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H
CASE STUDY
HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL
IMPACTS
James M. Shultz
1
, Louis Herns Marcelin
2
, Zelde Espinel
1
,
Sharon B. Madanes
3
, Andrea Allen
4
, Yuval Neria
5
1
Center for Disaster & Extreme Event Preparedness
(DEEP Center), University of Miami Miller School of
Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
2
Interuniversity Institute for Research and Development
(INURED), Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and University of
Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
3
Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
4
Barry University, Miami Shores, FL, USA
5
Columbia University, The New York State Psychiatric
Institute, New York, NY, USA
Synonyms
Disaster behavioral health; Disaster health; Disaster men-
tal and behavioral health; Disaster mental health
Overview
At 4:53 PM local time (21:53 GMT) on January 12, 2010,
a magnitude 7.0 earthquake devastated the Haitian capital
city of Port-au-Prince and surrounding area, killing an
estimated 222,570–316,000 persons (Inter Agency Stand-
ing Committee, 2010; CBC News, 2011). The Haiti 2010
earthquake is noteworthy among natural disasters that
subject the affected human population to intense psycho-
logical stressors (Table 1).
Norris and colleagues (2002) posit that disasters that
possess two or more of the following four characteristics
are likely to create significant mental health consequences
for the affected community: (1) large numbers of deaths
and/or injuries, (2) widespread destruction and property
damage, (3) disruption of social support and ongoing eco-
nomic problems, and (4) “human”contribution to the
disaster’s causation. By the numbers, the Haiti 2010 earth-
quake possesses all of these attributes: (1) mass mortality,
(2) near-total physical destruction over large areas,
(3) social dislocation to a point bordering on societal col-
lapse, and (4) ample evidence of human amplification of
the earthquake’s harm (preventable deaths and severe
injuries attributable to dangerous and derelict standards
for housing construction; uncommonly widespread and
brutal interpersonal violence directed against earthquake
survivors in the aftermath) (Shultz et al., 2011).
Profiling the Haiti 2010 earthquake will provide
insights into the psychologically traumatizing capacity of
this exceptional event (Shultz et al., 2011). The psycho-
logical consequences of the Haiti 2010 earthquake can
be portrayed across five salient dimensions: (1) disaster
type, (2) severity, (3) duration, (4) mortality, and (5) scope
and social context of psychological impact (Table 2).
Disaster type: event description and disaster
consequences
Haiti occupies the western third of the island of Hispan-
iola, one of the Greater Antilles islands, located between
Puerto Rico and Cuba. The Haiti 2010 earthquake
occurred south of the east-west trending “strike-slip”fault
zone separating the massive North American tectonic
plate (to the north) from the Caribbean plate (to the south).
Relative to the North American plate, the Caribbean plate
“slips”about 20 mm to the east each year. In Haiti, the
plate boundary between these two plates presents a more
complex scenario; historically, shearing pressures have
created an additional fracture along the ragged juncture.
The resulting tectonic shard, “the Gonave microplate,”
on which Haiti rides, is bracketed by two fault zones run-
ning east-west in northern and southern Haiti. The Haiti
2010 earthquake occurred along the Enriquillo-Plantain
P.T. Bobrowsky (ed.), Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-4399-4,
#Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Garden Fault Zone (EPGFZ) to the south. Along the
EPGFZ, the plates had been “locked”in position for
approximately 250 years, with escalating stress prior to
the moment of release. At that moment, 4:53 PM, January
12, 2010, along 65 km of the EPGFZ, the Caribbean Plate
jolted violently eastward an average distance of 1.8 m
(with amplitudes as large as 4 m in some locales). As pre-
cisely described by Calis et al. (2010), the earthquake
occurred on a previously unmapped steeply dipping fault
that makes a high angle with the Enriquillo-Plantain fault.
