creative design process. However, limited research has considered the effects of cognitive factors and their interaction on creative processes in practical creative design processes. This study aimed to detect the interactive effects of cognitive factors on creative processes in a practical creative design process. In particular, how the sequence of cognitive factors affects creativity quality levels of the creative solutions was investigated. Seventy-one participants were recruited to undertake a design task using the think-aloud method. The results of this study are as follows. (i) The sequences of cognitive factors can contribute to different creativity quality levels of solutions. The sequence of semantic memory, common association, remote association, episodic memory, remote combination, idea expression, and idea evaluation is more likely to lead to a higher creativity quality level of solutions. (ii) The repetition of the same cognitive factor in a creative design process, especially semantic memory, does not necessarily contribute to a high-creativity-quality-level solution. (iii) Creativity quality levels of solutions are related to how many cognitive factors categories are involved in the creative design process. The more cognitive factors included, the higher the creativity quality of the solutions will be.
... ividual's current level of ability. As such, while the York research documents the superiority of training that incorporates practice and feedback, the results are neither novel nor surprising. References to enhancing a person's skills or abilities through focused concentration and effort date back more than two millennia (Amirault & Branson, 2006;K. A. Ericsson, 2006). ...
In the last decade, deliberate practice (DP)—a process of formally and systematically training for performance objectives just beyond an individual’s current ability—has emerged as a promising approach for enhancing therapeutic effectiveness. In view of the paucity of prospective studies, an experimental design with a series of challenging clinical vignettes was developed to test whether DP could improve, as well as generalize therapist ability to manage challenging encounters in therapy. When results from a pilot study showed promise for increasing participants’ skills, a multicenter, unblinded randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the use of DP as a training framework. Seventy-two participants (39 in experimental group, 33 in control group) were randomly assigned to an experimental or control group, with the former receiving ongoing feedback to guide DP and the latter limited to engaging in self-reflection. On average, participants in the DP condition not only improved, but were also able to generalize newly acquired knowledge and skills to novel, challenging clinical scenarios. By contrast, no change was observed among participants in the control condition. A review of the extant literature shows this to be the first study to include all four components of DP in psychotherapy training: (1) individualized learning objectives based on an assessment of the performer’s baseline ability, (2) targeted feedback, (3) successive refinement, and (4) guidance from a coach. Caveats and implications for training are discussed and explored.
... Research in the field of expert behavior also focuses on the effects of entrenchment. On the one hand, researchers have found advantages of expertise: due to the repeated activation of the expert schemas, activation of these schemas and their associated behaviors becomes automatic, allowing experts to multi-task, to quickly assess situations, and to take effective decisions (see Ericsson, 2006, for a detailed overview of the advantages of expertise). On the other hand, researchers argue that there might be a trade-off between expertise and flexibility. ...
One of the central assumptions in Cognitive Linguistics is that the cognitive mechanisms underlying our language use are domain-general and thus apply to human behavior beyond language. Examples of such cognitive mechanisms are, among others, our ability to focus attention, to memorize and categorize, as well as processes related to chunking, generalization, and inhibitory control. Testing this core assumption, however, is often difficult, as it requires us to move beyond linguistic research and to actively look for links between our language use and other areas of human cognition. This paper is an illustration of what such links could look like, particularly focusing on links between research on (Dutch-German) language contact and expert behavior. In doing so, it shows (a) that there are many shared links, for example, regarding the cognitive mechanisms of entrenchment and chunking, and (b) that these shared links (as well as potential differences across the fields) can be used to improve our linguistic theorizing. In particular, I argue that linguistic research can benefit from the insights from research on expert behavior, especially from its more advanced insights modelling individual variation, and that the shared links can help us to test the core assumption that the cognitive mechanisms underlying our language use are indeed domain-general.
... As they get older they increasingly play a role in choosing what they learn and from whom they learn, including peers and slightly older children by setting goals and initiating interactions [8,115,116, see also 117,118]. Skill is developed through active participation and observation, playful imitation, and experimentation [24,40] and deliberate practice which involves dividing tasks into chunks, identifying specific goals, focusing on technique and receiving feedback from a teacher or mentor [119]. Accordingly, much of this learning takes place in a social setting. ...
Although archaeologists are learning more about the lives of Upper Paleolithic children, the significant contributions they made to the welfare of their communities, including their role in craft production, remain understudied. In the present study, we use high resolution photographs of 489 ceramic artifacts from Dolní Věstonice I and II, Pavlov I and VI, and Předmostí, five archaeological sites in Czechia (ca. 30,000 BP) to address two questions: 1. Can the ceramic products of novices be distinguished from those made by experts? 2. If so, can we tell if these novices were children? To address these questions, we documented variables known ethnographically and archaeologically to be associated with learners in a sample from these five sites. The sample is composed of fired (“ceramic”) and unfired (“sedimentary”) anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, non-diagnostic figurine fragments and a sample of the so-called "pellets" from one site, Pavlov I. Our results support the hypothesis that ceramic objects are the products of novices, and in many cases, these novices are children. Our findings have implications for inter-generational knowledge transmission, the role of children in craft production and the importance of learning through play.