With a rupture that was as close as 17 km from down-
town Port-au-Prince, Haiti’s capital and major population
center, this near-surface earthquake shattered the city and
terrified its population. At Moment Magnitude 7.0, the
Haiti 2010 earthquake was very intense, but for perspec-
tive, the February 2010 earthquake in Maule, Chile, regis-
tered Moment Magnitude 8.8, generating 500 times the
energy of its Haitian counterpart. Although the 2010
Chilean earthquake ranks high among the most powerful
seismic events, its memory was short lived, whereas the
weaker 2010 Haitian earthquake, by decimating
a densely packed and structurally vulnerable population,
has made its mark on human history and on the psyche
of the Haitian people.
The entire nation of Haiti experienced the sensations of
ground movement during the initial shock, with millions
in the throes of significant shaking. The death toll, in the
range of 222,570–316,000 deaths (Inter Agency Standing
Committee, 2010; CBC News, 2011), places this event
among the deadliest sudden-impact natural disasters on
record. More than 300,000 survivors were seriously
injured. Among these, an estimated 4,000 survivors
sustained amputating injuries. Millions experienced
excruciating pain from personal injury, or directly
observed gruesome harm or brutal death as buildings top-
pled, or witnessed piles of decomposing bodies strewn
throughout the streets. In the aftermath, with hundreds of
thousands of collapsed or uninhabitable dwellings, 1.3
million persons were internally displaced, eventually find-
ing temporary lodging in the myriad impromptu camps
that were hastily erected. In the weeks following the earth-
quake, displaced persons, deprived of secure shelter and
personal privacy, were easy prey to looting, gang violence,
and gender-based violence including rape. Environmental
hazards posed risks for falls, punctures, abrasions, and lac-
erations. Destruction of infrastructure, leading to absence
of clean water, sanitation, and hygienic healthcare ser-
vices, produced a cascade of untoward outcomes: infec-
tious disease outbreaks, life-threatening wound
infections, and malnutrition contributing to preventable
deaths among infants and young children. Population-
wide vulnerability following the earthquake exacerbated
the spread and severity of a raging outbreak of cholera that
caused illness in 470,000 persons and killed almost 7,000
in 1 year (CDC, 2011) (Table 3).
Disaster severity and psychological impact
The confluence of multiple physical and psychological
consequences distinguishes the Haiti 2010 earthquake as
singularly destructive. In a disaster, one of the strongest
predictors of the severity of psychological effects is the
degree of exposure to the forces of harm (Neria et al.,
2008; Shultz et al., 2007, 2012a). The absolute magnitude
of the forces of harm largely determines the extent of dam-
age, destruction, displacement, death, and injury, as well
as the extent of stress and trauma experienced by the disas-
ter-affected population (Shultz et al., 2011).
At the moment of impact, exposure to the Haiti 2010
earthquake was experienced throughout the nation as
ground shaking. Both the objective intensity and the sub-
jective experience of ground shaking relate directly to
the distance from the earthquake’s epicenter. Persons clos-
est to the strike zone were subjected to the kinesthetics of
extreme shaking, compounded by the multisensory
Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts, Table 1 Haiti
2010 earthquake: disaster stressors
Impact phase stressors Post-impact phase stressors
Exposure to severe
shaking Exposure to ongoing aftershocks
Physical injury and personal harm
Exposure to multiple
strong aftershocks Pain, debility, loss of function
Loss of limb
Physical injury and
personal harm Rampant infectious diseases
Searching for missing loved ones
Entrapment in collapsed
structures Caring for injured loved ones
Grief for lost loved ones
Perception of risk of
death/extreme harm Lack of access to emergency care
Lack of access to primary medical care
Panicked flight Lack of access to mental health care
Loss of loved one Lack of survival needs (food, water)
Separation from loved
ones during event Lack of utilities and essential services
Lack of sanitation, public health
Witnessing harm to others Lack of communications
Witnessing death of others Lack of transportation
Witnessing grotesque,
troubling scenes Lack of personal security
Rumors of additional shocks to come
Damage/destruction of
home Damage/destruction of home
Loss of personal possessions
Displacement from home Displacement
Community-wide
physical destruction Living in temporary camps
Witnessing dead bodies
Witnessing severely harmed persons
Witnessing traumatized/bereaved
survivors
Looting and gang activities
Interpersonal and gender-based
violence
Damage to worksite
Loss of employment
Financial hardship
Damage to place of worship
Absence of government infrastructure
Damage to schools
Earthquake trauma reminders from
aftershocks and scenes of destruction
Family distress
420 HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS
experience of structural disintegration occurring in all
directions around them. In some areas of particularly
intense tumult, “liquefaction”occurred as the sediment
lost its weight-bearing properties, causing structures to
sink and crumble (Shultz et al., 2011). Punctuating the jar-
ring, disorienting, fear-triggering sensations of tremulous-
ness and vibration, many persons were physically injured,
pinned by falling rubble, or entrapped in collapsed struc-
tures. Bodily pain, injury, immobilization, trapped con-
finement, and perceived life threat are psychological
stressors (Shultz et al., 2011). Haitian survivors engaged
in frenetic, bare-handed scramble to find and extricate
family members and neighbors who had disappeared amid
the heaving earth and caving debris.
Assuming an earthquake source of given orientation
and rupture characteristics, it is possible to estimate the
levels of shaking over an area and convert them to ratings
on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. The Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI) is a 12-point rating scale
(I–XII). Each point on the scale is composed of an esti-
mate of shaking intensity and a corresponding description
of structural damage. The MMI estimates how strongly an
earthquake is felt by people in a geographical area, and the
corresponding amount of damage to buildings and
dwellings.
For the Haiti 2010 earthquake, the United States
Geological Survey (USGS, 2010a) has created a “shake-
map”displaying the geographic areas, and estimated
population numbers, for each of the MMI categories. For
example, more than 1.0 million Haitians experienced
violent or extreme shaking (MMI Scale IX or higher), with
heavy to catastrophic damage all around. An additional
3.5 million residents experienced strong, very strong, or
severe ground shaking (MMI Levels VI–VIII). Together,
these data provide clear evidence that almost 4.6 million
Haitians experienced ground movement at the level of
Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts, Table 2 Haiti 2010 earthquake: hazard profile
Disaster type Definition Catastrophe/complex emergency
Initial event classification Natural disaster/geophysical/earthquake: left-lateral strike-slip faulting
at angle with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system
Ongoing event classification Complex emergency: natural disaster followed by infrastructure
collapse, massive loss of life, large-scale displacement, and
interpersonal violence
Forces of harm Strike-slip faulting on a fault associated with a tectonic plate boundary
Severe ground shaking
Structural collapse of buildings
Magnitude and severity Moment magnitude Initial earthquake: M 7.0
First 4 weeks: 16 aftershocks M5.0
First 4 weeks: 59 aftershocks M4.5
Modified Mercalli Intensity Epicenter: X (on a 12-point scale: I–XII)
MMI intensity generally diminishes as a function of distance from
epicenter
Place dimension Epicenter A 40-km long rupture; shortest distance is 17 km from Haitian capital of
Port-au-Prince
Hypocenter Rupture from near surface to 13-km depth
Geography/geology The region is near a tectonic plate boundary region separating the
Caribbean plate and the North America plate. The main shock mostly
represents faulting on an unmapped steeply dipping fault at angle
with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone (EPGFZ).
Scale/scope Intense shaking/destruction throughout southeastern Haiti, particularly
in the capital of Port-au-Prince and surrounding areas.
Shaking of varying intensity felt throughout entire nation of Haiti
(27,750 km
2
) and adjoining portions of Dominican Republic on
island of Hispanola.
Psychological impact extends to Haitian “diaspora”in United States,
Canada, Caribbean, responders from many nations
Built environment Poorest nation in Western Hemisphere
Rank 147/182 on Human Development Index
55% below extreme poverty index
Widespread structural deficiencies
High-density urban crowding
Time dimension Initial earthquake strike January 12, 2010, 16:53 local time (21:53 GMT)
Duration Initial earthquake: 15–35 s of strong shaking (estimate)
Frequency Strong aftershocks of gradually decreasing frequency over several
months (59 aftershocks M4.5 in first 4 weeks)
Duration of life/health risk Months: cholera outbreak caused illness in 470,000 with 6,631 deaths
through October 2011
Duration of disruption Years
HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS 421
MMI VI or higher. The entire Haitian population of
approximately 10 million persons experienced some
degree of perceptible ground shaking, as did millions
more in neighboring Dominican Republic and nearby
Caribbean islands (Table 4, Figure 1).