... 3Online AllianzFokussiertes TrainingDas OnlineAFT basiert auf dem von Muran, Safran und Eubanks[18] entwickelten AFT, wird jedoch online bereitgestellt und legt zusätz lichen Wert auf gezieltes Üben und Prinzipien des Expertentrainings. Gezieltes Üben wird als eine individuelle Trainingsaktivität definiert, die speziell darauf abzielt, durch Wiederholung und sukzessive Ver feinerung bestimmte Aspekte der Leistung einer Person zu verbes sern[19]. Es wurde gezeigt, dass gezieltes Üben die Effektivität und Effizienz der Psychotherapieausbildung und -fortbildung erheblich verbessern kann[20]. ...
Zusammenfassung
Obwohl die meisten Psychotherapeuten einen integrativen und prozessorientierten Ansatz verfolgen, sind transtheoretische Ansätze in der Psychotherapieausbildung selten. Um angehende Therapeuten besser auf die Komplexität der Praxis vorzubereiten, bedarf es eines solchen Ansatzes. Ein vielversprechender Weg ist die Berücksichtigung von Änderungsprinzipien, die über verschiedene Therapieschulen hinweg gelten. Über das Änderungsprinzip der therapeutischen Allianz sind sich die Therapieschulen am meisten einig. Im Folgenden wird daher ein Allianz-Fokussiertes Training vorgestellt, bei dem Therapeuten lernen Brüche in der Allianz zu erkennen und mit Strategien zur Resolution darauf zu reagieren. Gegenwärtige Lehrmethoden wie Rollenspiele und Supervision haben ihre Grenzen, da sie nur posteriori und auf einen kleinen Teil der Fälle angewandt werden können. Ein zukunftsweisender Ansatz könnte daher ein online-Training sein, das Änderungsprinzipien wie die Allianz und Marker für Handlungsbedarf integriert, bewährte Methoden des gezielten Übens und Expertentrainings nutzt und das Potential der Technologie ausschöpft.
... Traditional laboratory models typically involve contr olled, short-term interv entions, fr equentl y utilizing longitudinal designs to explore cause-effect relationships. Expertise models study real-world skill acquisition over extended periods and emphasize the ecological validity and long-term nature of learning, whic h serv e as a v aluable surr ogate for studying the human brain's adaptability and potential for change (Ericsson et al., 2006 ;Day and Hunter, 2020 ). Compared with traditional laboratory models, they offer a nuanced and rich perspective that is often absent in laboratory settings, such as simple learning tasks, as well as r ele v ance to real-world skills and experiences (Day et al ., 2020). ...
This chapter explains the primary characteristics and challenges of highly able students. Giftedness is explored from a neurological perspective, providing insights that complement the traditional cultural viewpoint. This chapter contains references to the realistic traits of highly able students, including those observed by the author during her research. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of fostering an inclusive educational environment for these students, highlighting its role in linking emotions to the development of neural pathways.
Recently, epistemologists have been much concerned with the question of whether or not we have to revise our beliefs if there are people whose epistemic position is as good as ours and who disagree with us. The results of such considerations, whatever they are, are sometimes said to be restricted to domains in which, unlike in politics or law, the relevant agents are not under any pressure to act in accordance with their beliefs, have no deeply held ideological beliefs, or have no beliefs that stem from their particular aims or desires. In response to this, and with regard to the paradigmatic cases of politics and law, this article argues that there are no genuine political or legal disagreements: what we call a political or legal disagreement is either no disagreement at all but a mere clash of interest, or it is a an empirical, moral, or practical disagreement that is not genuinely political or legal. To the latter, epistemological insights apply; to the former, they do not.
In the ever-changing language industry, translation experts are required to be ‘adaptive agents’. This study uses metaphors of self-concepts (i.e. personal metaphors) to access the cognitive aspects of the self that are enacted by students and professionals before and after performing a task. Translators whose metaphors show richness are expected to perform better, with their metaphors changing as they are exposed to different tasks. Such metaphor dynamicity is thus thought to be related to adaptability.
Personal metaphors were collected via linguistic prompts and naturally in questionnaires/interviews about participants’ backgrounds and professional opinions. While the study found a relation between metaphor dynamicity and performance, no definitive conclusions could be drawn on metaphor richness. This led to the hypothesis that dynamic personal metaphors of adaptability (e.g., a translator is a chameleon; a jack of all trades) can be linked to better performance. The study also suggests that incorporating metaphors and self-concepts in translator training could enhance adaptability in translation.