Duration and frequency of psychological stressors
During exposure to threat or overt forces of harm, survival
stress responses are activated. Moreover, the frequency of
discrete disaster impacts relates to psychological trauma;
a sequence of multiple strikes, and exposure to both stress
and loss, tends to be more alarming than a single, discrete
event (Neria and Litz, 2004). In the case of the Haiti 2010
earthquake, both duration and frequency operated in tan-
dem to exacerbate fear and distress.
While the duration of the initial earthquake was esti-
mated in the range of 15–35 s, repeated strong aftershocks
triggered fear reactions and acted as powerful psycholog-
ical reminders of the initial “mainshock”experience.
Aftershocks began immediately. The first powerful after-
shock (M 6.0) occurred 7 min after the “mainshock.”
The second aftershock (M 5.5) was experienced 12 min
later. According to the United States Geological Survey
(2010b), in precisely 4 weeks following the earthquake’s
origin, 16 aftershocks of magnitude 5.0–6.0, and 43
aftershocks of magnitude 4.5–4.9, occurred close to the
original epicenter.
Disaster stress persisted long after the aftershocks
tapered. Hardships in the aftermath were severe and
prolonged with near-complete destruction of infrastruc-
ture, lack of survival supplies, absence of basic services,
and sporadic episodes of violence on the streets and in
the camps.
Mass mortality in relation to psychological impact
Sudden, concentrated, mass mortality distinguishes the
Haiti 2010 earthquake from past earthquakes of similar
magnitude. Most of the deaths occurred instantly or within
minutes or hours of the M 7.0 mainshock. Some injured
victims suffered a more protracted death over a period of
days due to the circumstances of injury, entrapment, lack
of access to medical care, or absence of basic survival
needs.
Only one earthquake in recorded history significantly
exceeded the numbers of deaths experienced in the Haiti
2010 earthquake; an estimated 830,000 persons died in
the catastrophic earthquake that leveled Shaanxi, China,
on January 23, 1556. Among ground-shaking seismic
incidents in modern times, the Tangshan, China earth-
quake on July 28, 1976, with 255,000 deaths, rivaled the
Haiti death toll. On December 26, 2004, a tsunami-
generating seismic event killed an estimated 280,000
coastal dwellers distributed across more than one dozen
nations encircling the Indian Ocean. Apart from these
two earthquakes and the Indian Ocean tsunami, no other
earthquake in recorded history has equaled the magnitude
of mortality experienced in Haiti on January 12, 2010.
Beyond the exceptional numbers of deaths, a related
feature of Haiti 2010 is the geographic concentration of
mortality in a densely populated urban capital city and
surrounding towns and communities. Large numbers of
Haitians lost multiple family members.
Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts, Table 3 Haiti
2010 earthquake: disaster consequences
Disaster consequence Haiti 2010 earthquake description
Exposure to ground shaking MMI
a
IX: violent/extreme
intensity: 1.0 million persons
MMI
a
VI–VII: strong/very strong/
severe intensity: 3.5 million
persons
Mortality 222,570–316,000 deaths
Bereavement Millions have lost a primary family
member
Morbidity: injury 300,000 injuries requiring medical
care
4,000 injuries requiring amputation
Morbidity: infectious disease Hundreds of thousands of disease
cases
Internally displaced persons
(IDPs) due to earthquake
1,300,000 earthquake IDPs
Damage to homes Destroyed homes: 97,000
Severely damaged homes: 188,000
Gender-based violence High rate of reported rapes and
assaults on women
Children without caregiver Separation from caregiver
Earthquake orphans
Lack of access to clean water Millions of persons
Lack of access to food Malnutrition risk: 495,000 children
and 198,000 pregnant/lactating
women
Lack of access to sanitation Millions of persons
a
MMI: Modified Mercalli Index
Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts, Table 4 Haiti
2010 earthquake: persons exposed to ground shaking by MMI
level
MMI Perceived shaking
Estimated
population
AT MMI
level
Estimated
population AT or
ABOVE MMI
level
X–XII Extreme 118,000 118,000
IX Violent 908,000 1,026,000
VIII Severe 2,030,000 3,056,000
VII Very strong 598,000 3,654,000
VI Strong 926,000 4,580,000
V Moderate 6,361,000 10,941,000
IV Light 7,468,000 18,409,000
I–III Weak to imperceptible 50,000 18,459,000
Source
United States Geological Survey, 2010a.
422 HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS
The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disas-
ters (CRED) in Brussels, Belgium, is a WHO Coordinat-
ing Center and serves as the international repository for
information on all reported disasters worldwide. CRED
maintains an international disaster database dating from
1900 to the present. During the 110 years of tracking inter-
national disasters, a total of 1,095 damaging earthquakes
have been reported including the early 2010 earthquakes
in Haiti and Chile. Collectively, across these earthquakes,
2,323,000 persons were killed. The death toll in Haiti
alone accounted for 10% of all earthquake deaths in
110 years of surveillance.
Loss of a loved one in a natural disaster is one of the
most psychologically devastating experiences. Traumatic
bereavement, leading to complicated grief, is associated
with a host of psychiatric disorders including
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression
(Neria et al., 2007). Complicated (or prolonged) grief dis-
order (PGD) is a relatively new diagnosis, and different
from normal grief in its extended duration and symptom
profile (Horowitz et al., 1997). Correlates of PGD include
severe functional impairment, decreased productivity,
suicidality, and physical health problems (Neria et al.,
2007). Yet to be explored is the interaction between disas-
ter trauma and loss of a loved one (Neria and Litz, 2004);
many survivors of the 2010 Haiti earthquake experienced
both. More research is needed to fully understand the rela-
tions between PTSD and complicated grief, and whether
they differ in their risk and protective factors.
Scope and social context of psychological impact
Psychosocial consequences of disasters are wide ranging
and pervasive (Shultz et al., 2012a). More persons are
affected psychologically than are harmed physically
(Shultz et al., 2007). The Haiti 2010 earthquake has psy-
chologically affected not only the persons within the
immediate strike zone but the entire Haitian population
(10 million persons), the expansive diaspora of Haitian
PORT-AU-PRINCE
Cap-Haïtien
Gonaïves
Hinche
Jacmel
Jérémie
Les Cayes
Miragoâne
Port-de-Paix
Fort Liberte
Les Anglais
Tiburon
Chantal
Arniquet
Camp Perrin
Maniche
Cavaillon
St Louis
du Sud
Aquin
Grand
Goave
Petit
Goave
Bainet
Pestel
Roseau
Bonbon
Abricot
Dame Marie
Les Irois
Moron
Anse
d'Hainault Beaumont
Corail
Petit Trou de Nippes
Baraderes Anse-a-Veau
L'Asile
La vallee de Jacmel
Cayes
Jacmel
Marigot
Ernnery
Cerca
Carvajal
Vallieres
Terrier
Rouge
Trou
du Nord
Cerca
La Source
Thomassique
Belladere
Jimani
Lascahobas
Saut D'eau
Thomonde
Maissade
Pignon
La
Victoire Mombin
Crochu
Bahon
Milot
Limonade
Dondon
Saint
Raphael
Marmelade
Saint Michel
de l'Attatalaye
Dessalines
Petite Riviere
de l'Artibonite
Verrettes
La
Chapelle
Mirebalais
Grande Saline
Desdunes L'Estere
Anse
Rouge
Mole St Nicolas
Bombardopolis
Baie de Henne
Jean Rabel
Bassin Bleu
Chansolme
Anse-a-Foleur
Saint Louis du Nord
Le Borgne
Port Margot
Limbe
Pilate
Gros Morne
La Branle
Plaisance
Anse a pitres
Grand Gosier
Fond
Verrettes
Ganthier
Thomazeau
Cabaret
Archaie
Leogane
Chambellan
Perches
Ferrier
Carice
Bas Limbe
Acul du Nord
Terre Neuve
Boucan
carre
Kenscoff
Carrefour
Petion Ville
Gressier
Cornillon
Ile a Vache
Anse-a-Galets
Pointe-a-Raquette
La Tortue
Caracol
Belle Anse
Torbeck
St Jean
du Sud
Port-Salut
Coteaux
Port-a-Piment
Chardonnieres Thiote
Roche A Bateau
Ouanaminte
Monte Criste
Dajabón
Saint Marc
C U B A D O M I N I C A N
R E P U B L I C
H A I T I
SUD EST
N O R D E S T
A R T I B O N I T E
C E N T R E
S U D
G R A N D E
A N S E
N O R D O U E S T
N I P P E S
N O R D
O U E S T
ÎLE DE LA TORTUE
ÎLE DE
LA GONÂVE
PRESQU'ÎLEDES