Digital transformation has become essential for companies and organizations to remain competitive in a constantly evolving world. Acquiring relevant skills and adapting to new paradigms are critical for professionals, particularly in the field of communication. This chapter explores the role of peer coaching in facilitating digital transformation, focusing on the Excellence Pathway and Master of Communication and Digital Transformation programs at Mohammed Premier University in Oujda, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences. The implementation of peer coaching is analyzed to understand its impact on collaborative and contextual learning among students with diverse specialized backgrounds. Research supports peer coaching as an effective tool for developing digital skills and promoting interactive and motivating learning. This chapter highlights the significant benefits of peer coaching, including enhanced interactivity, trust among peers, and motivation, while acknowledging the challenges that need to be addressed. The findings provide valuable insights for institutions and businesses aiming to integrate peer coaching into their training programs to support digital transformation.
Le travail instrumental quotidien des élèves des conservatoires et écoles de musique semble être une condition indispensable à une pratique musicale épanouissante et de qualité. Cette enquête par questionnaire, adressée aux enseignants des conservatoires et écoles de musique, tente de comprendre comment la pratique instrumentale est organisée à la maison du côté des élèves et familles. Elle traite de l’autonomie des élèves, du temps et de la charge de travail personnel, de la gestion des consignes orales, de l’utilisation des supports écrits, des méthodes utilisées pour aider des élèves en difficulté ainsi que de la place de la réprimande et de l’auto-évaluation pendant le cours instrumental. Elle pointe, côté enseignants, un recours important à la réprimande pour faire face à des situations de travail insuffisant et conclut à un manque de connaissances en psychologie de l’enfant et de l’adolescent. Côté élèves, elle souligne un manque manifeste de travail personnel ainsi qu’une certaine désorganisation de l’entraînement musical. Côté familles, elle met en lumière une absence de soutien quotidien dans le travail instrumental des enfants.
Introduction
A coach’s managerial and pedagogical tasks in the sports training process constitute the substantive core of their work, while decision-making serves as the fundamental method underpinning these tasks. Some decisions made by coaches result from deliberate, analytical thinking, which involves extensive information gathering, analysis, and discussion. Others, however, are made quickly and spontaneously, triggered by unforeseen situations during training or competition that demand immediate action. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to develop a conceptual framework for understanding coaches’ decision-making behavior in conventional sports. This framework aims to establish appropriate relationships between the various decisions coaches make during the training process and theoretical concepts related to decision-making, both in general and within the coaching context.
Methods
To design the research, we used the methodology of a conceptual paper and a “model paper” approach, which seeks to build a theoretical framework that predicts relationships between distinct research concepts and scientific disciplines, aiming to integrate them into a cohesive model of coaches’ decision-making behavior.
Results
The proposed conceptual framework encompasses a comprehensive range of situations that may arise during the sports training process and potential ways to address them. This framework identifies different types of decisions and characteristics associated with coaches’ decision-making behavior. It incorporates various sport-specific and general theories of decision-making and cognitive functioning to offer a deeper understanding of how coaches process and execute decisions in diverse contexts.
Discussion
The developed conceptual framework outlines three primary types of decisions—strategic, tactical, and operational—each playing a distinct role in the broader sports training process. These decisions are based on different cognitive processes, which manifest in varied decision-making behaviors and are reinforced by specific leadership styles. The practical value of this framework lies in its potential application for selecting appropriate experts to address the diverse decision-making scenarios encountered in sports training. This ensures the alignment of decision-making styles with the requirements of specific training situations, thereby enhancing the effectiveness and outcomes of the coaching process.
In entrepreneurship education literature it is generally taken for granted that students learn from real world experiences. Yet doing entrepreneurship is no guarantee that learning will occur. Deliberate practice and ensuring that students engage in intense, prolonged and difficult effort is part of moving students from being novices to being sufficiently prepared to engage in venture creation. This raises the questions of how to structure courses to ensure that deliberate practice is a natural outcome of the course. Gamification supports one method that can be used. This article explores students’ reflections on how gamification tools impacted their experiences of learning how to develop an emerging opportunity. The findings suggest that gamification works well in motivating students to engage in deliberate practice. Gamification is not perfect though and raises a number of challenges for educators to consider in designing their courses to achieve the intended outcomes.
We propose a model for investigating the quality of mathematics teaching using learning opportunities as an alternative dependent variable to student learning outcomes. We define learning opportunities as opportunities intended by the teacher and engaged by students. We use a general learning goal—conceptual understanding—to show that sufficient empirical evidence exists to identify features of learning opportunities that reliably connect with commonly desired learning outcomes. If accepted, our model would allow teaching researchers to reallocate scarce resources to study, in more detail, the nature of teaching that yields learning opportunities with desired features engaged by students. We believe the model could clarify the criteria for justifying appropriate dependent variable selection in research designs, grant proposals, and manuscript drafts.
Zusammenfassung: Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht elterliche Überzeugungen im Kontext Instrumentalunterricht. Hierzu wurde ein Fragebogeninstrument zur Erfassung von zwölf Überzeugungsfacetten entwickelt und anhand einer Musikschulstudie ( N familien = 195) und einer Grundschulstudie ( N familien = 163) validiert. Die faktorielle Struktur des Fragebogens ließ sich mittels einer konfirmatorischen Faktorenanalyse bestätigen und durch ergänzende explorative Faktorenanalysen bekräftigten. Es zeigten sich zufriedenstellende bis gute Skalenreliabilitäten. Zusammenhänge der Überzeugungsskalen fanden sich erwartungsgemäß mit dem musikbiographischen Hintergrund der Eltern sowie ihrer Investitionsbereitschaft und ihren Zielen hinsichtlich des Instrumentalunterrichts. Darüber hinaus ergaben Mehrebenenmodelle Zusammenhänge zwischen den elterlichen Überzeugungsfacetten und der Lernmotivation der Kinder. Insbesondere die Überzeugungen zur elterlichen Verantwortlichkeit sowie zur Selbstverantwortung des Kindes in Bezug auf dessen musikalische Ausbildung erwiesen sich hierbei als bedeutsam. Mit dem entwickelten Fragebogen liegt ein Instrument zur mehrdimensionalen Erfassung elterlicher Überzeugungen zum Musizieren und zum Erlernen eines Instruments im Grundschulalter vor.
Introduction: Quantifying signals in large, sparse datasets is challenging, as noise and redundant features often obscure informative patterns. Chess middlegames, with their dynamic complexity and endless possibilities, provide a testbed for exploring such challenges. Building on 12 studies that identified three categories of chess complexity—difficulty, optionality, and rarity—we propose a novel method to quantify chess pattern complexity. Methods: A complexity scoring system was developed, integrating centipawn change, variability, engine search depth, and inverse document frequency of constellations to measure difficulty, optionality, and rarity. From a large dataset of chess games, we extracted 106,810 unique 11-ply constellations that appeared at least 20 times across 2,235,823 games. The chess engine was used to evaluate chess decisions when answering on constellations, and a multinomial logistic regression model was employed to predict move quality. Results: The model demonstrated good predictive power with a weighted F1 score of 0.75 and a ROC AUC of 0.82. It correctly classified over 70% of blunders, mistakes, and optimal moves, although it has less success in differentiating inaccuracies from optimal moves. Discussion: Our approach establishes a flexible framework for quantifying complexity in large, sparse datasets, demonstrating applicability beyond chess. By integrating different metrics, we achieve high accuracy in predicting move quality during chess middlegames. Beyond supporting chess education by identifying constellations tied to specific move types, this methodology could be valuable in contexts where understanding the interplay of dynamic patterns and their outcomes is essential for deriving actionable insights.
This paper explores whether and to what extent a scientific approach to decision-making can be a useful tool for helping entrepreneurs overcome limitations in the commercial exploitation of their idea, particularly when these limitations stem from their status as users of the products or services. Using data from a variety of sources, including three randomized control trials and LinkedIn data, and focusing on female entrepreneurs who develop a value proposition targeting female consumers as a case of user entrepreneurs, this paper shows that exposure to a training that encourages entrepreneurs to develop theoretical maps about their business propositions and validate them with evidence prompts more radical pivots on their initial ideas compared with entrepreneurs with a value proposition that does not target women explicitly. In turn, treated female entrepreneurs with a female-targeted value proposition who pivot radically show better performance in launching and sustaining their ventures compared with those who have not pivoted.
Funding: This work received funding support from the ICRIOS—Invernizzi Center for Research in Innovation, Organization, Strategy & Entrepreneurship at Bocconi University, the Innovation Growth Laboratory, the Strategy Research Foundation, the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy of the U.K. Government (project 104754, “A Scientific Approach to SMEs Productivity”), City, University of London, The Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (PRIN project prot. 2017PM7R52, CUP J44I20000220001), and the Polytechnic of Turin. This research was approved by Bocconi Research Ethics Committee with protocol references 2016-III/13.696, 77133-2 and by City Ethics Committee with reference ETH1819-0351. The four studies presented in this article are included in the AEA RCT Registry [AEARCTR-0006578, AEARCTR-0002205, AEARCTR-0006579, AEARCTR-0003875].
Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2022.17235 .
From an early age, musicians learn complex motor and auditory skills (e.g., the translation of visually perceived musical symbols into motor commands with simultaneous auditory monitoring of output), which they practice extensively from childhood throughout their entire careers. Using a voxel-by-voxel morphometric technique, we found gray matter volume differences in motor, auditory, and visual-spatial brain regions when comparing professional musicians (keyboard players) with a matched group of amateur musicians and non-musicians. Although some of these multiregional differences could be attributable to innate predisposition, we believe they may represent structural adaptations in response to long-term skill acquisition and the repetitive rehearsal of those skills. This hypothesis is supported by the strong association we found between structural differences, musician status, and practice intensity, as well as the wealth of supporting animal data showing structural changes in response to long-term motor training. However, only future experiments can determine the relative contribution of predisposition and practice.
A concert pianist the second author videotaped herself learning J.S. Bach's Italian Concerto Presto , and commented on the problems she encountered as she practised. Approximately two years later the pianist wrote out the first page of the score from memory. The pianist's verbal reports indicated that in the early sessions she identified and memorised the formal structure of the piece, and in the later sessions she practised using this organisation to retrieve the memory cues that controlled her playing. The practice and recall data supported this account. Both were organised by the formal structure of the music. Practice segments were more likely to start and stop at boundaries of the formal structure than at other locations, and recall was higher for the beginnings of sections than for later portions. Like other forms of expert memory, pianistic memory appears to be based on use of a highly practised retrieval scheme which permits rapid retrieval of information from long-term memory.
The author developed a model that explains and predicts both longitudinal and cross-sectional variation in the output of major and minor creative products. The model first yields a mathematical equation that accounts for the empirical age curves, including contrasts across creative domains in the expected career trajectories. The model is then extended to account for individual differences in career trajectories, such as the longitudinal stability of cross-sectional variation and the differential placement of career landmarks (the ages at first, best, and last contribution). The theory is parsimonious in that it requires only two individual-difference parameters (initial creative potential and age at career onset) and two information-processing parameters (ideation and elaboration rates), plus a single principle (the equal-odds rule), to derive several precise predictions that cannot be generated by any alternative theory.
Examined the role of practice in the development of 257 performing musicians (aged 8–18 yrs). Ss who had undertaken individual instrument tuition were interviewed about their performing history from the start of the playing and were divided into 5 groups, reflecting different levels of musical competence. 94 Ss also kept a practice diary for a 42-wk period. A strong relationship was found between musical achievement and the amount of formal practice undertaken. Weaker relationships were found between achievement and the amount of informal playing. There was no evidence that high achievers were able to gain a given level of examination success on less practice than low achievers. High achievers tended to be more consistent in their pattern of practice from week to week and tended to concentrate on technical practices in the morning. It is concluded that formal effortful practice is a principal determinant of musical achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although measures of job experience are frequently-used screening devices in the selection of employees, personnel psychologists have devoted little attention to their usefulness. This article quantitatively summarizes data on the relation between job experience and job performance from a total sample of 16,058. The correlation between job experience and job performance was found to be moderated by two variables: length of experience and job complexity. The highest correlations were obtained in populations with low mean levels of job experience and for jobs that place low levels of cognitive demands on employees. Results appear to be consistent with the causal model of job performance proposed by Schmidt, Hunter, and Outerbridge (1986). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a framework for skill acquisition that includes 2 major stages in the development of a cognitive skill: (1) a declarative stage in which facts about the skill domain are interpreted and (2) a procedural stage in which the domain knowledge is directly embodied in procedures for performing the skill. This general framework has been instantiated in the ACT system in which facts are encoded in a propositional network and procedures are encoded as productions. Knowledge compilation is the process by which the skill transits from the declarative stage to the procedural stage. It consists of the subprocesses of composition, which collapses sequences of productions into single productions, and proceduralization, which embeds factual knowledge into productions. Once proceduralized, further learning processes operate on the skill to make the productions more selective in their range of applications. These processes include generalization, discrimination, and strengthening of productions. Comparisons are made to similar concepts from previous learning theories. How these learning mechanisms apply to produce the power law speedup in processing time with practice is discussed. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the theory of deliberate practice (K. A. Ericsson et al, 1993) and contrasted results with the sport commitment model (T. K. Scanlan et al, 1993a, 1993b). In Part I, international (mean age 25.6 yrs), national (mean age 24.0 yrs), and provincial (mean age 25.4 yrs) soccer and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport-related activities, and everyday activities at the start of their career and every 3 years since. In Part II, these activities were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and concentration required, and enjoyment. A monotonic relationship between accumulated individual plus team practice and skill level was found. In contrast with Ericsson et al's findings for musicians, relevant activities were also enjoyable, while concentration became a separate dimension from effort. The viability of a generalized theory of expertise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 yrs. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A new interview procedure is proposed for collecting valid information on the acquisition of high-level performance in sport. The procedure elicits verifiable information on the development of athletes' achievements in their primary sport, as well as factors that might influence performance, including involvement in other sporting activities, injuries, physical growth and quality of training resources. Interviewed athletes also describe their engagement in specific training and other relevant activities during each year of their development as well as how they experienced each type of activity. The collected information is then examined to identify those aspects of the athletes' recall of their development that meet criteria of reliability and validity. Recommendations to coaches and scientists are discussed for how retrospective interviews can uncover aspects of development that distinguish elite from less accomplished athletes.
What are the factors responsible for skilled typing performance, and do they change with the age of the typist? These questions were addressed in two studies by examining time and accuracy of keystrokes in a variety of typinglike activities among typists ranging in speed from 17 to 104 net words per minute and ranging in age from 19 to 72 years old. Typing skill was related to the temporal consistency of making the same keystroke, the efficiency of overlapping successive keystrokes, the speed of alternate-hand tapping, and the number of characters of to-be-typed text required to maintain a normal rate of typing. Older typists were slower in tapping rate and in choice reaction time but were not slower in speed of typing, apparently because they were more sensitive to characters farther in advance of the currently typed character than young typists.
Magnetic source imaging revealed that the cortical representation of the digits of the left hand of string players was larger
than that in controls. The effect was smallest for the left thumb, and no such differences were observed for the representations
of the right hand digits. The amount of cortical reorganization in the representation of the fingering digits was correlated
with the age at which the person had begun to play. These results suggest that the representation of different parts of the
body in the primary somatosensory cortex of humans depends on use and changes to conform to the current needs and experiences
of the individual.
Experts, who were the sole active dispensers of certain kinds of knowledge in the days before AI, have now often assumed a rather passive role. They relay their knowledge to various novices, knowledge engineers, experimental psychologists or cognitivists - or other experts! - involved in the development and understanding of expert systems. This book achieves a perfect marriage between experimentalists and theoreticians who deal with expertise. It tries to establish the benefits to society of an advanced technology for representing and disseminating the knowledge and skills of the best corporate managers, the most seasoned pilots, and the most renowned medical diagnosticians. This book interests psychologists as well as all those out in the trenches developing expert systems, and everyone pondering the nature of expertise and the question of how it can be studied scientifically. Its scope, the pivotal concepts which it elucidates and brilliantly summarizes and appraises in the final chapter, as well as the references it includes, make this book a landmark in the field.
Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) have concluded from work with musicians that expertise is the result of ≪deliberate practice≫, so how valid is this conclusion in sport? Four groups of male amateur wrestlers (n = 42); 2 international and 2 club (current and retired) recalled the number of hours they had spent in wrestling and everyday activities since beginning wrestling. All groups had begun wrestling at a similar age (M = 13 yrs) and had been wrestling for 10 years or more. Data were examined as a function of age and years spent wrestling. Contrary to Ericsson et al. practice alone activities did not differentiate between the groups, only practice with others. At 6 years into their careers, the international group practised 4.5 hrs/week more than the club wrestlers. At 20 years of age the international wrestlers had accumulated over 1000 more hours of practice with others compared to the club wrestlers. Evaluations of wrestling related activities showed that activities judged to be relevant were also rated high with regards to concentration and enjoyment. Diary data were collected from current wrestlers to validate the retrospective reports. The time spent in all wrestling related activities was comparable for the club and international wrestlers, however, the international wrestlers spent longer travelling to practice, which reflected the necessity to train at a club with the best sparring partners. Practice with others yielded high correlations between estimates for a typical week and the diary data for the international wrestlers. In conclusion Ericsson et al.'s definition of ≪deliberate practice≫ needs to be considered, especially as ≪relevancez≫ correlates highly with ≪enjoyment≫. It is recommended that future studies focus on what it is that motivates people to spend the necessary hours of practice to achieve expertise.
This case study of a church organ student focuses on the student's use of learning strategies during the initial phase of preparing a complex piece for public concert performance. It explores whether the results of regulatory decisions on speed and intensity of cognitive activities can be identified in the observed practice behaviour. The subject's use of learning strategies in different tasks during practice indicates to some degree that the results of regulatory decisions of intensity and speed of cognitive activities can be found in the observed behaviour. Chi-square analyses revealed that the transitions from mastering identical to mastering new patterns, and from mastering identical to mastering related patterns, caused the student to increase intensity and subsequently decrease speed of cognitive activities, while the transition from mastering new to mastering identical patterns, and from mastering related to mastering identical patterns, caused the student to decrease intensity and increase speed of his cognitive activities. © 1999 by the Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education.
The disorders called mental illnesses afflict many persons with distress and disability and, in aggregate, constitute substantial social, personal, and economic problems in our culture. Psychotherapists assert the skills to provide alleviation and solutions, and often do. Professor Dawes' book is not a derisory exposé, as the title might suggest, but a thoughtful scrutiny of the present state of scientific thinking and the lack of it in clinical practice.Up to about 1950 most professional therapists were physicians. Since then, attracted by status and salaries, professing therapists without medical training have increased exponentially in number. The clinical practice of psychology has increasingly divorced itself from its research base, while the rigor of training in scientific method has diminished. There are now more clinical psychologists than psychiatrists and more psychiatric social workers than clinical psychologists. Treatment is provided in the main by nonphysicians. Almost anyone can open an office and solicit
Interpreting a scientific concept, that is, identifying or generating it properly in any particular instance, is a complex cognitive task. We analyze the underlying knowledge required to achieve such concept interpretation accurately and efficiently. This analysis is used to examine detailed observations of expert scientists and novice students interpreting the physics concept of acceleration. Most experts interpret the concept well in expected ways; however, even some experienced scientists exhibit marked deficiencies in concept interpretation. Novice students, even after using a scientific concept for some months, interpret it incorrectly in many cases. Their poor performance can be traced to concept knowledge that is largely incoherent, consisting of disconnected knowledge elements leading to frequent paradoxes. These knowledge elements are often flawed because of deficient applicability conditions or lack of discriminations. Furthermore, students' definitional or other general knowledge often cannot be properly applied, even if correctly stated. By directly addressing such deficiencies, instruction can substantially improve students' ability to interpret a scientific concept.
Describes a series of experiments conducted on the racquet sports of badminton and squash to determine the location of the advance cues that provide critical anticipatory information and to document any expert–novice differences in anticipatory cue usage. Data suggest movement of the arm and racquet and outward flight of the struck ball (or shuttle) as the source of the critical cues for racquet sports, and a close match was found between the visual search sequence and the proximal-to-distal kinematic development of the opponent's stroke. Expert racquet sport players differed from novices in terms of their ability to use the earlier occurring, more proximal arm cues as a basis for predicting resultant stroke speed and direction, but these differences in information pick-up were not matched by differences in visual search strategy. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the different stages involved in learning telegraphy. One S was tested each week on: (1) rate of receiving letters not making words, (2) rate of receiving letters making words, but not sentences, and (3) rate of receiving letters making words and sentences. Results indicate that a hierarchy of psycho-physical habits were required to receive the telegraphic language. From an early period, letter, word and higher habits made gains together, but not equally. No plateau appeared between the learning of letters and words; the first one occurred after the learning of words. Later, there was a second ascent, representing the acquisition of higher language habits. Effective speed was largely dependent upon the mastery of these habits, which led to greater accuracy in detail. Concluded that the rate of progress, depended partly on the rate of mental and nervous processes, but far more on how much was included in each process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports some unexpected byproducts of experiments with chess-playing tasks and computer simulation of skilled performance and problem solving. First, the theory of the processes used by expert chess players in discovering checkmating combinations and the MATER computer simulation of these processes are reviewed. Next phenomena involving the perceptual bases of mastery in chess and eye movements at the chess board are described. Perceptual processes were evaluated by way of the MATER program, and a new program, PERCEIVER, was used to explain the eye movement phenomenon. To further refine the above findings, other more sophisticated simulation programs were introduced. Findings indicate that acquisition of chess skills depends, in large part, on building up recognition memory for many familiar chess patterns. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A comparative study of 120 men of science and 123 men of letters was undertaken. Men of genius appear to live longer than the average individual. Their life-span, exceeding 60 years, recalls the fact that superior energy has often been attributed to them. Creative ability seems first to make itself definitely manifest in the middle twenties, to be at a peak in the middle thirties, and to continue up to within a decade of the individual's death. Men of genius are likely to be born in the upper socio-economic classes, a fact reflected in the large percentages of those who attended college and experienced no financial hardships. The data do not support the theory that genius is, as a class, associated with delicate health, tuberculosis, celibacy, or mental instability. Emotionality, despondency and egotism were more frequently reported for literary men than for scientists. The most frequently reported outside activity for both groups is that associated with occupying some government position. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It seemed to the editors that the field of gifted education could profit from a comprehensive handbook designed to provide a synthesis and critical review of the significant theory and research dealing with all aspects of giftedness, one which included contributors from the many nations where such research and program development was occurring. We viewed the undertaking with 80 contributors from 18 countries on six continents as a kind of international stock-taking. While the contributors provide a broad base for an international information exchange, they also provide insights into research deficits and research needs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined (1) whether skilled soccer players' enhanced declarative knowledge base is a by-product of experience or a characteristic of expertise; (2) whether training and playing promote the acquisition and retention of specific declarative knowledge; (3) and the relative contribution of anticipation, recall, and recognition ability to soccer expertise. In Exp 1, 12 high-skilled (HS), 12 low-skilled (LS) soccer players, and 12 physically disabled (PD) soccer spectators participated in an anticipation test. HS Ss demonstrated superior anticipatory performance. In Exp 2, the same Ss were tested for recall ability. HS Ss demonstrated superior recall performance on structured trials only. In Exp 3, the same Ss participated in a recognition test. HS Ss were better at recognizing structured and unstructured trials; however, no differences were found between LS Ss and PD spectators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied individual differences in telegraphic writing. A preliminary study was conducted, in which operators were cross-examined on aspects of psychological or physiological importance. On the basis of this, a study was undertaken on 60 Ss, who were asked to write a sentence requiring attention. There were constant differences required in the times for a given character. Further tests were made, and schools were requested to provide typical curves of improvement. Results reveal that there were distinct specialties in telegraphy. The rate of receiving varied greatly, and exceeded sending rate. Both external and subjective disturbances affected inexperienced operators. The best age to learn telegraphy was 18-30 yrs. The variations in the value of a character depended on its place in the sentence. Homotaxic variation was an inverse measure of skill, while the inflection variation increased with expertise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The highest levels of performance and achievement in sports, games, arts, and sciences have always been an object of fascination, but only within the last couple of decades have scientists been studying these empirical phenomena within a general theoretical framework.
[This book] brings together [research] on specific domains of expertise and related theoretical issues, such as the importance of individual differences in ability and innate talent for attaining expert levels of performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two large, diverse samples of tournament-rated chess players were asked to estimate the frequency and duration of their engagement in a variety of chess-related activities. Variables representing accumulated time spent on serious study alone, tournament play, and formal instruction were all significant bivariate correlates of chess skill as measured by tournament performance ratings. Multivariate regression analyses revealed that among the activities measured, serious study alone was the strongest predictor of chess skill in both samples, and that a combination of various chess-related activities accounted for about 40% of the variance in chess skill ratings. However, the relevance of tournament play and formal instruction to skill varied as a function of skill measurement time (peak vs. current) and age group (above vs. below 40 years). Chess players at the highest skill level (i.e. grandmasters) expended about 5000 hours on serious study alone during their first decade of serious chess play-nearly five times the average amount reported by intermediate-level players. These results provide further evidence to support the argument that deliberate practice plays a critical role in the acquisition of chess expertise, and may be useful in addressing pedagogical issues concerning the optimal allocation of time to different chess learning activities. Copyright (c) 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
(from the chapter) summarize some of the findings on expertise in chess / the theme being stressed is the opportunity for trading off knowledge and search to reach a single goal: skilled play / first, the extensive search capabilities of nonhuman chess players, computer chess programs, will be examined / psychological investigations of human chess skill will then be reviewed to contrast the ways in which the two "species" achieve expertise the knowledge base that humans have developed about chess will be assessed, using encyclopedic sources concerning the three phases of chess: the opening, the middle game, and the end game / look at whether knowledge accumulation and training in chess have meant better play, both over time and across chess federations / the extent to which an understanding of chess skill can be of assistance in understanding other types of human skill will be briefly discussed (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved)
The current work draws upon the theoretical framework of deliberate practice in order to clarify why the amount of study by college students is a poor predictor of academic performance. A model was proposed where performance in college, both cumulatively and for a current semester, was jointly determined by previous knowledge and skills as well as factors indicating quality (e.g., study environment) and quantity of study. The findings support the proposed model and indicate that the amount of study only emerged as a significant predictor of cumulative GPA when the quality of study and previously attained performance were taken into consideration. The findings are discussed in terms of the insights provided by applying the framework of deliberate practice to academic performance in a university setting.
To account for the large demands on working memory during text comprehension and expert performance, the traditional models of working memory involving temporary storage must be extended to include working memory based on storage in long-term memory. In the proposed theoretical framework cognitive processes are viewed as a sequence of stable states representing end products of processing. In skilled activities, acquired memory skills allow these end products to be stored in long-term memory and kept directly accessible by means of retrieval cues in short-term memory, as proposed by skilled memory theory. These theoretical claims are supported by a review of evidence on memory in text comprehension and expert performance in such domains as mental calculation, medical diagnosis, and chess.
A mysterious fatal disease strikes a large minority of the population.
The disease is incurable, but an expensive drug can keep victims alive. Congress decides that the drug should be given to those whose lives can be
extended longest, which only a few specialists can predict. The experts work
around the clock searching for a cure; allocating the drug is a new chore they
would rather avoid.
This paper applies the concept of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) to work settings. Deliberate practice comprises regularly performed activities which aim at competence improvement. It is hypothesized that the amount of deliberate practice is positively related to work performance. Results of a study with 100 insurance agents provided evidence for the occurrence of deliberate practice activities in work contexts. The amount of current time spent on deliberate practice was significantly related to supervisory ratings of insurance agents' work performance. Accumulated amount of time spent on deliberate practice in the past was not related to work performance.
The purpose of this study is to identify the age of peak performance in a broad range of athletic events incorporating multiple,
diverse biological systems, learned skills, and motivation. Although many researchers have noted that the absolute levels
of peak performance among superathletes have improved dramatically in the last 100 years, to date no one has answered the
question of stability of peak performance age over this time period. Analyses of Olympic track and field and swimming data
show that the age at which peak performance is achieved has remained remarkably consistent. For both men and women, the age
of peak performance increases with the length of the foot race, and women generally achieve peak performance at younger ages.
The pattern of increased age with increasing distance is reversed for female swimmers, where younger ages are associated with
increasing distance. For most categories of performance in baseball, the peak age of performance is equivalent to that of
a long distance runner, about 28 years of age, while top tennis players reach their highest levels of performance at age 24.
Golfers, in comparison, peak at about 31 years of age, although recent data suggest movement toward younger ages. A task analysis
of each event is carried out, and the relative roles of biology and learning are discussed as determinants of peak performance.
Two studies investigated the role of deliberate practice in the maintenance of cognitive-motor skills in expert and accomplished amateur pianists. Older expert and amateur pianists showed the normal pattern of large age-related reductions in standard measures of general processing speed. Performance on music-related tasks showed similar age-graded decline for amateur pianists but not for expert pianists, whose average performance level was only slightly below that of young expert pianists. The degree of maintenance of relevant pianistic skills for older expert pianists was predicted by the amount of deliberate practice during later adulthood. The role of deliberate practice in the active maintenance of superior domain-specific performance in spite of general age-related decline is discussed.