BARADÈRES
ÎLES CAYÉMITES
ÎLE À VACHE
72°0'W72°30'W73°0'W73°30'W
74°0'W74°30'W
20°0'N
19°30'N19°0'N
18°30'N18°0'N
0 1020304050
km
Legend
Capital city
First admin capital
Towns
International Boundary
Port
First admin boundary
Haiti - Population Exposed and Exposure Level
Visit http://www.reliefweb.int/haiti to access this map and other crisis information.
Light
Moderate
Very strong
Severe
Violent
Extreme
Perceived
shaking
7,261,000
5,887,000
1,049.000
571,000
314,000
2,246,000
332,000
Population
exposed
Strong
Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts, Figure 1 Map of Haiti showing the epicenter of the January 12, 2010, earthquake and
population affected.
HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS 423
emigrants to the United States, Canada, and throughout
the Caribbean (Shultz et al., 2012b), and large numbers
of persons who have engaged in the earthquake response
efforts. According to CRED data, only two earthquakes
in the past 110 years affected more persons: The Haiti
2010 earthquake provides strong evidence that, in natural
disasters, the “psychological footprint”of disaster is larger
than the “medical footprint”(Shultz et al., 2007).
Adding to the widespread distress from physical hard-
ships was the public perception of a complete void of
national leadership to communicate with the public
(INURED, 2010). In a survey conducted in Cité Soleil,
Port-au-Prince, the key phrase that captured the
population’s sense of despair and abandonment, was, “We
are on our own.”This sentiment was repeatedly
documented and echoed through the press and research
reports. A lead researcher stated, “Failuretorallythecoun-
try at a time when it is gravely wounded added tothe suffer-
ing and trauma of the overallpopulation”(INURED, 2010).
Summary
As we have previously stated, “the 2010 Haiti earthquake
provides a potent example of the rare catastrophic event
where all major risk factors for psychological distress
and impairment are prominent and compounding,”(Shultz
et al., 2011). In this case example, we have illustrated the
links between the descriptors of the event: (1) disaster
type, (2) severity, (3) duration, (4) mortality, and (5) scope
in relation to the psychological impact. We have attempted
to describe how the psychological and physical conse-
quences interplay and synergize in a seismic event of such
impact severity marked by quantum loss of life, oblitera-
tion of infrastructure, and barbarous hardship in the after-
math. In fact, our detailed assessment of this event became
the basis for introducing “trauma signature analysis”
(TSIG) to the field (Shultz et al., 2011).
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United States Geological Survey, 2010b. Magnitude 7.0 –Haiti
region. Available at: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
recenteqsww/Quakes/us2010rja6.php. Accessed April 22, 2012.
Cross-references
Casualties Following Natural Hazards
Community Management of Hazards
Critical Incidence Stress Syndrome
Disaster Relief
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Earthquake
Education and Training for Emergency Preparedness
Emergency Shelter
Epicentre
Epidemiology of Disease in Natural Disasters
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Hazardousness of Place
Hypocentre
Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004
Modified Mercallit (MM) Scale
Mortality and Injury in Natural Disasters
Post Disaster Mass Care Needs
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Psychological Impacts of Natural Disasters
Recovery and Reconstruction After Disaster
Risk
Seismology
Tangshan, China (1976 earthquake)
424 HAITI EARTHQUAKE 2010: PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACTS