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Yeshi Choden Lama
Suresh K. Ghimire
Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas
in collaboration with the Amchis of Dolpo
Medicinal Plants of Dolpo
Amchis Knowledge and Conservation
Medicinal Plants of Dolpo
Amchis Knowledge and Conservation
People and Plants Initiative
WWF Nepal Program
Kathmandu, Nepal
Yeshi Choden Lama
Suresh K. Ghimire
Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas
in collaboration with the Amchis of Dolpo
Amchis Knowledge and Conservation
Medicinal Plants of Dolpo
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© Copyright 2001 by WWF Nepal Program
Citation: LamaY.C., S.K. Ghimire and Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas (2001). Medicinal Plants of Dolpo:
Amchis’ Knowledge and Conservation. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu.
First Edition: 1000 copies.
Published in December 2001 by WWF Nepal Program
PO Box: 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit the
above-mentioned publisher as the copyright owner.
The material and the geographical designations in this report do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of WWF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Warning!
Self-treatment with the herbal remedies listed in this book would be dangerous.
ISBN: 99933-94-01-7
Cover photos: Courtesy: N. Budathoki, S.K. Ghimire, Y.C. Lama
Photo credit inside the text:
C. Basset, France (Pages: 47, 51), R.P. Chaudhary, Tribhuvan University (Pages: 40, 71, 80),
S.K. Ghimire, WWF/PPI Project (Pages: 34 to 39, 41, 42, 44 to 46, 48 to 50, 52 to 66, 68 to 70,
72 to 79, 82 to 103, 105 to 111, 113 to 117, 119 to 125, 127 to 132), K.K. Shrestha, Tribhuvan
University (Pages: 112), G.R. Tripathi, WWF/PPI Project (Pages: 43, 81, 104, 118), and
Y. A. Thomas, WWF/PPI Project (Pages: 67, 126).
Price: Rs. 700 (US$ 20)
Layout: Format Graphic Studio
Printed at: Format Printing Press
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"Every plant has a medicinal value once its taste and potency are known."
Gyushi.
Medicine Buddha
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Amchi Resource Persons from Dolpo
Karma Lhundup (Komang)
Karma (Dho)
Lama Namgyal (Dho)
Pema Lama (Dho)
Sherab Nyima (Pungmo)
Sherab Tenzin (Bijer)
Tengyal Zangpo (Punikha)
Yungdrung Thargye (Bijer)
WWF Nepal Program/People and Plants Project Team (1997-2001)
Anil Manandhar (1997-1999)
Dhirendra Bahadur Parajuli (1998)
Giri Raj Tripathi (2000)
Gyatso Bista (1997-2001)
Krishna Kumar Shrestha (1997)
Mingma Sherpa (1997)
Suresh Kumar Ghimire (1997-2001)
Susanne Schmitt (1999-2001)
Tshampa Ngawang Gurung (1997-2000)
Yildiz Aumeeruddy Thomas (1997-2001)
Yeshi Choden Lama (1997-2001)
Field Trainees (1997-2001)
Bhim Gurung, Park Game Scout (2000)
Choephel Lama, Park Game Scout (2000)
Damber B. Kathayat, Park Game Scout (1997-1998)
Karsang Gurung, Khaliban (2000)
Laxmi Bahadur Thapa, Park Game Scout (1999)
Palden Lama, Park Game Scout (1997)
Ram Babu Khanal, Park Game Scout (1999)
Rup Lal Thapa, Kaigaon (2000)
Tengyal Zangpo, Punikha (1998-2000)
Sherab Tenzin, Bijer (1997)
Sherab Nyima, Pungmo (1997)
Tshering Norbu Lama, Park Game Scout (1998)
Tsupur Gyaltsen Baiji, Punikha (1998-2000)
L
1C.S. Olsen & F. Helles. Medicinal plants, markets, and margins in the Nepal Himalaya: Trouble in paradise, Mountain
Research and Development, Vol. 17, No.4, Nov.1997, pp.375-376.
2C.S. Silori & R. Badola. Medicinal plant cultivation and sustainable development, Mountain Research and Development,
Vol. 20, no.3, August 2000, pp.272-279.
Foreword
The ecological diversity of the Himalaya makes the area the habitat of a wide range of medicinal
and aromatic plants (MAPs). This is well evidenced by this study of an innovative program in
Dolpa. Of the 7, 939 km2 area of Dolpo, 7, 0047 km2 or 88.8 percent lies above 3,500 metres
in elevation. The district, therefore, is a storehouse of sub-alpine and alpine plants including
medicinal ones. Surveys under the People and Plants Initiative there confirm the occurrence of
407 medicinal plant species of 222 genera and 80 families. According to the records of the
District Forest Office, the total volume of 13 varieties of MAPs traded from Dolpo in 1997/98
was 37,834 kg. This seems highly underestimated. Gorkha district has 1,548 km2 area above
3,500 metres, about a quarter of Dolpo’s. For the period of September 1994-August 1995, MAPs
traded from Gorkha was 222,000 kg with a value of Rs. 8.3 million.1
The theme of this study is not the economics of medicinal plants but their conservation, through
nurturing of indigenous knowledge. Folk medicines obtained from natural resources are most
used in remote areas that have no modern health facilities. Dolpo is one of the remotest areas
in Nepal, and people have to rely on indigenous medicine. It is also partly remoteness that has
kept alive the tradition of the amchis. It is commendable that this study has attempted to unravel
the wisdom of some such local medical practitioners. Their knowledge and classification of eco-
system, plants, and medicine are well described. The development approach is two-pronged:
use of amchi knowledge for conservation and public health. Conservation here encompasses
botanical resource as well as cultural heritage (Tibetan medical system).
People and Plants Initiative (PPI) in its first phase in Dolpo has carried out ecological surveys
to ascertain harvesting levels of plants in the wild. There has been only a modest venture in
cultivation of medicinal plants. The second phase of the PPI needs to emphasize this aspect.
Experience in Nanda Devi National Park has established that economic returns from medicinal
herbs are much higher than from other cash crops.2 Another area of intervention could be
the marketing aspect whereby the local collectors and cultivators receive a fair price so that
medicinal plants not only cure illnesses but also improve livelihoods.
This publication is the outcome of collaboration between scientists and local experts. It is an
exercise in local participation in knowledge sharing for development in a district burdened by
much economic deprivation, but endowed with rich natural and cultural resources.
Harka Gurung, PhD
December 2001
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Preface
Walking up-valley from the Phoksundo Lake and across Churang-La Pass to Shey Monastery in
August 2000 for a festival that attracts pilgrims from all over the region to the sacred mountain
of Shey once every twelve years, I was breath-taken by the diversity and beauty of our country’s
nature and culture. There, in the wind-wept valleys and passes of Dolpo, hundreds of flowers
boldly display their majestic colors braving the extremes of nature. There, snow leopard and blue
sheep are intricately linked in the cycle of life and death, and eagles circle the sky in search of
prey. There, human culture has withstood the vagaries of time and the environment through
distinct niches and skillful practices tried and perfected over time. There at Shey Monastery, the
multitude of pilgrims participating in the ceremonies and circumambulating the sacred mountain
in the torrential downpour illustrated the deep-rooted ties between cultures and their landscapes,
formed and reinforced through a belief system that attaches great importance to the relationships
and interrelationships of life. Few places and even fewer cultures on earth can surpass the beauty
and the resilience of this land of Dolpo and its people.
I am pleased that this book attempts to document some of the medicinal plants important to
local lives and livelihoods and highlight the role of the traditional doctors or amchis and their
unsung yet indispensable contributions to local health. This book is also useful as it discusses the
specificity and the complexity of the conservation and management issues related to medicinal
plants and the need for appropriate guidelines for management and sustainable use. I am positive
that this ethnobotanical work by the WWF Nepal Program/People and Plants, in cooperation
with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, will contribute towards
promoting effective management and sustainable use of medicinal plants for improving local
health and livelihoods.
Having had the opportunity to visit the land and interact with its people in a brief tour last year,
I came away feeling that we are working where it matters, and in ways that matter. This gives my
team at WWF Nepal Program and myself much encouragement and much hope for contributing
towards ensuring a living and vibrant natural and cultural heritage in Nepal, even in its remotest
areas.
Chandra P. Gurung, PhD
Country Representative
WWF Nepal Program
Kathmandu
December 2001
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EN
Acknowledgements
We are extremely grateful to the women, men, lamas and amchis of Dolpo who have shared freely of their
traditional knowledge related to medicinal plants. We are especially thankful to Amchi Sherab Tenzin,
Amchi Sherab Nyima, Amchi Tengyal Zangpo, Amchi Norbu Dhondup, Amchi Lhabu Dharpo, Amchi
Samdup Nyima, Amchi Karma Lhundup, Tulku Dorje Tsewang, Amchi Yonten, Amchi Pema, Amchi
Karma, Lama Namgyal, Geshe Yungdrung Wangyal, Geshe Yungdrung Thargye, Geshe Samdup Nyima,
Geshe Nyima Woser and Geshe Yungrung Thargye. Yangzom, Bhuti, Tsultrim, Ngodup, Wosel Lhamo,
Mapcha, Yeshi Zangmo, Samdup Lama and our many friends in Dolpo have also helped us to gain much
insight into the living traditions of Dolpo and have always provided warm hospitality.
We would like to acknowledge the wisdom of Amchi Tshampa Ngawang and Amchi Gyatso Bista of
Mustang and Dr K.K. Shrestha of the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University without
whose time and dedication to the project, we would not have achieved as much as we did in our work in
Dolpo. In addition, we are also thankful to other team members including Dr Susanne Schmitt, WWF-
UK; Dhirendra Bahadur Parajuli, Patan Multiple Campus and Giri Raj Tripathi, Forestry Campus, Hetauda
who have made important contributions to this project. We would also like to thank our team in the field
including Amchi Tengyal Zangpo, Mukhiya Tsupur Gyaltsen Baiji, Dabla Baiji and Ang Bahadur Lama of
Pungmo; Rup Lal Thapa of Kaigaon and the game scouts of SPNP, including Dambar Bahadur Kathayat,
Palden Lama, Laxmi Bahadur Thapa, Choephel Lama and Ram Babu Khanal who braved harsh weather
and terrain to carry out the ecological monitoring of medicinal plants.
We would like to extend our gratitude to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation for
their kind permission in allowing us to carry out ethnobotanical research. Tikaram Adhikari, Tulsi Ram
Sharma, Nilambar Mishra and Ubaraj Regmi, wardens of Shey Phoksundo National Park, have been very
kind and cooperative during our field visits since 1997. We are also thankful to the park rangers and game-
scouts at Suligad, Ankhe, Polam, Ringmo and Toizom for their support and the staff at the District Forest
Office in Dunai for the data on the trade of medicinal plants.
We are also extremely grateful to the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University for providing
necessary facilities, including the herbarium for the identification of plants.
Anil Manandhar, Director of Programs (Species) at WWF Nepal Program in Kathmandu, and Dhana Rai,
Suman Maskey, C.P. Bhandari, Surendra Choudhary and Tilak Dhakal of the Northern Mountains
Conservation Project (NMCP) in SPNP have always been very supportive. Dr. Chandra P. Gurung,
Country Representative, has also been a great source of encouragement. Likewise, we would like to thank
Dr Alan Hamilton at WWF-UK for his vision and overall guidance. We would also like to thank Dr
Danna Leaman, Dr Samar B. Malla and Dr A.B. Cunningham for their evaluation of our work in Dolpo
and for their recommendations and encouragement. Cedric Basset, Prof. R.P. Chaudhary and Nagendra
Budathoki have been very generous in allowing us to use their photographs; C.B Baniya of Tribhuvan
University for sharing his knowledge of lichens, and Dr N.N. Tiwari for providing helpful suggestions.
We would like to thank Dr Harka Gurung for writing the foreword and commenting on the draft. We
would also like to thank Anil Shrestha and his team at Format Graphic Studio for being so helpful and
patient while we constantly made corrections to produce this final version.
Lastly, this work would not have been possible without the support of WWF-UK and DfID.
Contents
Foreword v
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
Contents xi
Introduction xiii
Part I: Traditional Knowledge of Amchis 1
Chapter 1: Medical Knowledge and Practices 3
Historical origins and development 3
Transmission of knowledge 5
Causes of disease 6
Diagnostic and therapeutic measures 6
Classification of medicines 7
Chapter 2: Ethno-ecological Knowledge and Practices 9
Plant name and folk classification 10
System of naming plant parts 11
Perception of resource harvesting 11
Part II: Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Trade, and Health Care 17
Background 19
Ethnobotanical surveys 20
Local botanical knowledge 21
Trade in medicinal plants 22
Simulation of harvesting levels 23
Sociological and institutional surveys 23
Linking health care to conservation 24
Setting up of Medicinal Plants Management Committees (MPMCs) 25
Rapid vulnerability assessment 25
Guidelines for sustainable use 27
Part III: Medicinal Plants of Dolpo: Some Highly Potential Species 29
NOTES 133
REFERENCES 137
LIST OF AMCHIS OF DOLPO 141
SELECTED BIOGRAPHIES 142
INDEX OF PLANT NAMES 144
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This book is an attempt to document aspects of amchis’ knowledge which relate to medical
science as well as resource management. It is also an attempt to show the linkages between
traditional health care and conservation, and the issues and complexities of the trade of medicinal
plants in the Nepal Himalaya.
Located in north-west Nepal, at the border of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, Dolpo1
is one of the remotest areas of Nepal (See Map). It is currently considered as one of the last and
most intact sanctuaries of medicinal plants in Western Nepal. Covered in part by the Shey
Phoksumdo National Park (SPNP), the largest national park of the country with an area of 3555
km2, Dolpo represents a variety of vegetation types, ranging from lower temperate to montane,
sub-alpine, alpine and trans-Himalayan. The area hosts a diversity of plants, including many
rare and vulnerable medicinal plants, as well as endangered animals such as the snow leopard.
Some 3000 inhabitants who follow the culture and religions of Tibet including Bon2 and
Buddhism live in SPNP. Indeed, Dolpo and Upper Kali Gandaki including Lo are known to
have been colonized in the seventh and eighth century by people from the ancient kingdom of
Zhang-zhung, a region located in Western Tibet (Snellgrove 1992, Kind 1999). This region fell
under the Gorkha regime in 1796 and was included in the Kingdom of Nepal in the 18th
century (Kind 1999). Some 10 000 inhabitants live in the periphery (buffer zone)3 of the park.
The majority of the people outside the southern boundary of the park are Hindu, some having
been in this area prior to the Gorkha period and others who migrated into the area more recently
from the lower plains of Nepal.
WWF Nepal Program, in collaboration with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation (DNPWC) of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, started the Northern Mountains
Conservation Project (NMCP) at SPNP in 1997, an integrated conservation and development
project funded by USAID. Within the context of this project, the People and Plants Initiative
(PPI), a joint programme of UNESCO and WWF, has worked with WWF Nepal Program to
develop a project focusing on medicinal plants conservation and management with a strong
community-based approach. This sub-project is funded by the European Union (EU) and the
Department for International Development (DFID, UK). Though it was initially planned for
four years (1997 - 2000), the project will continue another four more years to allow an appropriate
period for phasing out. During the second phase (2001-2004), ecological monitoring experiments
started during the first phase will be continued. A model of medicinal plants management
developed until now only in Phoksumdo Village Development Committee (VDC) located inside
the park will be replicated in the southern buffer zone of the park. The Traditional Health Care
Centre located in Phoksumdo will be replicated in Dho VDC in upper Dolpo.
Introduction
NEL
A planning meeting based on a needs-oriented approach held in June 1997 at Ringmo, SPNP -
at which all stakeholders of the resource were present – showed that two major groups living
inside the park, the amchis and women, have a keen interest in the conservation and management
of medicinal plants. The amchis are the main health care providers in remote, mountainous areas
such as Dolpo. They have a practical interest in the conservation of medicinal plants as the bulk
of their materia medica is derived from plants. Women's interest in medicinal plants stems from
their need to learn to use remedies for common childhood ailments as they are mainly responsible
for childcare. Child mortality is very high in this area due to poor hygiene and sanitation and
lack of access to adequate health care services. The formal health sector, with its infrastructure of
health posts and hospitals, has serious difficulties in operating in this area.
Work conducted during the first year of the project and during preliminary phases show that the
amchis’ knowledge and profession are declining (Gurung et al. 1996, Shrestha et al. 1998).
Many amchis have not received full training due to lack of access to proper medical materials,
capacity to follow formal studies or money to purchase medicines and materials from the lowlands.
The ethics of their profession based on Buddhist and Bonpo concepts of universal compassion
do not allow the amchis to charge their patients fees for their services. Yet in the present monetary
context, they need to purchase plants and other products from the lowlands which in the past
they exchanged for other products from the highlands. Dolpo amchis have underlined at many
occasions, including at the planning meeting in June 1997, their interest to meet and exchange
knowledge to promote their profession, and to document existing knowledge for use by the
future generations.
Medicinal plants are crucial to local livelihoods. The major threat to the sustainability of medicinal
plants collection in Dolpo is not the small amount used by the amchis, but the very large and
growing interest in the trade of some 20 species of plants which are collected in large volumes
from the district. Signs of over-harvesting of these species are very distinct at the periphery of the
park and encroachment for commercial collection inside the park is ongoing. This project aims
to develop local capacity to manage resources sustainably by working with the amchis, women
and other user groups. Since 1999, the project has been working with commercial collectors who
mostly live in the southern buffer zone of the park. The knowledge of the amchis of Dolpo
related to the use and management of medicinal plants, combined with the results of the ecological
studies on medicinal plants will contribute towards devising appropriate systems for sustainable
harvesting which may ultimately be transfered to commercial collectors who tend to over-exploit
the resource. Networking between these different user groups and facilitating the exchange of
experiences and information is a major objective of this project.
NL
A major thrust of the strengthening of capacity of amchis and women lies in bringing together
fragments of knowledge held by all the amchis of Dolpo as well as in understanding women’s
role in primary health care. To do so, different mechanisms have been set up including: (1)
organization of a meeting in June 1998 that brought together almost all the amchis of Dolpo to
discuss their knowledge, gaps to be filled and problems encountered by their profession and; (2)
building of a Traditional Health Care Centre in Phoksumdo to promote the exchange of knowledge
between amchis, enhance conservation of medicinal plants through guidelines provided by the
Centre for the collection of medicinal plants by amchis for local use; (3) production of a training
manual for women in primary health care based on advice from the amchis; (4) and, finally,
production of this book which brings together aspects of amchis' knowledge to promote the
exchange of knowledge between the amchis of the Himalayan region, as well as with other resource
stakeholders.
The transfer of this knowledge to the global community does not pose any ethical problem to the
amchis,6 except regarding specific compounds that have not been fully tested and therefore
cannot be used by non-specialists. It is also to be noted that in the context of Buddhism and Bon,
the amchis see this knowledge as an asset to be used for the good of all sentient beings, i.e.,
human welfare. However, this project has taken care not to reveal knowledge that amchis perceive
should be kept secret. The detailed composition of the medicine prepared by the amchis are not
included in this book as it is beyond its scope, but some indications of the extent of diseases
treated by the amchis of Dolpo are noted. The precise geographical location of the plants have
not been revealed as it is important both for the amchis and for the sake of conservation that this
book should not lead to an increased pressure on the plants from harvesting. All profits made
through the sale of this book will be returned to the amchis through the local amchi associations.
The benefits for local communities in a more global sense derives from: (1) building of local
capacity to manage and use medicinal plants in a sustainable way; (2) improving local health care
through the building of a Traditional Health Care Centres in Lower Dolpo (1997-2000) and in
Upper Dolpo (2001-2004).
The book has three parts: Part I describes the medical and ethno-ecological knowledge and
practices of the amchis; Part II discusses the relationship between conservation, health care and
the trade of medicinal plants; and Part III contains descriptions of selected medicinal plants that
are most important in terms of their use by the amchis, their conservation significance and
economic value. The descriptions of the plants in Part III have been translated into Tibetan to
aid the amchis in the correct identification of these plants. Short biographies of selected amchis
have also been included in this book. For the purposes of this book, we have not used the academic
(Wylie) system of transcribing Tibetan terms, but have used the phonetic system so that the
terms are accessible to the general reader.
NLE
][
][
][
][
MUSTANG
Tuchela
Tsharkha
BARBUNG
Laru 5932 m
Khung-La 5411 m
DOLPHU
MUGU
JUMLA
BHERI RIVER
Sarmi Narku
JAJARKOT
Luhun
Laha
THULI BHERI RIVER
Ranga
Juphal
Majhphal
Rolaghat Khola
DUNAI
TICHU- RONG
Sahartara Lawan
Putha hiunchuli
7246 m
Churen Himal 7371 m
BARBUNG
(
B
A
R
R
O
NG)
RIVE
R
Gharyang
M
u
k
u
t
Khola
Mukut Himal
6639 m
MYAGDI
Mukut gaon
Mit gaon
BAN-TSHAN
G
(PANZ
ANG)RIVER
Shimen
Tiling
Nyisal
Lhori
Namgung
Saldang
Namdo
Sibu
Shey Gompa NANG- KHONG
KangchenRalwa
6660m
Kagmara
Namdo
Garpung
khola
6711 m Gunasa
Chhala
Pahada
Pungmo
Khola
Pumer
Punikha
Koiru
Pungmo
Sumduwa
Rikhe
Ringmo
PHOKSUNDO
(PHUG-SUMDO)
Baga-La
Rainchi
SULIGAD
Raha
Ankhe
Raktang
Rassi
Ruma
Madhu
Ralli
Gunthan
grong
Chungad
Likhu
Chun
Rimi Hurikot
Kaigaon
lla
JagdullaKhola
Kanjiroba
6882m
NAMLANG
RIVER
BAN-TSHANG Tinje
TARA P
Dho
Pho KU
Bijer
RUKUM
Tarapkhola
(Dulerong)
Marim 5488 m
Pindu 5600 m
Yanang 5474 m
Chala 5456m
Menga-La 5335m
][
][
][
][
][
][
Int. Boundry
National Park Boundry
District Boundry
River and Lake
Settlement
Peaks, Pass
Legend
][
0
510 KM
MUGU
JUMLA
KALI
KOT
HUMLA
KARNALI
ZONE
DOLPA
PP
PP
Parar
arar
art It I
t It I
t I
TT
TT
Traditional Knoraditional Kno
raditional Knoraditional Kno
raditional Knowledgewledge
wledgewledge
wledge
of Amchisof Amchis
of Amchisof Amchis
of Amchis
22
3
11
11
1
Historical origins and development
The amchis of Dolpo seldom fail to mention that the
most important characteristic of their healing tradition
Sowarigpa5 is that unlike allopathic medicine, theirs
is closely linked with the religious belief systems of
the area (i.e. Bon and Buddhism). Spiritual
development and physical healing are seen as closely
linked as exemplified by the Mendrub ceremony held
across Dolpo, which elucidates how a special medicine
(jinlab) is collectively produced in the context of a
community ritual for alleviating physical as well as
mental ailments.6 Much of the medical knowledge of
the amchis is based upon the study of a fundamental
medical treatise, the Gyushi or Four Tantras, the
origins of which have been debated by scholars of Bon
and Buddhism (Karmay 1998).
The amchis adhering to the Bonpo faith in Dolpo
trace the origins of this tradition of healing to Tonpa
Shenrab who is said to have taught Bumshi to his son
Chebu Trishe in the sacred land of Olmolungring in
Tazik (Persia) prior to the time of the historical
Buddha Tonpa Shakyamuni. Bonpo amchis maintain
that the Gyushi is essentially the Bumshi concealed7
during the decline of Bon in Tibet and rediscovered
and transmitted in the eighth century to Yuthok
Yonten Gonpo to whom the compilation of the
Gyushi is attributed. Geshe Yungdung Thargye of
Samling Monastery in Bijer states:
Chapter
MM
MM
Medical Knoedical Kno
edical Knoedical Kno
edical Knowledge and Pwledge and P
wledge and Pwledge and P
wledge and Practicesractices
racticesractices
ractices
On the other hand, the amchis of the Buddhist faith
trace this tradition of healing to the historical Buddha
Tonpa Shakyamuni who is said to have assumed8the
form of Dangsong Rigpe Yeshe and taught the Gyushi
to Dangsong Yilakye and many other disciples.
Renowned amchis in Dolpo attribute the authorship
of the Gyushi to Yuthok Yonten Gonpo the Elder who
is said to have incorporated the medical traditions of
neighbouring regions into the indigenous tradition of
Tibet and compiled the Gyushi in the eighth century.
In the eleventh century, his descendant Yuthok Yonten
Gonpo the Younger is said to have revised the text to
its present form. Kungawa of Dolpo, a contemporary
of Yuthok Yonten Gonpo the Elder and a court
"Tonpa Shenrab Mibo taught the Bumshi at
Yungdung Gutsek Hill in the sacred realm of
Olmolungring to his son and medical lineage
holder Chebu Trishe. The Bumshi was
translated into the languages of Tazik,
Zhang-zhung, Dusha, Khache, Trom,
Orgyen, Thogar, Gyakar, Gyanak and Bhoe
1800 years after the demise of Tonpa
Shenrab. It was translated from Zhang-
Zhung into Tibetan during the time of
Nyatri Tsenpo in the fourth century. During
the disintegration of Bon in Tibet, seven
Bonpos concealed the Bumshi in Chema
Yungdung in the region of Tsang. Tsangpa
Shenpo Butsho Sipe Gyalpo recovered the
texts and transmitted the teachings to the
learned Mau Palchen. In the eleventh
century, three Buddhists recovered the
Menbum Karpo and three other medical texts
from Samye Monastery. These were
transmitted to Yuthok Yonten Gonpo and
widely propagated until this day."
4
physician of King Trisong Detsen is said to have
propagated the medical tradition in Dolpo. According
to Amchi Karma Lhundup of Komang Monastery:
Amchi Garchoe, whose great-grandson Amchi Karma
Gejor10 continues to uphold and practice this
tradition. This text contains formulas for preparation
of remedies based upon local experimentation with
the tastes and potencies of the medicinal plants and
other ingredients.
There are thus various accounts on the origins of the
medical tradition of the amchis of Dolpo: from being
solely Tibetan or Indian in origin to being an
amalgamation of the medical traditions of ancient
Tibet, India, Kashmir, Nepal, Dolpo, China,
Zhangzhung, Persia, and Mongolia. The historical
origins of the tradition are perhaps of less importance
to the amchis of Dolpo than its theories and practices
and its relevance to modern health care. Despite the
scholastic debate on the origins of the Gyushi, the
medical theories and practices that it propounds are
widely accepted and practiced throughout the
Himalaya, albeit with varying degrees of modification
and innovation.
Much work remains for the amchis of Dolpo in
exploring new medicinal substances or reviving local
practices to meet specific local health care needs as
well as to promote this tradition in the context of
nature and culture conservation. As the trans-
Himalaya is rich in minerals, eminent
amchis11 propound the investigation of minerals as
substitute for animal parts that are used in the
preparation of medicine and highlight the role of
Dolpo amchis in this endeavour.
The amchis rightly claim that local health care needs
in Dolpo are largely met through the traditional
medical system, whereas modern allopathic medicine
with its formal infrastructure has brought few
benefits. While the amchis are disheartened by the
lack of formal recognition and support for their
profession, many acknowledge the merits of allopathic
medicine and the relevance of practices such as
immunization in strategies to improve health care.
Although in the past the amchis have received little
"The Tonpa Sakyamuni taught the Medical
Tantras in the sacred land of Jagoe-phungpori.
During the reign of King Songtsen Gampo of
Tibet, the medical traditions of several kingdoms
were incorporated into the indigenous medical
tradition. During the time of King Trisong
Detsen in the eighth century, the physician
Yuthok Yonten Gonpo the Elder travelled three
times to India and translated the Gyushi and
many other texts into Tibetan. This tradition was
later transmitted by Kungawa in Dolpo where it
has flourished to this day. "
The religious and medical traditions prevalent in Tibet
and the neighbouring regions of Dolpo and Mustang
prior to the spread of Buddhism in the sixth to the
eighth century are said to have originated in
Zhangzhung, a region in western Tibet (Tsedon
1996). According to historical sources and modern
experts,9 the medical practices of Dolpo such as
bloodletting and moxibustion were important
developments in the Sowarigpa tradition. In the
eighth century, the learned physician Kholmarutse of
Dolpo, also known as Kungawa, was invited to the
court of King Trisong Detsen and asked to translate
into Tibetan a text on surgery called Mijikpa Gyekyi
Tsoncha (Rechung 2000). He was also known for his
expertise in bloodletting and moxibustion. Upon his
return to Dolpo, he widely propagated the medical
tradition.
During the time of Kunkhyen Sangye Rinpoche of
Dolpo more recently, painting, astrology,
woodcarving, blacksmithy progressed a great deal, and
in particular, the medical tradition. A number of
medical texts, commentaries and pharmacopoeia have
been written by the Dolpo amchis over the centuries.
The most famous is the Jorpe Detsen Shipa written by
Drungtsho Pema Choephel of Tiling, also known as
5
or no support for their profession, there has been
more recently a better understanding of the value of
this healing tradition, and, consequently, increased
support for the amchis. The Remote Area
Development Committee of the Ministry of Local
Development has been providing training on
sustainable harvesting practices and supporting the
formation of amchi associations in remote districts.
Through the WWF/People and Plants project, the
first ever district level workshop of more than 50
amchis was organized in Dho in 1998, and a
traditional health care centre established in Lower
Dolpo. A second traditional health care centre is being
supported in Upper Dolpo with plans to train amchis
and provide medical reference texts and medicinal
ingredients from the lowlands. These traditional
health care centres will play a key role in strengthening
the link between local health care development and
medicinal plants conservation, and thereby in raising
the profile of the amchis both nationally and
internationally. The amchi organizations of Dolpo,
such as the Gangchen Menkhang Service Centre and
Naychen Buddha Ribo Dolpo Lama Amchi
Association, have developed contacts with the
Kathmandu-based Himalayan Amchi Association to
further the objectives of promoting amchis’ knowledge
and practices for improving the health care status of
these remote regions. At the first national workshop
of amchis organized by the Himalayan Amchi
Association in January 2001, 47 amchis of Dolpo
were present, of which 11 took part in a month-long
refresher course in medical theory and practice. The
Himalayan Amchi Association and the district level
associations are now working towards attaining
national and international recognition and support for
their medical tradition, and hence towards promoting
appropriate health care in the remote regions of the
Himalaya.
Transmission of knowledge
Medical texts are often studied alongside religious
texts, and both systems of learning are intricately
linked. While the amchis provide freedom from the
suffering of illness, the spiritual guidance provided by
the lama is said to lead the way to ‘ultimate freedom’
or ‘enlightenment.’ In addition to the Gyushi, a variety
of texts and commentaries on the identification of
medicinal materials, disease and therapies such as
Trungpe Drimey Shelgi Melong, Menjor Lekdik,
Baidurya Ngonpo, Men Ngak Lhenthab, Jamgon
Zinthik and Khyungtul Menjong Tongtsa are studied
by the amchis. In remote Himalayan villages where
there are no medical schools,12 knowledge is
transmitted from father to son or from teacher to
disciple. If an amchi is also a lama, as is often the
case in Dolpo, medical knowledge may also be taught
in the monastery as part of the religious training. In
the absence of an appropriate teacher, it is also not
unusual for students to travel to distant villages to
study with knowledgeable amchis.
Amchis usually begin their studies when they are in
their early teens. They learn to identify the medicinal
plants of the highlands in the summer and of the
lowlands in the winter. They begin to treat patients
after four to five years of study and practice.
In addition to the knowledge attained from the study
of texts, amchis' knowledge is also derived from an
indepth understanding of the local environment,
medicinal resources locally available, diseases
prevalent, and therapeutic measures that are most
appropriate. The area of locally specific knowledge has
yet to be explored in detail, although the use of
substitutes by the amchis demonstrates a process of
innovative experimentation with the tastes and
properties of medicinal plants and other ingredients.
In the modern world, people choose the medical
profession for a variety of reasons, ranging from the
motivation to serve others to that of gaining fame and
prestige. The most important motivating factor for an
amchi should be the desire to benefit other beings and
to relieve them from the suffering of disease. The
amchis-in-training are constantly reminded of the six
qualities (gyu duk) of intelligence, kindness,
6
trustworthiness, practical experience, diligence and
social awareness that they are expected to possess.
Despite these prerequisites for becoming an amchi,
given the local reality and the urgency for health care
services in remote areas such as Dolpo, both
experienced as well as amchis with less experience treat
patients, with varying degrees of efficacy. This, of
course, has various implications for the amchi
tradition that the amchis are well aware of and are
seeking to address in their strategy to promote their
profession.
Causes of disease
The amchis identify a close link between the elements
of nature and the human body such that earth (sa),
water (chhu), fire (me) and wind (lung) form our flesh,
blood, body heat and breath. The element of space
(namkha) enables the development of all of the above.
Passion, anger and ignorance are believed to be the
primordial causes for disrupting the balance of the
three psycho-physiological conditions or ‘humours’
(nyepa sum) translated as ‘wind’ (lung), ‘bile’ (tripa)
and ‘phlegm’ (beken) resulting in disease. Each of these
humours is classified into five types. Wind is classified
as life-sustaining (sogzin), ascending (gengyu),
pervading (khyabje), equalizing (menyam) and
downwards-voiding (thursel). Bile is classified as
digestive (zhuje), colour-transforming (dogsel),
accomplishing (dubje), sight-giving (thongje),
complexion-transforming (danggyur). Phlegm is
classified as supporting (tenje), decomposing (nyakje),
experiencing (nyongje), satisfying (tsimje) and
connecting (jorje) (Burang 1983; Men-Tsee-Khang,
1995; Donden 1986; Clark 1995; Donden and
Wallace 2000). Thus wind, bile and phlegm have
more subtle aspects than their common and literal
meanings.
Diseases may be caused by a single humoural
imbalance (kyangpe ne), dual humoural imbalances
(denpe ne) or multiple humoural imbalances (dupe ne).
In all, amchis recognize a total of 404 diseases directly
caused by past and present actions related to diet,
behaviour, seasonal change, and evil spirits leading to
an imbalance of the three humours. An individual’s
body is naturally dominant in one or two of the
humours, which also affects one’s susceptibility to
specific diseases during specific seasons. Diseases are
categorized as ‘hot’ and ‘cold.’ Bile disorders are
categorized as ‘hot’ and wind and phlegm disorders
as ‘cold.’ The amchis also recognize ten bodily
constituents (flesh, blood, nutriment, fat, bone, bone
marrow, regenerative substances, urine, excrement and
sweat), which may affect the balance of the humours
and cause disease.
Diagnostic and therapeutic measures
The most important diagnosis is to identify whether
the nature of a disease is ‘hot’ (tsa) or ‘cold’ (dang)
because an amchi may do more harm than good if
he cannot differentiate between the two. When
examining patients, the amchis of Dolpo employ the
techniques of seeing, touching and questioning to
diagnose an illness. Seeing involves examining the
tongue, eyes, complexion, and urine. Touching
involves feeling the pulse and areas where pain is felt
by the patient. Questioning involves asking the
patient the causes and nature of the illness. By
skillfully utilizing these three techniques, an amchi is
usually able to diagnose an illness without
sophisticated equipment. But as amchis have
repeatedly pointed out, in the absence of a skillful
integration of the three techniques, an illness can also
be misdiagnosed if one merely “fingers the pulse and
stirs the urine.”
Various forms of treatment such as medicine,
medicinal baths, bloodletting, moxibustion, massage
and surgery may be used depending upon the nature
and severity of the illness. Medicine is administered
in the form of a concoction, powder, pills, medicinal
butter, and concentrates. Although the amchi clinics
in Kathmandu and other urban areas administer
medicine mostly in the form of pills, the amchis of
7
Dolpo prefer the powder form as the local people
consider it to be more effective than pills.
Bloodletting is a specialized form of treatment that
requires great knowledge, experience and skill on the
part of the amchi. It is a healing technique through
which impure blood is drawn from specific points of
the body. But on the other hand, if improperly
handled, life-sustaining blood may be drawn, thereby
causing more harm than good. If skillfully handled,
bloodletting is useful in the treatment of various
diseases. It is especially effective for danglung gyenlok
(indigestion and stomach ache), tripe gonapa
(headache from bile), dewadampa (constriction of the
throat), trak khyilpa (internal bleeding from injury),
bam/dumbu (rheumatism). Medicinal baths are
usually prescribed for skin diseases and fluid retention.
Moxibustion is used for treating chuser (infectious
fluid retention), lung (wind disease), kheldam (kidney
disease), dangmik chusang (fluid retention) and ruchak
(fracture) without having to treat with medicines first.
However, it should not be applied to a patient who
has fever or is suffering from a 'hot' disease. When a
person has fever or a 'hot' disease, tsenden gyukme
using white sandalwood can be applied. For patients
suffering from wind disease, there are five
moxibustion points: one at the crown, one at the back
of the head, two at the temples and one above the
forehead. Moxibustion is said to seal the gap through
which illness-causing wind is said to enter the body.
In the case of kheldam, it cures the pain caused by
over exertion of the body. In the case of fracture,
moxibustion is applied to heal the bone. Similarly, for
water retention, moxibustion is applied to various
points on the spine after administering medicines.
According to the amchis, both bloodletting and
moxibustion are most effective when used in
conjunction with medicine.
Classification of medicines
Amchis classify medicinal plants according to explicit
qualities related to their morphological features, which
is discussed in the following chapter. In addition,
medicines and medicinal plants are also classified
according to implicit qualities such as taste and
potency. All medicinal plants and materials for
making medicine are said to have six tastes: sweet
(ngar), sour (kyur), salty (lentsa), acrid (tsa), bitter
(kha) and astringent (ka). In addition to the six tastes,
medicines have eight potencies: heavy (chi), oily
(num), cool (sil), neutral (nyom), light (yang), coarse
(tsub), warm (dro) and sharp (no). Part III has detailed
descriptions of a hundred medicinal plants of Dolpo.
Examples of medicinal plants that have a sweet taste
are nyeshing (Asparagus racemosus Wild.), ranye
(Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle), chugang
(bamboo concretion), gundum (Vitis vinifera L.),
shingngar (Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees
& Eberm.), busuhang, (Trigonella emodi Benth.),
wolmose (Podophyllum hexandrum Royle), pangram
(Bistorta affinis cd Don Greene), ditha sazin (Fragaria
nubicola zinal ex lacaita) upal serpo (Meconopsis
paniculata prain), lhashuk (Juniperus indica Bertol.),
doma (Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.). Medicinal plants
with a sour taste are sendu (Punica granatum L.), tarbu
(Hippophae salicifolia D. Don), chumtsa (Rheum
moorcroftianum Royle), chutsa (Rheum australe D.
Don), chumatsi (Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill), kyerwa
(Berberis aristata DC.), datrik (Rhus javanica L.), kyuru
(Phyllanthus emblica L.), etc. Medicinal materials with
a salty taste include various types of salts such as batsa
(soda salt), dzetsa (white rock salt), zetsa (saltpetre),
naktsur (black alunite), gyamtsa (lake salt), and
kharutsa (black salt). Medicinal plants with an acrid
taste include chetsa (Ranunculus brotherusii Freyn),
imong karpo (Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC.),
yershing (Artemisia sp.), daryaken (Lepidium apetalum
Willd), phowarilbu (Piper nigrum L.), gakya (wild
ginger), pipiling (Piper longum L.), shingkun (Ferula
asafoetida L.), subka (Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham.
ex DC.), gokpa (Allium spp.), etc. Medicinal plants
with a bitter taste are tikta (Swertia chirayita (Roxb.
ex Fleming) Karsten), tongzil (Corydalis megacalyx
Ludlow), honglen (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora
(Pennell) Hong), dakpoe (Nardostachys grandiflora
8
DC.), dhum bashaka (Corydalis impatiens (Pall.) Fisch),
taksha (Astragalus sp.), khenkya (Artemisia sp.), etc.
Medicinal plants with an astringent taste are: upal
ngonpo (Meconopsis grandis prain), ligadur (Geranium
pratense L.), wonbu (Myricaria rosea W.W. Sm.),
japhotsitsi (Salvia spp), aru (Terminalia chebula Retz.),
baru (Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.), tsenden
(Santalum album L.), etc.
The sweet taste nourishes the body, cures lung
infection, heals wound, stimulates the appetite, cold,
bleeding and impure blood. The sour taste stimulates
appetite, aids digestion, heals the stomach, and cures
fever of the phlegm and blood. The salty taste cures
phlegm diseases, indigestion, and blood tumors. The
acrid taste treats phlegm and other stomach related
ailments. The bitter taste cures bile, fever, cold, and
infections are treated with bitter medicinal plants and
ingredients. Astringent taste treats blood disorders.
Generally, medicinal plants and ingredients with
sweet, sour, salty, and acrid tastes cure wind disorders.
Bitter, sweet, and astringent tastes cure bile disorders
whereas acrid, sour and salty tastes cure phlegm
disorders. The amchis need to be especially attentive
when providing treatment. For example, when
treating wind disorders, bile disorders can arise, and
when treating bile disorders, wind and phlegm
disorders can arise.
In preparing and prescribing medicine, an amchi has
to understand the taste, potencies, and the post
digestive taste (shuje) of the medicine. Unlike the
amchis trained at formal medical schools, the amchis
of Dolpo prepare most of their medicine themselves.
In the amchi schools in India for example, a separate
specialized unit prepares the medicine. The amchis of
Dolpo prepare a number of medicines using rinpoche
rik (precious metals), domen (stone medicines), samen
(earth medicines), shingmen (tree medicines), tsimen
(resins), ngo men (plants) and sokchag (animal parts).
The medicines locally prepared are administered as
decoctions (thang), powder (chhema), pills (rilbu),
paste (degu) and concentrate (khenda). Depending
upon the nature and severity of the disease, amchis
may use a variety of therapeutic techniques starting
from a gentle therapy and then moving on to a
stronger one. Amchi Sherab Tenzin of Bijer usually
administers a thang to identify the illness, and then
provides the necessary remedy. He also resorts to
bloodletting and moxibustion to prevent the illness
from recurring.
Some amchis rely more upon certain techniques for
curing illnesses through their successful practical
experiences. For example, Amchi Karma of Takkyu
has cured several patients of painful joints in the
Tichurong area in Lower Dolpo with Dudtsi Ngalom,
a medicinal bath constituted mostly of plants. Dudtsi
Ngalom (medicinal bath), tarka metsa (bloodletting
and moxibustion), lapchang (medicinal wine), ngabru
(horn for drawing blood), tsukshel (ointment for
drawing lymph fluid) kunye (massage), men ngak
(mantras) are also some specialized techniques used
by the amchis of Dolpo.
The knowledge of the amchis of Dolpo is therefore
multi-faceted, as it includes a thorough understanding
not only of medical theory and practices, but also of
the ecology and the biology of the medicinal plants
and other materials used in the preparation of
medicine. This knowledge has great value for the
conservation and sustainable use of wild resources,
especially medicinal plants.
A matter of concern, however, is that many of these
knowledgeable amchis are aging. Amchis such as
Karma Lhundup of Komang, Khending Rinpoche
and Thondup of Namgong, Dakri Ngodup, Pema,
Sheri Rinpoche and Kunga of Barong, Ngodup of
Tsharkha, Gelong Yungdung of Bijer, and Tsewang
Ngodup of Karang are well above fifty years of age.
The knowledge that they hold represents the essence
of the medical texts and their vast experience. A major
challenge for the amchis of Dolpo and the Nepal
Himalaya is to ensure that this knowledge continues
to flourish and to serve the local communities.
9
Local botanical knowledge is interrelated with
perceptions of many aspects of natural environment
such as soil, climate, vegetation type, stages of
ecological succession, and land use (Martin 1993,
1995). An integrated local knowledge system is
classified according to specific codes understood by
all members of the society. Ethnobotanical or
vernacular classification is one form of encoding
knowledge (Aumeeruddy 1998). The local people and
the amchis have a rich knowledge of environmental
components, resources and their conservation and
management. The scale of their knowledge is reflected
by more than 400 species of medicinal and aromatic
plants recorded and used in Dolpo. This knowledge
has its base in a strong cultural heritage and a sense
of respect for natural environment formed and
reinforced by local religious beliefs.
The amchis have broadly identified six major types
of landuse units or ecosystems, viz, nakri (forest land),
pangri or penhri (grassland/pastureland/meadows),
drakri (rocky mountains or cliffs), gangri (snowy
mountain); sing/sim (marshy place or wetlands) and
lung (agricultural land). Forests are further classified
as shingnak (forest in a flat land), shingdhong (forest
with large trees), bednak, dhama or tsalip
(shrubberies), naksep or naktren (scrubland or forest
with small trees or bushes). Other minor habitat
categories are kepa (soil with gravel); tsangdam (moist
habitat), dza (snow melting zone), ya (alpine
grasslands), thakh-rot (rock with little soil in moist
forest); ya tsangdam (moist places in high himal), etc.
The mountains, pastures, forests, and scrublands bear
specific local names and cultural significance. Within
the territory of one community or village, amchis have
delimited and named over 61 forests, 2 major winter
pastures, 11 different sub-pastures, and over 110
grazing sub-units. These vegetation components are
categorized and named based on component species,
cultural significance, morphological characteristics,
etc. Limits to different perceived components may be
either natural topographic boundaries but may also
be man-made constructions built at specific strategic
points of the landscape, such as gomba (monastery)13
chorten (stupa)14 and other religious landmarks
(laptsai and mani or mendong)15.
Forests and pastures are categorized and named based
on the dominant species of plants, morphological
characteristics of the place, the name of dominant
wildlife, and name of deities or spirits that dwell
therein. For example, Damari in Pungmo refers to the
forest in the cheek of a larger mountainous relief.
Forests named as Lhaptsen, Lombo and
Simutong16 represent the names of spirits that reside
therein. Aikotong in the same village refers to a forest,
which looks like a chin. Penhri-jongba-tong, a sub-unit
of the pasture in Pungphu, refers to the flat area,
which has flat topography and is square in shape.
Penhri-sopa in the same area refers to a meadow, which
is shaped as a human shoulder. Talgera, a sub-pasture
in Kunasa refers to a place having ladder-like terraces.
Kyunga-thang, another sub-pasture in the same place
has a flat meadow (thang) where a bird locally known
as kyunga (with a red spot in the head and legs) is
commonly found. Similarly, Laretong represents a
forest in Pungmo where thousands of musk deer are
found. Forest such as Takpa-dosa, Shukpa-dosa, Buk-
konga, etc are named after the component species:
22
22
2
Chapter
EE
EE
Ethno-ecological Knothno-ecological Kno
thno-ecological Knothno-ecological Kno
thno-ecological Knowledge and Pwledge and P
wledge and Pwledge and P
wledge and Practicesractices
racticesractices
ractices
10
takpa (Betula utilis D. Don), shukpa (Juniperus indica
Bertol.) and buk (Abies spectabilis (D. Don. Mirb.)
respectively. Pastures are also named after the
component plant species. For example, in Bankal sub-
pasture in Kunasa, the plant baghan (Megacarpaea
polyandra Benth.) is found. Similarly, in Dhawo-
penhri, a sub-unit of Bankal, the medicinal plant
pangtsi dhowo (Pterocephalus hookeri (C.B. Clarke)
Diels) is found.
Plant name and folk classification
The amchis use the Tibetan system of naming plants.
Although plants named in the Tibetan medical texts
often correspond to the same genera as the plants
found in the local area, the species after identification
are often found not to be the same. Thus, there are
species which are not covered by any Tibetan medical
text but are locally named and used. The folk
nomenclature of plants is based on different
characteristics (See Box-1; Ghimire et al. 1999, 2001).
Morphological characters are most frequently used in
naming a plant. Plants may be named according to a
particular characteristic of the plant relating to use,
habitat, property, etc. These terms which may regroup
a number of species of the same genus are generally
further differentiated through the assignment of a
second descriptive term, which may refer to its colour,
use value, properties, and habitat.
The amchis classify the whole of the plant world
(kingdom) as tsishing ngodhum (herbaceous and
woody plants). It contains all higher plants and also
includes fungi, lichens, hepatics, mosses and ferns.
Below the kingdom there are two life form ranks
(Table 1). In life form 1, plants are grouped into two
distinct categories based on plant habit as ngodhum
(herbaceous) and shing (woody). In life form 2, shing
(woody plants) are further classified into four specific
habit categories, viz. shing dhong (large trees),
nakthong (small tree or large shrubs), thrilshing
(climbers) and dama or challip (shrubs). Ngodhum
(herbaceous plants) are further classified into ngodhum
(herbs) and tsa (grass).
Below life form ranks, there are two intermediate
ranks based on flower and fruiting characters. In
intermediate 1, all the shingdhong (which contains
various species of trees) are further grouped into two
categories based on whether they flower or not: metok
chen gi shing dhong (with flower) and metog mepe shing
dhong (without any distinct flower). Similarly in
intermediate 1, all the ngodhum (herbs and grass) are
directly classified into seven categories based on the
morphology of fruits, roots and flower. These seven
categories of ngodhum are gangpochen (plants with
bean-like fruits), debuchen (plants with ovoid fruits),
tsug (plants with mustard-like fruits), tsawa chungwa
(plants with small roots), tsawa chewa (plants with
large roots), metok chen (plants with distinct flower)
and metok mepa (plants without flower or with
indistinct flower). All the lower plants (fungi, lichens,
hepatics, mosses and ferns) are grouped in ngodhum
under metok mepa. In intermediate 2, all the trees
which flower (metok chen gi shing dhong) are further
grouped into two on the basis of presence or absence
of thorn. Thus, the thorny trees are grouped into
tserma chen gi shing (tserma - thorn) and non-thorny
trees are grouped into tserma mepe shing. Below the
two intermediates, there is another rank locally
referred to as rik. However, rik is used only in some
cases and is not actually used to design a group of
plants. It is a theoretical concept that amchis use when
Table 1.
Ethnobotanical rank and approximate number
of categories in Amchi botanical classification.
Ethnobotanical rank Type of name Number of
categories
Kingdom Secondary Unitary
Habit or Life form (1) Primary 2
Habit or Life form (2) Primary 6
Intermediates (1) Secondary 9
Intermediates (2) 2
Intermediates (3)- Rik Primary 48
Generic* Primary 297
Specific* Secondary 382
Varietal Secondary 5
*Numbers are based on amchi names. These represent the total
number of names assigned for a taxon. Each taxon may have
more than one local term.
11
asked to comment in relation to the integration of
different groups of plants into a higher level of
hierarchy. It represents a small grouping of several
plant groups bearing a similar generic term (generics)
that are considered to be similar in either habit, plant
morphology, use or property.
Folk generics represent a group of plants which are
similar in one or more than one characteristics in
terms of habit, morphology of flower, use, property,
habitat specificity, etc. Many plants are identified only
by the generic terms i.e. for one plant there are only
generic terms. But, many folk generics are further
differentiated into specific categories, i.e.
corresponding to the level of scientific species termed
here as folk specifics. These folk specifics are further
distinguished by the use of specific terms or
determinants which often correspond to the colour
of the flower, size of the plant, habitat where the plant
grows, etc (See Box-1).
Besides these categories, there are certain plants, which
are scientifically distinct species but bear similar folk
generics and specifics. However, sometimes amchis use
another term that delimits different local specifics.
These terms are also derived based on habitat and
morphology of plant parts, and by comparing the
plant parts with the human body and other objects.
There is some relationship between scientific and folk
botanical classification. However, the relationship is
more evident at a lower rank. At a higher rank, amchis
also define the whole plant world in single term of
kingdom, referred to as tsishing ngodhum. They have
also included lower groups of plant together with
higher groups.
At life form and intermediate levels, the
correspondence between folk rank and scientific taxa
is not sharp. Life form categories such as tsa (grass)
and ngodhum (herb) may correspond with herbaceous
monocots (or scientific family - Gramineae and
Cyperaceae) and herbaceous dicots respectively.
However, in folk classification of amchis, other
monocotyledons, which are not grass-like are grouped
into ngodhum. Some relationship exists at intermediate
level 1, where amchis distinguished two categories of
trees (shingdhong) based on whether the plant flowers
or not. Thus metok chen gi shing dhong (plant which
flowers) corresponds to the botanical angiosperm
group whereas metog mepe shing dhong (plant which
does not produce any distinct flower) corresponds to
the gymnosperm group. However, gymnosperms are
not always trees and also include small bushy plants
like Ephedra, and this is not expressed in the folk
botanical classification.
At a lower rank, rik shows some relationship with a
botanical family. However, a botanical family is a
category comprising one or more genera or tribes of
common phylogenetic origin – therefore plants which
have common ancestors and which have evolved into
different species along an evolutionary process,
whereas rik is a family level which regroups plants
which are not linked by phylogeny.
System of naming plant parts
Amchis very precisely define and name the parts,
biology and life cycle stages of a plant. They use the
term dhongpo for a single plant and pong for a group
of plants arising from the same rootstock (genet). As
many as 15 different parts of a plant are identified:
tsawa (root), barak (root/rhizome), barak ngama or
tsatren (root hair/ adventitious root), khalo (thick
rhizome), loma (leaf), pakpa (scales at the basis of a
main stem/ scaly leaf), dhongpo (main stem, flower
peduncle), langiya (stem branch), utum (floral bud),
metok (flower) and debu (fruit). They also identified
floral parts as damma fikoh (sepal), damma (petal),
simdu (androecium), and debu (gynoecium).
Perception of resource harvesting
The knowledge of the amchis includes the ecology,
distributions, and use of several medicinal plant
species found in their territories. In addition, they also
possess precise knowledge regarding habitat specificity,
12
i) Nomenclature following plant habit:
In many cases, plant names refer to life form
categories like tree (shing) or grass or grasslike
(tsa). For example, theshing (Pinus wallichiana
A.B. Jacks.), sershing (Syringa emodi Wall. ex
Royle), shingatrong (Buddleja crispa Benth.),
zomoshing (Caragana gerardiana Royle), tatsa
(Gerbera nivea (DC.) Sch. Bip.), etc. Similarly,
thorny or spiny plants are named as tser. For
example, chang tser (Morina nepalensis D. Don,
Morina polyphylla Wall. ex DC.), shuk tser or
poma tser (Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don), etc. The name of the fungus yartsa-gunbu
(Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.) is given on the
basis of the nature of the plant and its growth
period. It is a fungus parasiting a caterpillar.
However, the amchis identify the fungal part as
a grass (tsa) and the caterpillar as an insect (bu).
During the winter (gun), the fungal spore which
happens to fall on the caterpillar germinates,
grows steadily and matures during the summer
(yar). Thus the locals named the plant - yartsa-
gunbu - summer (yar) grass (tsa), winter (gun)
insect (bu)- “summer grass, winter insect”.
ii) Nomenclature following plant
morphology: It is based on plant and flower
morphology, colour of the flower or leaves,
appearance of particular parts, etc. Some species
of the genus Pedicularis are locally termed as lug
ru (sheep horn) because the flower has a coiled
beak resembling the horn of a sheep. In the
same genus, there are a group of species in
which the flower has an entire slender beak and
is therefore named lang na (elephant trunk).
Several species of the genus Aster are called lug
mik (sheep’s eye) in which the flower resembles
the eyes of a sheep. These are further
differentiated through the assignment of a second
descriptive term which may generally refer to the
colour of the flower. Species with yellow flowers
are called serpo: e.g. lugru-serpo (Pedicularis
klotzschii Hurus.), langna serpo (P. longiflora
Rudolph); red coloured species are called marpo:
e.g. lugru-marpo (Pedicularis siphonantha D. Don),
etc. Shangdril-nakpo is a primerose (Primula
macrophylla D. Don) which has drooping blue
flower clusters which resemble a bell. Thus, the
local name stands for a plant having blue (dark)
flower (nakpo) in a drooping bell-shaped
(shangdril) inflorescense. Balu is a generic term
assigned to some species of Rhododendron. Balu
karpo (white) refers to Rhododendron anthopogon
D. Don, which bears white flowers, whereas balu
mar po (red) refers to R. lepidotum Wall. ex G.
Don. Some species are given sacred names of
gods and goddess. For example khandui kyalpsa
(Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D. Don), in which the
arrangement of leaves has given a distinctive
appearance of locks of hair or plaits (chulthi or
kyalpsa) of a woman, and thus the local name
khandui kyalpsa stands for goddess (khandui)
plaits (kyalpsa). Many legumes are termed as sema
or semar or semug, meaning fruits like those of
pea; such as Thermopsis barbata (huse sema),
Gueldenstaedtia himalaica (se mug), etc.
Box - 1
Local system of plant nomenclature in Pungmo, Phoksumdo VDC.
13
iii) Nomenclature following use: Plant
names have a connection with use. For example
rike gok pa (Allium carolinianum DC.), meaning
wild (rike) garlic (gok pa), is used as spice.
Several plants are grouped together based on use
categories. For example, aromatic plants used in
incense are termed as poe; those used in
medicine are termed as men; and poisonous
plants are termed as dhuk. Most of the aromatic
plants are used medicinally. Examples are
drakpoe (Nardostachys grandiflora DC.), pangpoe
(Saussurea sp.), nakpoe (Valeriana jatamansii
Jones), gangpoe (Aster sp.), silapoe (Jurinea
dolomiaea Boiss.), tsenduk (Aconitum spicatum),
etc. Accordingly, several species of grasses are
grouped together as mentsa (medicinal grass),
dhuktsa (poisonous grass), etc.
iv) Nomenclature following
habitat: Plants are also named according to
their habitat specificity such as: pang (meadows),
drak (rocky mountains or cliff), nak (forest),
gang (snowy mountain), etc. Generally, the
names referring to a plant’s habitat occurs in
connection with information concerning its use.
For example, based on the habitat, the incense
plants (poe), also used medicinally, are named
as drakpoe (N. grandiflora), pangpoe (Saussurea
sp.), nakpoe (V. jatamansii) and gangpoe (Aster
sp.) which are found in steep mountains, flat
meadows, forests and in snowy mountains
respectively. A number of grasses are named
together according to habitat, for example,
ramtsa (grasses found in the agricultural land),
pangtsa (found in the pasture), tholtsa (found in
the pasture of lowland marshy habitat), etc.
Based on habitat specificity, foliose and crustose
type of lichens are grouped into three categories:
shingdrak (lichens found on tree trunk), chudrak
(found in water or marshy habitat) and dhodrak
(found on rock). Atrong karpo is a specific term
for both hay/thread like fungi (Xylaria spp.) and
fruticose type of lichens (Cladonia spp.), which
are white or brown in colour (karpo = white)
and they are diffenentiated into gang atrong
(those growing very high near the snow), pang
atrong (those growing on meadows), nakatrong
(those growing on forest floor).
v) Nomenclature following properties:
Plants are also named according to their
properties. For example medicinal plants bitter
in taste are grouped together as tik or tig. For
example, bhotig (Swertia sp.), chaktig (Halenia
elliptica D. Don, Gentianopsis paludosa (Munro
ex Hook. f.) Ma), gyatig (Swertia ciliata (D. Don
ex G. Don) B.L. Burtt), gatik (Androsace
strigillosa Franchet), kyurtig (Saxifraga sp.), ngultig
(Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don),
shetig (Swertia mussofi Franch), sertig (Erysimum
sp.) sumchutig (Saxifraga umbellulata Hook. F. &
Thomson), zin tik (Ajuga spp.) etc. Species with
an acrid (tsa) taste are chetsa (Ranunculus spp.).
Box 1
14
population size, sustainable harvesting, and cultivation
practices of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs).
The amchis’ knowledge regarding the sustainability of
resources are derived from the Tibetan medical texts
as well as empirical knowledge and training received
from their fathers and forefathers. With their
knowledge about the limits of the stock or volume of
medicinal plants available in the area, amchis tend to
use selective harvesting practices. They define three
categories of habitat specificity in their territory as sane
yongzok (plant found everywhere), sane dingba (plant
found somewhere) and sane nyung-nyung (plant found
in few places). Local population size is defined as
thukpo (thick) and tapo (thin).17
The harvesting stage of medicinal plants depends
upon the nature of the disease for which the plant is
used, nature of the plant parts used, and type of herbal
preparations. The amchis broadly define six stages of
plant life cycle: dhongbokeyete (juvenile)- stage for
harvesting very young leaves; utumchhadu (young
with floral bud)- stage for harvesting mature leaves;
medokbarduk (flowering)- stage for harvesting flowers;
depuminduk (seeding) and chhoiduk (ripening)- stages
for harvesting fruits and seeds; and kamduk or
thudaichonduk (dry)- stage for harvesting roots,
rhizomes and bulbs. Kamduk or thudaichonduk stage
is the optimum period for harvesting plants whose
underground parts are used. At this stage, the above-
ground part of the plant is said to ripen and slowly
dry, and the nutrients are transported to the
underground parts, making them more potent and
effective for medicinal use. The most useful and
commercially important medicinal plants fall in this
category.
Amchis believe that for better medicinal efficacy,
specific parts of specific medicinal plants should be
collected during specific seasons defined according to
the Tibetan calendar. The period chosen is when the
different parts (flowers, fruits, seeds or leaves) are best
developed for medicinal use. Chidasum (spring) is said
to be the best season for collecting bark of trees or
shrubs and juvenile leaves of herbaceous plants.
Flowers, leaves and small amount of whole plants are
collected during yardasum (summer) for higher
potency. Rhizomes, fruits and seeds are collected
during tongdasum (autumn), whereas rhizomes are
collected during gundasum (winter). Amchis harvest
the medicinal and aromatic plants selectively, and
encourage the local people to do the same. Selective
harvesting of underground parts of plants involves
uprooting only mature and robust plants and leaving
younger bulbs, rhizomes, and vegetative shoots to
mature until they set seeds. Limited amounts of leaves,
flowers, or other parts of the plants are collected so
as not to affect their regeneration.
Although harvesting periods of medicinal plants differ
with species, amchis generally follow specific cultural
or religious processes prior to harvesting. An
auspicious period for harvesting pasture resources, in
general, is determined in advance by the head lama
of the area based upon the Tibetan calendar and
medical texts. Amchis usually propitiate the menlha
or medicine deity prior to collecting the plants.
Moreover, fodder grass as well as medicinal plants
from the pasture, particularly whose underground
parts are used, are harvested during a specific
auspicious period known as dangsong rikhi. It is a
period of seven days determined by the head lama
according to the Tibetan calendar when most of the
perennial herbs complete their life cycle during
September/October. During this period, ‘nutritional
showers’ are said to occur which enriches medicinal
plants including grasses, and thus increases their
medicinal efficacy.
After collection, the plant parts are washed properly,
and then dried either in sun or in shade, depending
upon the type of disease for which the plants are used.
The plants used to treat cold diseases (dangwa) are
dried directly in sunlight, whereas the plants used to
treat hot diseases (tsawa) are dried in shade. Besides
15
these two categories, for other uses, the herbs are dried
both in sunlight as well as in shade. The herbs are
stored in leather or cloth bags and wooden boxes.
Poisonous plants such as tsenduk (Aconitum spicatum
(Brühl) Stapf), atik (Delphinium himalayai Munz),
jagopoe (Delphinium brunonianum Royle), jangma
(Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don), (Stellera
chamaejasme L.), dhurji (Euphorbia spp.), etc. are
detoxified before their use in medicine. There are
various techniques for detoxification: one process
involves boiling the rhizome with the extract of aru
(Terminalia chebula). Depending upon the toxicity,
the boiling processes (periods) differ with species.
Plants with high levels of toxicity are boiled for
prolonged periods.
The knowledge of the amchis related to medicinal
plants and their use has immense implications not
only for the conservation and sustainable use of
medicinal plants but also for local health care.
Although this knowledge has been rapidly declining
due to the changing socio-economic circumstances of
the region, there has recently been a renewal and a
revitalization of this ancient and time-tested tradition
of healing. In order to sustain this momentum in the
long term, the national and local amchi associations
have an indispensible part to play.
16
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19
Dolpo, and particularly Shey Phoksumdo National
Park, encompasses a large variety of ecological zones
ranging from an altitude of 2000 m in the Suligad
Valley to 6883 m at the peak of Mount Kanjiroba.
Moreover, due to intricate climatic and landscape
variation of mountains ecosystems, a large number of
habitats and microhabitats within each ecological zone
host a very high biodiversity, both of plants and
animals. Endemism is high in Dolpo with 50 species
of flowering plants representing 46% of the total
endemics of West Nepal (Ghimire 2000, Shrestha and
Joshi 1996). The interaction between nature and
culture in Dolpo, as elsewhere in the Himalaya, has
also created man-made landscapes over time, such as
the high pastures where livestock grazing has brought
about much transformation of the natural meadows.
This has in some cases destroyed existing habitats and
has, in other cases, created new habitats such as the
nitrogen-rich areas located near summer settlements,
where plants such as Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf,
which are quite rare elsewhere, grow abundantly.
Cultural adaptations to the harsh environment have
also resulted in new diversity through the cross-
breeding of yak (nak, dzo, etc.) and selection of cereals
such as barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), buckwheat
(Fagopyrum tartaricum (L.) Gaertn.) and varieties of
millet including Eleusine species. This long interaction
between human beings, animal husbandry, agriculture
and natural resources has proved sustainable over
many generations mainly due to low population
density (about 3 inhabitants per square kilometer in
Dolpo) and the low levels of extraction of resources.
Moreover, Buddhist and Bonpo belief in the
interdependence of all phenomena and the respect for
nature in all its forms of life continue to play a major
role in conserving elements of biodiversity in Dolpo.
The amchis use a few kilograms of each species of
medicinal plants each year, and as shown in this book,
have a thorough knowledge of their growth pattern
and management. The use of plants for health care
does not seem to have affected the resource (see below
results of the Rapid Vulnerability Assessment).
However, the situation is changing rapidly. Some 40
to 80 tons of raw dry medicinal plants are exported
each year from Dolpo to feed the vast Ayurvedic
industry in India and the growing natural product
market in the West. Collection of medicinal plants
and other non-timber forest products is a very
important component of the economy in Nepal
(Edwards 1996, Bhattarai 1997, Olsen 1997). People
need money to make a living, responding to the
requirements of modern life. Human and livestock
population is growing, putting more pressure on
many vulnerable resources. Within this context, what
can be done to ensure that medicinal plants will still
be available for health care and for trade for the
coming generations?
In Nepal, the guidelines relating to the conservation
status of plants are found in the book on Rare,
Endemic and Endangered Plants of Nepal by Shrestha
and Joshi (1996). HMG Nepal also has set out
policies under the Forest Act 1993 and Forest
Regulation 1995 which regulate the collection and
trade of medicinal plants in Nepal. Nepal is a member
of Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) since 1973.
Other international conventions related to the
conservation of biodiversity to which Nepal is a party
are the Ramsar Convention (1971) and the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).
The Nepalese government ratified the Ramsar
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20
Convention on December 17, 1987 and Convention
on Biological Diversity on September 15, 1993. More
recently in January 2001, a Conservation Assessment
Management Plan (CAMP) workshop was held in
Nepal by the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program
in Asia (MAPPA), a joint programme of the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC)
the Ford Foundation, and the Ministry of Forest &
Soil Conservation of HMG Nepal. This workshop
mainly aimed at assessing the conservation status of
medicinal plants of Nepal with a particular focus on
Western Nepal (workshop report is forthcoming).
The following is a highlight of some approaches,
results and lessons learnt for conservation at this stage
from WWF’s People and Plants project in Nepal. The
overall strategy is the major input of the project
towards contributing to the conservation of medicinal
plants in Dolpo, and which may also be useful for
high-altitude medicinal plants conservation elsewhere
in the Himalaya.
Ethnobotanical surveys
Project staff conducted ethnobotanical surveys with
different social groups in 10 VDCs (out of 23) in
Dolpo District in 1997, and in great depth in
Phoksumdo VDC since 1998. Household
questionnaires, indoor semi-structured interviews, and
to a great extent in-situ open individual and group
interviews during outdoor field surveys were
conducted. The 1997 survey was conducted on a wide
scale at the household level (therefore including men,
women, children, lay people, specialists etc). From
1998 on, surveys focused on key stakeholders i.e.
amchis, women, park staff and commercial collectors.
These surveys show that amchis, dhamis and
jhankris18 (traditional healers) have the highest level
of knowledge about plants, both in terms of
identification and use as well as management.
Among 407 medicinal species, 397 higher/vascular
plants (including 3 Pteridophytes and 2 parasites), 5
mushrooms and 5 lichens were found to be used,
most of which by amchis (Ghimire et al. 2001). These
are distributed in 222 genera and 80 families. Out of
the 397 higher medicinal plant species, 330 were
found to grow above 3000 m in sub-alpine and alpine
zones. Some of these species also grow under 3000
m. This result gives a new picture of the diversity of
high altitude medicinal plants as only 140 were
known to grow in subalpine and 45 in alpine zones
(Malla and Shakya 1999). This indicates that not
much work has been done in high altitude areas in
Nepal. Moreover, very little is still known about the
use pattern, ecology, growth rate and even less about
the conservation status of high altitude medicinal
plants.
Results of field studies show that a majority of
medicinal plants are herbs and that the parts used are
mostly whole plants (Fig 2, 3). From the point of view
of conservation, uprooting of the whole plant is a
destructive method. However, this has also to be
considered in the light of the biology, growth pattern
as well as the harvest timing.
Herbs may be annuals, biennials, monocarpic and
perennials.19 If an annual herb is uprooted after it has
shed seeds, this may have no negative impact on the
regeneration of this species. However if a perennial
herb is uprooted, the impact upon its population is
important as such plants take many years to mature,
and may be very old. Being a perennial, it also
contributes to the species’ strategy for survival through
shedding seeds or reproducing vegetatively from one
year to another and its uprooting also has an impact
on the overall population dynamics of the species.
Collection of fruits or flowers may also be detrimental
to the survival of species depending upon its life form
and growth pattern. Collection of flowers, fruits and
seeds are less destructive with perennials than with
annuals.
The distribution of herbs within the four categories
of annuals, biennials, monocarpic and perennials is
not yet known, although this is a major criterion to
21
Figure. 2
Distribution of medicinal plants according to life forms
(Hb=herbs, Sb=shrubs, Tr=trees, Cl=climbers,
Pt=pteridophytes, Pr=parasites
Figure. 3
Distribution of herbs (A), shrubs (B) and trees (C)
according to parts collected (Fl=flower, Fr=fruit,
Sd=seed, Lf=Leaf, St=stem, Rt=root, Rh=rhizome,
Br=bark, Wd=wood, Gl=gall, Rs=resin, Wp=whole plant).
consider from a conservation perspective. Some
information could be found in the description of these
species in various reports, monographs and books
dealing with local and regional flora of Nepal, but
field data is still needed to have a better view of the
growth pattern of these plants. Harvesting of whole
plants, roots and bark is very destructive for shrubs
and trees, although the percentage of roots and bark
used may be sustainable depending on each species’
capacity to recover from such damage through
coppicing, bark re-growth, etc (Cunningham 2001).
Ethnobotanical surveys yield a large amount of
information, including multiplicity of uses, amounts
used, geographical locations of resources, harvesting
practices, which if used adequately, may guide and
help design appropriate conservation programmes.
Local botanical knowledge
A major approach of this project has been to
investigate the depth of knowledge of amchis and
local people as well as women. Aspects of amchis’
knowledge which have been investigated, as shown in
previous chapters of this book are: their knowledge
of plant’s life cycle (its evolution from seed to death),
biology and ecology including distribution, size and
vigour of populations; and the harvesting practices
and rationale behind choice of different practices.
Results regarding amchis’ knowledge are given in Part
I of this book. Reasons for exploring local knowledge
of specialists such as amchis in the case of Dolpo, and
relevance to conservation are as follows: (1) exploring
knowledge of user groups with the highest level of
knowledge is most likely to yield substantial results
as how best to manage the resource; (2) this
knowledge should be used in a participatory way with
knowledge holders themselves to design improved
management systems building on scientific
knowledge; (3) understanding the rationale of folk
vernacular classification is crucial to compare local
perception of biodiversity to scientific classifications
and enable people speaking different languages
(scientific, park managers - often from different ethnic
22
groups - and local people) to exchange information;
and (4) it is also necessary to understand local
perceptions and rationale to set up monitoring
systems for local communities, using local indicators
which may be used on the long run, beyond the life-
time of the project.
Although this knowledge is very profound, it is only
held by a very small group of people. It is, therefore,
crucial to find ways to transfer part of this knowledge
to other sections of the population, such as women
or young people.
Trade in medicinal plants
Trade surveys undertaken since 1997 have consisted
in: (1) recording volume of plants exported at the
District Forest Office level; (2) interviewing different
types of traders from the production areas up to the
roadhead, in this case the airport of Juphal; (3)
interviewing commercial collectors and (4) checking
the areas given by traders and collectors to look at the
status of the resource.
Amounts of raw dry products coming from localities
close to SPNP were of five tons in 1992/1993, nine
to twelve tons in 1995/96 and twelve tons in 1996/
97 based on figures obtained from the DFO records.
In 1997/98, a total of 37.834 tons was recorded by
the DFO (Table 2). Surveys conducted under this
project (Shrestha et al. 1998) show that some 40 tons
were exported in 1996/1997. A survey by ANSAB in
1997 estimated that about 80 tons were exported in
1996/1997 (ANSAB 1997). These figures show that
there is a need to collect trade data at the field level.
Cross-checking information obtained from the
collectors in the field has shown that areas named as
collection areas were already exhausted of the resource,
thus showing that the species collected have been
over-harvested.
In addition to the data provided by the DFO, field
surveys showed that other species traded in very large
amounts from Dolpo were Acorus calamus L.,
Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. and Jurinea dolomiaea
Boiss. Species traded in smaller amounts include
Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf, Dactylorhiza
Table 2 Amount of MAP traded from Dolpo, 1997/98.
TradeName Scientific name Amount (kg)
Atis Delphinium himalayai Munz 2065
Bhutkesh - 12435
Chau Morchella esculenta Pers. ex Fr. 450
Chirayita Swertia spp. 700
Jatamansi Nardostachys grandiflora DC. 10890
Kakarsinghi Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J.L. Stewart) Rech. f. 429
Kutki Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) Hong 3850
Padamchal Rheum australe D. Don. 2615
Kaladana - 100
Salla simta Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. 1000
Satawari Asparagus spp. 2450
Sugandhbal Valeriana jatamansi Jones 550
Titepati Artemisia spp. 300
TT
TT
Totalotal
otalotal
otal 3783437834
3783437834
37834
Sources: HMG (1999), DFO, Dunai (Ghimire et al. 2001).
23
hatagirea (D. Don) Soó, Hippophae salicifolia D. Don,
Juniperus indica Bertol., Paris polyphylla Sm. and
Taraxacum spp (Ghimire et al. 2001).
Amounts traded are very important indicators of the
trend of trade and therefore of the level of threat for
each species. This indicator linked to the biology, part
collected, and habitat specificity of the plants is
important to filter species which require the highest
level of attention. While work until now has
concentrated on ecological monitoring and defining
sustainable levels of harvesting for a few species, future
activities will also concentrate on the ecological and
social strategies of commercial collectors.
Simulation of harvesting levels
Species chosen for indepth ecological studies and
simulation of different harvesting levels were
Nardostachys grandiflora and Neopicrorhiza
scrophulariiflora, both perennial herbs whose rhizomes
are collected for trade and well as for local religious
rites and health care. They are both known to have a
vulnerable conservation status at the global level.
Nardostachys grandiflora is included in the CITES
Appendix II, and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora is a
species close to Picrorhiza kurrooa which is also
included in CITES appendix II. Both species are
known indistinctly as kutkikutki
kutkikutki
kutki in trade circuits.
Since 1999, the project has been engaged in the long-
term ecological monitoring of Jurinea dolomiaea
because it is a perennial species that does not
reproduce vegetatively and grows in a highly specific
habitat. It was found that the amount of this species
traded from Dolpo in 1997/98 makes up the total
amount traded from the whole of the Karnali region,
indicating possibly that the populations have been
over-exploited elsewhere. Other species being
monitored are Delphinium himalayai, an endemic of
Nepal, Rheum australe and Dactylorhiza hatagirea.
Details of ecological surveys and simulation of
different levels of harvesting are not given here, as
these are ongoing experiments. A very general result
is that Nardostachys grandiflora is more vulnerable to
harvesting practices than Neopichrorhiza
scrophulariiflora. This is probably due to its different
growth pattern and morphology, higher vulnerability
to disturbances, and very low reproductive success
through seed or vegetative means. This subject is
described in detail in the technical reports of the
project (Ghimire et al. 1999, 2000 and 2001).
Although both Nardostachys grandiflora and
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora reproduce vegetatively,
a precise study of their morphology and growth
pattern was undertaken to better understand the
impact of harvesting on both these species. The study
shows that both species reproduce vegetatively
through the reproduction of a basic module.
Nardostachys grandiflora grows into a dense clump
with new shoots attached to the mother plant. These
may separate accidentally through decay of the old
rhizome and segregation of the new shoot from the
old rhizome, therefore leading to a form of vegetative
reproduction. Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora on the
other hand develops long stolons from the base of old
rosettes, carrying away from the mother plant new
shoots with a greater chance of segregating from the
mother plant. This system of reproduction could even
react positively to a certain level of trampling as it has
been noted that densities of N. scrophulariiflora tend
to augment under low levels of disturbance.
Harvesting parts of N. scrophulariiflora without
affecting the whole clone is easy whereas for N.
grandiflora it is difficult to collect parts of the dense
clump without affecting the whole plant.
Morphological studies especially relating to the growth
patterns are essential to develop sound guidelines for
the harvesting of such medicinal plants.
Sociological and institutional surveys
Sociological and institutional surveys were conducted
through open-ended interviews with specialists and
groups of people in the pastures. Highlights of results
show that medicinal plants are not an open access
24
resource but a community resource traditionally
controlled by two institutions, Dratsang and
Yuldigothe. Dratsang is a religious hierarchic
institution of lamas while Yuldigothe is the village
administrative customary institution led by the
Mukhiya. Although the Mukhiyas established by the
old Talukduri system of land management of Nepal
do not have any formal authority today (Devkota
1992), they were generally chosen among the
customary chiefs of the villages and often still play a
major role today in community affairs. In the context
of the national park, local institutions such as
Dratsang and Yuldigothe are no more empowered to
exercise control over resources. It is crucial to identify
such institutions if they exist, as new institutions may
be designed which build on the rationale and
functioning of older systems. This project has made
an attempt to do so through the establishment of
Medicinal Plants Management Committees (See
below).
Linking health care to conservation
Linking health care with conservation of medicinal
plants resources is based on the following
assumptions: (1) people living in remote areas in the
absence of modern health care services are highly
dependant on medicinal plants and hence have a
major incentive to conserve this resource; (2)
traditional health care providers such as the amchis
are specialist users with a thorough understanding of
the use and management of medicinal plants derived
from a time-tested medical system; (3) although
medicinal plants are also important for trade and
contribute to the economy of households, access to
good health care services has been given much
consideration by the project since it is a basic need;
(4) the joint management of medicinal plant resources
by park managers and local communities is necessary
to ensure long- term conservation of the resources for
consolidating the health-care/conservation and the
trade/conservation linkages.
The decision to explore this avenue in this project was
made at the planning meeting of this project (June
1997), during which amchis expressed their strong
interest to collaborate with the project for conserving
medicinal plants.
The strategy of this project is two-fold:
4To include local amchis in the research team
working on the ecological monitoring of
medicinal plants so as to build upon amchis’
knowledge to design appropriate experiments. In
return, amchis would gain from knowledge
through scientific monitoring. Park staff
associated with this team benefited from both
types of knowledge.
4To promote the knowledge and build the
capacity of the amchis in order to ensure the
continuation of a medical system conducive to
the conservation of nature in all its forms of life.
To do so, the following activities were developed:
(i) bringing together amchis for exchange of
knowledge, identifying gaps, needs and ways of
promoting their profession; (ii) favouring
exchange of knowledge between amchis and
women through training in small groups; (iii)
setting up a Traditional Health Care Centre
(THCC) in Phoksumdo VDC; distribution of
Tibetan medical texts to all Dolpo amchis and
providing raw plant materials purchased in
Kathmandu for the running of the THCC
during the first year and (iv) providing guidelines
for the sustainable use of medicinal plants at the
THCC and monitoring use through working in
close collaboration with Medicinal Plants
Management Committees (MPMC) of each
village of Phoksumdo VDC. Cultivation trials
were launched both in-situ in the high pastures
by amchis as well as in the yard of the THCC.
A high level of awareness has been raised through the
inclusion of amchis in the ecological monitoring of
medicinal plants, discussing the issue of the
sustainable collection of medicinal plants for the
25
THCC, and conducting a Rapid Vulnerability
Assessment of the species most necessary for the
THCC.
The THCC is a new institution registered as an
independent NGO under the framework of the Buffer
Zone User Committee. The amchis who previously
lacked visibility and recognition as a group are now
a constituted group who can officially engage in
negotiations with the Park and who can be considered
as a partner for joint management of resources. The
link with Medicinal Plants Management Committees
is crucial as the latter constitute an intermediate body
between a small group of specialists and the bulk of
lay people in villages. Ensuring the transfer of
knowledge by the amchis to the members of MPMCs
is also a way of preserving knowledge.
Setting up of Medicinal Plants
Management Committees (MPMCs)
Medicinal Plants Management Committees (Fig 4)
are new institutions based at the village level
constituted of different stakeholders including amchis,
women, customary village representatives, VDC
representatives and park staff. Knowledge regarding
medicinal plants status is transferred to MPMCs by
amchis and the project staff though field training.
Their role is to gain insight of amounts and harvesting
techniques used both by amchis and lay people and
conduct field surveys in order to inform both the
THCC and the Park on the status of conservation of
the resource.
In addition to building the capacity of amchis, it
appears that there is a need for transferring knowledge
from the amchis as well as from the experience gained
by the project to a body that has the capacity to
monitor resources on the long run. They should in
turn give feedback both to the THCC and to the Park
relating to the practical issues of what to harvest, when
and where. To date this project has formed only one
MPMC in the pilot village of Pungmo in Phoksumdo
VDC. MPMCs should be formed and trained by the
project and the THCCs in the different areas of the
project (i.e. Dho VDC where a second THCC has
been planned and Kaigaon and Pahada VDCs located
in the southern buffer zone area of the park). The
sustainability of operation of MPMCs will lie in the
capacity of the THCCs to raise funds not only to run
the THCCs but also to provide economic incentive
for MPMC members to continue their work.
Ensuring the sustainability of the THCCs will require
much attention during the second phase of this
project.
Rapid vulnerability assessment
Assessment of the vulnerability to harvesting of
medicinal plants used by the THCC was conducted
by adapting the method of ‘Rapid Vulnerability
Approach’ developed for Uganda by Cunningham
(1996, 2001). This approach aims to identify plants
that are vulnerable to over-exploitation through a
relatively rapid ‘filtering’ system based on some
indicators (often approximations) of the plants’
ecology, parts used, local and trade demand and
geographical distribution in published sources as well
as using the knowledge of local resource users. A
number of useful predictors of resilience or
vulnerability to harvesting exist. Those finally chosen
for this study were:
Figure. 4
Medicinal plant management committee (MPMC) and its
relation with other institutions.
26
(1) rarity of a species, which is determined by
combinations of geographic distribution,
habitat specificity and local population size
(Rabinowitz et al. 1986);
(2) life form (e.g. , tree or annual);
(3) user group (specialist users vs. large scale
trade);
(4) single vs. multiple uses; and
(5) parts used (e.g., whole plant vs. leaves),
amongst others.
Susanne Schmitt and Giri Tripathi who conducted
this survey focused their work on the local knowledge
of the amchis about the use, distribution, rarity and
amount used of MAPs. This knowledge was further
tested though cross-checking of the information with
the project botanist and by using different exercises
and questions. This contributed, in particular, to
short-listing the potentially vulnerable species. Field
test and surveys (belt transect and productivity
surveys) were then conducted for those species found
to be most vulnerable.
This survey generally points out that the very small
amounts used by the amchis and by the THCC
should not pose any major problem of sustainability.
However, it is important that species found potentially
vulnerable are constantly monitored as they may be
Table 3 Vulnerability scores and ranking of potentially vulnerable MAPs identified
through the RVA processes. 20
Botanical names Amchi names Total score
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó Wanglak 22
Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst. Dimok 21
Dracocephalum aff tanguticum Maxim. Tiyangku 20
Nardostachys grandiflora DC Pangpoe 20
Incarvillea mairei (H. Lev.) Grierson Ukchoe marpo 19
Corydalis megacalyx Ludlow Tongzil serpo 18
Corydalis cashmeriana Royle Tongrizilba 17
Delphinium brunonianum Royle Jagopoe 17
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) Hong Honglen 17
Rheum australe D. Don Chutsa 17
Soroseris hookeriana (C. B. Clarke) Stebb. Solgongpa 17
Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thoms. Ajak tserngon 16
Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf Bonga nakpo 15
Corallodiscus lanuginosus (Wall.exDC.) Burtt Dakya hawo 15
Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Gha 15
Gentiana robusta King ex Hook f. Kyiche karpo 15
Lagotis kunawurensis (Royle ex Benth.) Rupr. Bashaka 15
Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Wolmose 15
Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. Bagan 14
Meconopsis grandis Prain Upal ngonpo 13
Primula buryana Balf. f. Shangdril karpo 13
Delphinium caeruleum Jacquem. ex Cambess. Metog jakang 12
Halenia elliptica D. Don Chak tig 12
Gentianopsis paludosa var. paludosa (Wall.) Mez. Upal 11
27
sensitive to trends of collection due to factors as yet
unknown.
Out of 136 species absolutely needed by the clinic,
24 species were found to be potentially vulnerable.
The result of the scoring shows that there are varying
levels of vulnerability ranging from a score of 22 for
Dactylorhiza hatagirea to that of 11 for Gentianopsis
paludosa var. paludosa (Table 3). This system of
scoring is very important as it will serve as a major
guide for establishing priorities for monitoring plants
used by the THCC.
It is important to note that although this work
considers the amount used by the amchis as well as
parts used and life form, the precise harvesting
patterns needs to be further understood for each
species in order to establish sustainable harvesting
practices. Optimal amounts that may be harvested
will also depend on regeneration pattern and growth
rate which are little known to date. Long term
monitoring by MPMCs should concentrate on these
two particular aspects.
Guidelines for sustainable use
4Improved harvesting patterns need to consider a
very large number of criteria. However, a few
rules of the thumb have been formulated,
especially relating to biological characteristics and
technical harvesting practices. Some guidelines to
the sustainable use of medicinal plants in Dolpo
are as follows:
4In the absence of thorough knowledge on all
plant species, the principle of precaution should
be adopted i.e. amounts harvested and parts
harvested should be the least detrimental to the
plants capacity to reproduce.
4Sustainable amounts may be determined on the
basis of the size of the plant’s population, its
population dynamics and reproductive biology.
4Some plants may be rare in some areas and
abundant in others. Care should be taken not to
collect in areas where the plant is rare.
4Use of substitutes for vulnerable species should
be promoted if they are known to be safe and
have a good level of activity.
4It is not sustainable to harvest all the plants of a
same population. Small amounts of different
populations should be harvested.
4For perennial herbs, collection of whole plants,
roots or rhizomes are destructive unless a very
small proportion is collected from one sub-
population. This proportion should be estimated
on the basis of the growth rate and age of plants
collected, population dynamics and size of the
plant population. Care should be taken to collect
only some parts of the roots or rhizome in order
to allow the plant to recover. A good knowledge
of the plant’s morphology is thus needed to
decide which parts may be collected without
affecting the plant’s ability to regenerate.
4For monocarpic species, care should be taken not
to collect flowers before the plant has set seeds
and to collect only a small proportion of flowers.
A good alternative is the collection of leaves as
it delays the production of flowers but does not
kill the plant. Collection of roots is highly
destructive and the proportion of plants that may
be uprooted will depend on the size of the
population.
4For annual herbs, it is more sustainable to collect
whole plants once the plants have set seeds.
However if very abundant, not endemic nor
growing in highly specific environment, relatively
large amounts may be collected. Collection of
fruits and seeds should leave a large proportion
of seeds to allow the population to recover. This
relates to the reproductive biology of the plant,
which needs to be known to some extent before
engaging in any large scale collection.
4For trees, shrubs and perennial climbers,
collection of large amounts of roots and bark is
unsustainable. Collection of some proportion of
leaves, flowers and seeds may be sustainable if
care is taken to leave ‘material’ for the plant to
reproduce.
28
Traditional Knowledge of Amchis
28
PP
PP
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MM
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Medicinal Pedicinal P
edicinal Pedicinal P
edicinal Plantslants
lantslants
lants
of Dof D
of Dof D
of Dolpo:olpo:
olpo:olpo:
olpo:
SS
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Some Home H
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ighly Pighly P
ighly Potential Sotential S
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otential Speciespecies
peciespecies
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30
31
Among the 407 species recorded so far from SPNP
and its buffer zone, a total of 100 medicinal plants
have been selected for detailed description in this
book. The medicinal plants described here have been
selected from a list provided by the amchis of Dolpo.
These plants comprise a major part of the materia
medica of the amchis. Although the list of locally
available plants important to the amchis exceeded a
hundred, we have selected only a hundred to reduce
the size and cost of this publication. Cultivated plants
regardless of their importance and exotic and invasive
species have been omitted. Cordyceps sinensis and
Lycoperdon cf. perlatum, although fungi, have been
included because they are locally considered as
medicinal plants. The list also includes endemic
species and species that are important from a
conservation perspective.
The plant species are arranged alphabetically
according to their scientific names. Vernacular names
are given as amchi (Am), Kham (Km), Nepali (Np)
and Dolpali Nepali (Dn) – local dialect of Nepali used
in Lower Dolpo. Besides these, the Sanskrit (Sn) name
is also given as far as possible. The aspects on
geographical distribution and diagnostic characters are
based on Grierson and Long (1983, 1984, 1987,
1991), Iwatsuki (1988), Sharma et al. (1993), Noltie
(1994), Polunin and Stainton (1984), Shrestha and
Joshi (1996), Stainton (1988), Zheng-Yi and Raven
(1999) and Press et al. (2000). Information on chief
constituents is mainly based on CSIR (1948-1976,
1985, 1986, 1988, 2000).
Occurrence of medicinal plants is described under
three categories based on local perception of habitat
specificity/rarity: rare (nyung), common (ding) and
abundant (yongzok). Aspects on parts used, taste,
potency, use, toxicity, mode of use and harvesting for
each species are mainly based on information given
by amchis. Selected categories have been translated
into Tibetan for the benefit of amchis. The taste and
potency refers to the classification of medicine
according to the Tibetan medical system. The
translation of diseases into English attempts to
indicate the types of diseases that are recognized and
treated by the amchis, and are not to be equated with
bio-medical definitions. All uses relate to the use of
the plant by amchis as part of a mixture with other
herbs and medical substances. One should therefore
not expect this plant to cure the diseases highlighted
here, unless mixed with other substances and prepared
according to the formulas used by the amchis.
National status of a particular species represents either
endemics or official conservation or threat
designations assigned under CITES Appendices,
IUCN threat categories and HMG Nepal protection
(Forest Act 1993).20 Regarding local conservation
status, plants are termed as highly vulnerable,
vulnerable or not vulnerable. Vulnerability is defined
in relation to the species’ biological characteristics such
as distribution, population size, as well as socio-
economic characteristics such as amounts used, parts
collected etc., following a concept developed by
Cunningham (2001). Vulnerability of plants used by
amchis in Lower Dolpo has been assessed within the
context of the project by Tripathi and Schmitt
(Ghimire et al. 2001).21 The section entitled major
documentation relate to major texts/references in
English or Tibetan where the same plant species or a
related species is cited either in relation to medicinal
use, chief chemical constituents or to conservation.
II
II
Intrntr
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ntroductionoduction
oductionoduction
oduction
33
Aconitum naviculare (Brühl) Stapf
Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. var. navicularis Brühl
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular names : Bongkar, Bongnga karpo
(Am).
Habitat & distribution : Rocky slopes, Juniper
scrub; 4200-4900 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan). Locally found in Dho,
Tsharkha and Saldang areas.
Diagnostic characters : Small perennial herb,
with tuberous roots. Leaves mostly basal, rounded-
kidney-shaped, palmately divided into 3-5 segments.
Flowers 1-4, in slender pedicels, reddish blue, with
darker veins, spur globose. Follicles hairy surrounded
by persistent sepals.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Oct.
Parts used : Root tubers, leaves,
stems and flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Poisoning, fever due to
poisoning, bile fever and
infections.
Toxicity : Slightly poisonous;
detoxified before use.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Tubers are harvested
during Sep.-Oct.; and leaves, stems and flowers are
harvested during Jul.-Aug.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its rare occurrence with restricted distribution and
harvesting of whole plant for medicine.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993).
source : Stainton A. (1988)
34
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular names : Bongnga nagpo, Bongnak
(Am); Tsendug, Dug (Km);
Bikh (Dn, Np).
Common name : Nepal aconite.
Habitat & distribution : Open and damp places,
forests, scrubland, meadows; 3300-4300 m, WCE
Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan),
China. Locally found in Jagdulla, Kagmara, Dokpa,
Ringmo, Pungmo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb, with paired
tuberous roots and erect stems to 2 m. Leaves deeply
lobed; lobes ovate, further cut into toothed or pointed
segments. Flowers dark blue, violet or white, tinged with
purple, in a dense terminal spike; spur recurved. Follicles
hairy.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep. (fl), Aug.-Nov. (fr).
Parts used : Root tubers.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar)/Warm (dro).
Use : Cough, bile fever, lung
and intestine infection,
headache, cuts and
wounds.
Toxicity : Tubers are highly
poisonous. It is detoxified by boiling with the extract
of aru (Terminalia chebula Retz.).
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf
Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. var. spicata Brühl
Chief constituents : Tubers contain alkaloids
such as pseudaconitine and bikhaconitine.
Harvesting : Tubers are harvested
during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Commercially threatened
(IUCN). Tubers are exported as crude drug.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to harvesting for trade.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1985, 1986), Dawa (1993), HMG
(1970), IUCN (2000), Joshi and Joshi (2001),
Rajbhandari (2001), Shrestha and Joshi (1996).
35
Family : Labiatae
Vernacular names : Zintig (Am), Khangsu
metog (Km).
Common name : Bugleweed.
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes; 2200-4500
m, WC Nepal. Distributed in Nepal, NE India, China.
Locally found in Jagdulla, Pungmo, Ringmo, Dokpa
and Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect or spreading, hairy
perennial herb. Leaves oblanceolate to obovate,
toothed, hairy. Flowers white, 2-lipped, in whorls
forming dense, spike-like clusters, with ovate to
elliptic, toothed, densely over-lapping pale yellow or
blue bracts spreading much beyond the flowers.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Leaves, flowers & seeds.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Skin problems, fever,
sinusitis, menstrual
disorders, epilepsy,
swelling and infection.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
during Jul.-Aug.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993).
Ajuga lupulina Maxim.
36
Family : Amaryllidaceae
Vernacular names : Lunggok (Am), Rungmar,
Gokpa, Dangsong gokpa, Rukpa, Jimril (Km);
Jangalilasun, Kagelasun, Lasune sag (Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Stony slopes; 3300-5100
m, WC Nepal. Distributed in Afghanistan, Himalaya
(Kashmir to Nepal), C. Asia. Locally found in Pungmo,
Ringmo, Dokpa, Bijer, Saldang areas.
Diagnostic characters : Stout, bulbous onion like
herb. Bulbs large, oblong-cylindric, covered with
conspicuous leathery scales. Leaves several, broad,
flat, blunt, glaucous. Flowers pink, cylindrical, in dense
globular umbel, borne on stout stem; petals shorter
than stamens.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Bulbs & leaves.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & acrid
(tsa)/Warm (dro).
Use : Digestive, stimulant and
tonic; used in wind diseases, toothache, earache and
headache. Plant is also eaten as vegetable or as
spice.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Leaves are harvested
during Jul.-Aug. and bulbs
during Oct.-Nov.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to over harvesting for
local use as spice.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), Dawa
(1993), Uniyal (1989).
Allium carolinianum DC.22
37
Family : Compositae
Vernacular names : Tayung (Am); Pang
tsampaka, Suka tayung, Ngo pangtsi dho wo, Champa
metog (Km); Ruk jhulo (Dn); Buki phul (Np).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, rocky
areas; 3400-5500 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya, S China, Taiwan. Locally found in Jagdulla,
Dokpa, Kagmara, Pungmo, Ringmo and Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Dwarf usually tufted,
woolly-haired perennial herb. Leaves narrow-
lanceolate, white-woolly. Flowers in heads; heads
solitary or few, borne on an erect stem; involucral
bracts white, acute, spreading; disk-florets yellow.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Sep.
Parts used : Flowers, leaves & stems.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Neutral
(nyom).
Use : Fever, chest pain and
inner bleeding. Also used in heat therapy,
moxibustion. Plant is also offered during religious
ceremonies.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke
var. monocephala (DC.) Airy Shaw
Anaphalis monocephala DC.
38
Family : Primulaceae
Vernacular names : Gatiknakpo, Gatik
chungwa (Am), Metok
jaikang (Km).
Habitat & distribution : Forest edge, shrub-
beries, open slopes; 2400-4700 m, WC Nepal.
Distributed in the Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan). Locally
found in Tshepka, Pungmo, Ringmo, Dokpa, Dho
areas.
Diagnostic char acters : Erect, tufted herb with
branched rootstock. Leaves elliptic, stalked, in whorls,
size variable. Flowers white or pink, in a lax umbel
borne on elongated, slender stalks.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl).
Parts used : Flowers & leaves.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Fever, lymph fluid
disorders and body
swellings.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Flowers and leaves are
harvested during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993).
Androsace strigillosa Franch.23
39
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular names : Subka (Am), Subka
karpo, Dumbu metok
Km); Kangrate,
Kangresjhar (Np).
Habitat & distribution : Streamsides, cultivated
fields, shrubberies, meadows; 1600-4000 m, WCE
Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal),
China, Myanmar, Sri Lanka. Locally found throughout
the Suligad, Jagdulla and Thuli Bheri valleys.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb, with
woody rootstock. Leaves ternate; leaflets broadly
elliptic or rhombic, further cut and toothed, silky-
haired. Involucre segments narrowly linear. Flowers
white, long stalked, borne terminally. Achenes elliptic,
hairless; styles hooked.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Aug. (fl), Jul.-Sep. (fr).
Parts used : Fruits & seeds.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha) & acrid (tsa)/
Warm (dro).
Use : Liver and bile disorders,
indigestion, cough, cold and fever; generates digestive
heat and dries lymph fluid.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Plant contains betulinic
acid, saponins (rivularinin and anemonin).
Harvesting : Fruits and seeds are
harvested during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1985, 1986), Dawa (1993), Pohle
(1990), Rajbhandari (2001).
Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. 24
40
Family : Compositae
Vernacular names : Jisung (Am); Shiking
naro, Km); Kurro, Tine
(Dn, Np).
Common names : Common or Great
burdock.
Habitat & distribution : Shrubberies, open
slopes, forest clearings; 2000-4000 m, WC Nepal.
Distributed throughout Eurasia. Locally found in
Mukroman, Jagdulla, Phoksundo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect biennial herb, to
1.2 m high. Leaves ovate-cordate, margins undulate,
cottony beneath. Flower-heads globose, in terminal
clusters, involucral bracts with rigid awl-like barbed
tips. Corolla and stamens purple-pink.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency :Hot (tsa) & astringent
(ka)/ Warm (dro).
Use : Channel disorders and
wind fever. Plant paste is used for blisters, burns,
ulcers, pimples, etc. Seeds are digestive and used
for gall and kidney stones.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Roots contain inulin,
tannins, volatile oil. Fruits contain arctiin, arctigenin.
Harvesting : Fruits and seeds are
harvested during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1985, 1986, 2000), Dawa (1993), Joshi and Joshi
(2001), Mikage et al. (1988), Rajbhandari (2001).
Arctium lappa L.
41
Family : Araceae
Vernacular names : Dhawa, Dhayung, Dha-
wa dhabma dhunchen (Am); Dhowa, Dhagot, Tangso,
Talo (Km); Chare banko (Dn), Bir banko, Sarpako
makai, Tinchu (Np).
Common name : Arisaema.
Habitat & distribution : Open places, rocky
slopes, cultivated land; 1800-4500 m, WCE Nepal.
Distributed in Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to
Bhutan), W China. Locally found in Pungmo, Ringmo,
Jagdulla, Mukroman, Kaigaon, Pahada areas.
Diagnostic characters : Monoecious tuberous
herb. Leaves 1-2, pedate, with 5-11 oblong-lanceolate,
pointed leaflets. Flowers in very short, ellipsoid,
greenish or yellowish spadix; spathe very small,
yellowish.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl), Jul.-Oct. (fr).
Parts used : Root tubers & flowers.
Taste/Potency :Hot (tsa)/Warm (dro).
Use : Tubers are used in worm
infestation, stomach pain, scabies, swelling, and bone
disease. Flowers are used in disorders of the uterus
and menstrual disorders. Tubers are eaten as
vegetable.
Toxicity : Slightly toxic; used after
detoxification.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Tubers contain starch,
crystals of calcium
oxalate.
Harvesting : Tubers are harvested
during Sep.- Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found. Low
threat.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1986), Dawa (1993), Mikage et al.
(1988), Rajbhandari (2001).
Arisaema flavum
(Forssk.) Schott
Arum flavum Forssk.
42
Family : Araceae
Vernacular names : Dhawa, Dhowa (Am,
Km); Dolo (Km); Male banko (Dn), Banko (Np).
Habitat & distribution : Open places, forest
clearing; 2700-4000 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in
Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), NE India,
China. Locally found in Pungmo, Ringmo, Pahada,
Kaigaon, Dokpa, Jagdulla areas.
Diagnostic characters : Dioecious, tuberous herb.
Leaves digitate, with 5-9 narrow-elliptic to ovate long-
pointed leaflets. Spathe green, sometimes white-
striped, with a long up-curved, tail-like tip; spadix
short, projected forwards only a short distance from
the mouth.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Aug. (fl), Jul.-Oct. (fr).
Parts used : Root tubers.
Taste/Potency :Hot (tsa)/Warm (dro).
Use : Worm infestation, chest
infection, stomach pain, toothache, rheumatism, and
menstrual disorders. Tubers are eaten as vegetable.
Toxicity : Slightly toxic; used after
detoxification.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Tubers contain starch,
crystals of calcium oxalate. Plant also contains
ariseminone.
Harvesting : Tubers are harvested
during Sep.- Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
eaten as vegetable.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(2000), Dawa (1993), Mikage et al. (1988), Uniyal
(1989).
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume25
43
Family : Boraginaceae
Vernacular names : Dimok (Am); Koma,
Muktsi (Km); Maharangi
(Dn, Np).
Habitat & distribution : Dry open slopes; 2800-
4300 m, W Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya
(Kashmir to Nepal). Locally found in Jagdulla, Dokpa
and Phoksundo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Hairy perennial herb with
stout rootstock covered with bases of old leaves.
Leaves linear to narrow-lanceolate, bristly hairy.
Flowers red-purple in a dense hairy cylindrical spike,
with much longer, linear, grey, hairy drooping bracts,
borne on stout leafy stem.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl).
Parts used : Rootstocks.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & bitter
(kha)/ Cool (sil).
Use : Blood disorders, high
blood pressure, fever, lung diseases, cough, bodyache
and earache. Extract of rootstocks is applied mixed
with hair oil to cure dandruff. Rootstocks yield purple
dye for colouring wool.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Chief constituents : Plant contains essential
oil and root yields a
purple dye.
Harvesting : Rootstocks are harvested
during Nov.-Dec.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Highly vulnerable. Very
rare with restricted distribution. Threat is high due to
overharvesting for local use as dye.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1985, 1986, 2000), Dawa (1993).
Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) I.M. Johnst.
Echium benthami Wall. ex G. Don, Macrotomia benthamii (Wall.) A. DC.
44
Family : Liliaceae
Vernacular names : Nye shing (Am); Gaja
tugtug, Rapuk (Km); Ban
kurilo, Satawari (Dn, Np).
Common name : Wild asparagus.
Habitat & distribution : Forests, shrubberies;
2100-3000 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya
(Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh), NE India, Myanmar,
China, Indo-China, Thailand. Locally found in Suligad
and Jagdulla valley (2200-3400m).
Diagnostic characters : Erect perennial, or twiner
without spines and with tuberous roots. Cladodes flat,
curved in clusters of 2-6. Flowers white or greenish to
reddish-green, solitary or paired, on slender stalks in
axils of cladode whorls. Berry black, globose.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl), Jun.-Oct. (fr).
Parts used : Root tubers.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & bitter
(kha)/ Warm (dro).
Use : Lactation, weakness,
excessive menstrual bleeding, nasal bleeding,
diarrhoea, dysentery, and skin diseases. Also used as
diuretic, tonic, and detergent to wash hair and
wounds.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Chief constituents : Tubers contain mucillage
and furostanosides
(filicinoside-A & B).
Harvesting : Tubers are harvested
selectively from mature
plants during Oct.-Nov.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected mostly by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1985, 1986, 2000), Dawa
(1993).
Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don26
45
Family : Compositae
Vernacular names : Metog lugmig (Am);
Ming-chen serpo (Km);
Kheldar (Dn), Ankhe phul
(Np).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, meadows;
3200-4900 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), W China. Locally found
in Jagdulla, Kagmara, Pungmo, Ringmo, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Robust shaggy-haired
perennial herb. Leaves oblanceolate to linear-
lanceolate, entire, narrowed to the base. Flower-heads
large, solitary; ray florets bluish to lilac, spreading or
reflexed, obscurely 3-toothed; disk-florets at first
blackish then orange; involucral bracts leafy,
lanceolate.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Leaves, stems & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Back pain, chest pain,
paralysis, poisoning, fever, wounds and sores. Plant is
also used to join nerves.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
selectively from mature
plant during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Aster diplostephioides
(DC.) C.B. Clarke
Heterochaeta diplostephioides DC.
46
Family : Compositae
Vernacular names : Metog lug-mig, Metog
lugmig dol ngon
tongkhor (Am); Metog
lugmig (Km).
Habitat & distribution : Rocks, open slopes;
2900-4700 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Kulu to Bhutan). Locally found in Pungmo,
Kagmara and Jagdulla areas.
Diagnostic characters : Dwarf perennial herb
with creeping stems. Leaves mostly basal, obovate-
spathulate, toothed. Flower-heads lilac, solitary borne
on almost leafless flowering stems.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Leaves & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Used in wounds,
poisoning, contagious
fever and headache.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
selectively from mature
plant during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Aster stracheyi
Hook. f.27
47
Family : Berberidaceae
Vernacular names :Kyerwa (Am); Duktser
(Km); Chotto (Dn); Chutro
(Np); Daru-haridra (Sn).
Common names : Berberry, Nepal berberry.
Habitat & distribution : Shrubberies, rocky
slopes; 1800-3500 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan). Locally
found in Suligad and Jagdulla valleys (2500-3800 m).
Diagnostic characters : Shrub, 1-3 m tall, with or
without spines. Leaves sub-sessile, ovate to elliptic,
clustered, entire or toothed near apex. Flowers yellow,
in drooping racemes. Fruits ovoid, blue-purple or red.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Apr.-Jul. (fl), Jul.-Nov. (fr).
Parts used : Leaves, flowers, fruits &
bark.
Taste/Potency : Sour (kyur) & bitter
(kha)/Cool (sil) & coarse
(tsub).
Use : Eye disease, bile
disorders, lymph disorder, swelling and dysentery.
Flowers and fruits are eaten raw. Fruits are substituted
for kyuru (Phyllanthus emblica L.).
Toxicity : Non-toxic to slightly toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly (in eye
disease) or mixed with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Root bark contains
alkaloid, berberine.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
from the mature plant during May-Sep.
National status : Threat not known. It is
traded from the country. It is one of the chief sources
of the drug (rasaut) sold in the Indian market.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and collected mostly by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1988, 1986), Dawa (1993), HMG (1970), IUCN
(2000), Joshi and Joshi (2001), Rajbhandari (2001).
Berberis aristata
DC.28
Berberis ceratophylla G. Don
48
Family : Saxifragaceae
Vernacular names : Gadhur (Am); Gatik
mukpo (Km); Simtadi, Salipat (Dn); Pakhanved (Np);
Pashanaveda (Sn).
Common name : Rockfoil.
Habitat & distribution : Moist rock ledges, shady
place; 900-3600 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), China, NE
India. Locally found in Jagdulla, Suligod and Thuli
Bheri Valleys from 2000-3200m.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb with
thick, stout, creeping rootstocks or rhizomes. Leaves
rosetted, short-petioled, orbicular or obovate, with
bristle margin. Flowers white, pink or purple, borne in
a spreading or dense terminal clusters. Capsules
round.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Mar.-Jun. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant &
rootstocks.
Taste/Potency : Acrid (tsa) & Astringent
(ka)/Cool (sil).
Use : Vomiting, diarrhoea and
dysentery, indigestion,
bile and liver disorders.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Rootstocks contain wax,
gallic acid, tannin, bergenin and mucilage.
Harvesting : Rootstocks are harvested
selectively from mature plant during Oct.-Nov.
National status : Commercially threatened
(IUCN).
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found, occassionally traded and mostly
used by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1986, 1988), HMG (1970), IUCN (2000), Joshi and
Joshi (2001), Rajbhandari (2001), Shrestha and Joshi
(1996).
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
49
Family : Polygonaceae
Vernacular names : Pangram, Rambu (Am);
Rambu (Km); Myakuri
(Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, rocks,
screes; 3000-4800 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in
Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal), China.
Locally found in Jagdulla, Dokpa, Kagmara, Pungmo,
Ringmo, Saldang, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Tufted mat forming
perennial herb, with prostrate woody rootstock;
flowering stem erect. Leaves mostly basal, elliptic-
lanceolate, entire or finely toothed, glaucous beneath.
Flowers bright red, in a dense raceme.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Sep.
Parts used : Roots, leaves, flowers &
fruits.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & astringent
(ka)/Warm (dro).
Use : Diarrhoea and dysentery;
and for increasing blood. Roots edible raw. Flowers are
offered in monasteries during religious functions.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected mostly by
amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993).
Bistorta affinis (D. Don) Greene
Polygonum affine D. Don
50
Family : Polygonaceae
Vernacular names : Monbu, Lakang (Am);
Monluk lakang (Km);
Myakuri (Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Meadows; 2700-4500 m,
WCE Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Uttar Pradesh
to Bhutan), NE India, W & C China. Locally found in
Jagdulla, Dokpa, Kagmara, Pungmo, Ringmo, Dho,
Bijer areas.
Diagnostic characters : Small, perennial herb,
with thick fibrous rootstocks. Lower leaves ovate-
lanceolate or linear, long-stalked; upper leaves
lanceolate or linear, sessile. Flowers pink or red
grouped in rounded or oval terminal raceme, borne on
a slender erect, nearly leafless stem.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Sep.
Parts used : Roots & fruits.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & astringent
(ka)/Neutral (nyom).
Use : Roots are used for wind,
lung and intestinal disorders; diarrhoea, dysentery and
to increase blood. Fruits are also used for diarrhoea
and to increase blood. Roots are eaten.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Roots and fruits are
harvested during Sep.-
Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1988),
Pohle (1990).
Bistorta macrophylla (D. Don) Sojak29
Polygonum macrophyllum D. Don
51
Family : Leguminosae
Vernacular names : Zomoshing, Ji tser (Am);
Thaling (Km).
Habitat & distribution : Open dry slopes; 3000-
4200 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Uttar
Pradesh, Nepal). Locally found in Pungmo, Ringmo,
Dho, Saldang, Bijer, Shey, Tsharkha areas.
Diagnostic characters : Densely branched, very
spiny shrub to 1.5 m. Leaves pinnate; leaflets 8-12,
downy, oblanceolate; stipules not spiny; spines 1-4
cm, formed from the rachis of old leaves. Flowers
solitary, yellow, stalkless; calyx hairy. Pods with dense
grey hairs.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl).
Parts used : Stem.
Taste/Potency : Astringent (ka)/Cool (sil).
Use : Skin diseases, cough,
blood disorders, high blood pressure, heart pain, and
eye disease. It is substituted for tsenden karpo
(Santalum album L.). Flowers are eaten raw. It is also
used as firewood.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : It is harvested during Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is
high, particularly in inner treeless areas (upper Dolpo)
due to its harvesting for firewood. It is less threatened
in lower Dolpo where it is collected mostly by amchis
for medicine.
Local status : Chophel (1993), Dawa
(1993).
Caragana gerardiana Royle
52
Family : Compositae
Vernacular names : Tsatri chok (Am); Metok
ngon-po Gyakhur
ngombo (Km); Doilu phul
(Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, rocks;
1300-4500 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in N. Pakistan,
Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), Myanmar, China.
Locally found in Pahada, Kaigaon, Jagdulla, Dokpa,
Pungmo, Ringmo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb, with
woody rootstocks and branched prostrate or pend-
ulous stems. Leaves pinnately lobed, lobes rounded,
terminal lobe largest; lower leaves with a winged or
smooth leaf-stalk. Flowers in heads, mauve to blue;
heads often drooping.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Leaves & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha) & sweet
(ngar)/Cool (sil).
Use : Liver and bile disorder,
fever due to poisoning.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
during Jul.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Dawa (1993), Pohle
(1990), Rajbhandari
(2001).
Cicerbita macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv.
Lactuca macrorhiza (Royle) Hook. f.
53
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular name : Imong nag po (Am).
Habitat & distribution : Edge of fields, riversides,
shrubberies; 1700-4000 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
the Himalaya (Uttar Pradesh, Nepal), China (Xizang).
Locally found along the edge of Suligad and Bheri
river, Khanigaon, Saldang, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Large climbing shrub.
Leaves pinnate, with 5-7 ovate to narrow-lanceolate,
entire or deeply 2-5-fid leaflets. Flowers yellow to
yellowish-green, flushed or spotted with rusty-brown
outside, bell-shaped, axillary, solitary or 2-3 together;
pedicels long.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Leaves, stems & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Acrid (tsa) to slightly
sweet (ngar)/Warm (dro).
Use : Cold tumours, cough and
cold, indigestion, and
joint pain.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993).
Clematis tibetana Kuntze30
Clematis vernayi C. E. C. Fisch.
54
Family : Campanulaceae
Vernacular names : Nyi ba (Am), Trikyi
metok, Puldon-yen (Km).
Habitat & distribution : Agriculture fields,
shrubberies; 2200-4200 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in
the Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan), NE India, Myanmar,
W. China. Locally found in Riyanchi, Pungmo, Ringmo,
Jagdulla, Kaigaon and Pahada areas.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial twinning herb.
Leaves ovate to broadly lanceolate, entire or toothed.
Flowers large, blue, bell-shaped with reddish ring
within. Capsule top-shaped with persistent calyx.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Aug.-Sep. (fl).
Parts used : Fruits & roots.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & astringent
(ka)/Neutral (nyom).
Use : Fruits are used to cure
poisoning and fever. Roots are used for cough and
cold, fever of the windpipe, diseases of the stomach,
spleen, bones and loss of energy.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993).
Codonopsis convolvulacea Kurz
55
Family : Gesneriaceae
Vernacular name : Dakya habo (Am, Km).
Habitat & distribution : Rocks; 1000-3400 m,
WCE Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Uttar
Pradesh to Bhutan), NE India. Locally found in Suligad,
Lower part of Phoksundo and Pahada areas.
Diagnostic characters : Small herb. Leaves basal,
in rosette with ovate blade and toothed or entire
margin. Flowers pale purple or white, tubular 2-lipped,
long stalked, few in lax terminal cluster. Capsule
cylindrical with persistent style.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.- Sep.
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha) & astringent
(ka)/Cool (sil).
Use : Poisoning, diarrhoea,
kidney problems, and
wounds.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : It is harvested during
Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to low availability and
harvesting of whole plant
for medicine.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), Dawa
(1993).
Corallodiscus lanuginosus
(Wall. ex DC.) Burtt
Didissandra lanuginosa (DC.) C. B. Clarke, Didymocarpus lanuginosus Wall. ex DC.
56
Family : Clavicipitaceae.
Vernacular names : Yar tsa gun bu (Am); Bu
(Km); Buti (Dn); Yarsagumba, Jivanbuti (Np).
Common names : Caterpillar fungus.
Habitat & distribution : Alpine meadows; 4500-
5200 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya,
China. Locally found throughout the high alpine areas
such as Dokpa, Jagdulla, Kagmara, Pungmo, Ringmo,
Majphal, Numla, Bagala, Dho, Bijer, Saldang.
Diagnostic characters : Club-shaped parasitic
fungus; later becomes saprophytic on insect larva after
its death. It comes out of the anterior end of the larva
of the caterpillar (swiftmoth) during the monsoon.
Fructification dark-brown and stalk yellowish-white, 5-8
cm long.
Occurrence : Common.
Season of fructification: May-Jun.
Parts used : Fungus & insect larva.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar)/Oily (num) &
warm (dro).
Use : Tonic and aphrodisiac.
Also used as tonic for yak and sheep.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Taken orally in
combination with Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó,
honey and cows milk as tonic and aphrodisiac. It is
also used singly.
Chief constituents : Plant contains cordycepic
acid, cordycepin and adenosine.
Harvesting : Harvested during May-Jul.
National status : HMG Nepal protection 2
(banned for export in unprocessed form).
Local status : Not vulnerable. Locally
collected for trade. Less threatened due to common
occurrence.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), HMG
(1970), HMG (2001), IUCN (2000), Pohle (1990).
Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.
Sphaeria sinensis Berk.
57
Family : Papaveraceae
Vernacular names : Tongri zilpa, Tongzil (Am);
Rekon ngonpo, Ye khi
(Km).
Habitat & distribution : Alpine screes, open
slopes; 2800-5500 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), China (Xizang). Locally
found in Jagdulla, Dokpa, Mukroman, Kagmara,
Pungmo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Slender perennial herb,
with many unbranched stems, arising from a cluster
of tuberous roots. Basal leaves ternate; leaflets 3-
lobed; stem leaves one or two, smaller with narrow
lobes. Flowers sky-blue, in a terminal cluster; spur
slightly down curved.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Chronic fever, bile fever
and burns. It is substituted for kapur (Cinnamomum
camphora (L.) J.S. Presl.) in medicine.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant is harvested during
Jul.-Aug.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its rare occurrence and harvesting of whole plant
for medicine. The plant is very small and a large
number of individuals are needed in medicine.
Corydalis cashmeriana Royle
58
Family : Papaveraceae
Vernacular names : Tongri-zilpa serpo, Tongzil
serpo, Gudue serpo (Am); Gudue, Rekon, Jafo tsitsi,
Pegen, Tsikya (Km).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, screes;
3600-5500 m, WCE Nepal. It is endemic to the Nepal.
Locally found in Kagmara and Jagdulla areas.
Diagnostic characters : Small perennial herb,
with long rootstock. Leaves pinnate; leaflets lobed or
pinnately cut into minute, linear segments. Flowers
yellow, striped with dark brown, in dense cluster; spur
cylindric, straight.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : May- Jul. (fl).
Parts used : Leaves, flowers & whole
plant.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Chronic fever, liver
disease, jaundice, bile fever, wounds, cold, ulcer, and
blood disorders.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs. It
is also used as substitute for Corydalis cashmeriana.
Harvesting : Leaves and flowers of
mature plants are harvested during Jun.-Jul., and the
whole plant during Aug.-Sept from dominant stock.
National status : Endemic. Threat not
known.
Local status : Highly Vulnerable. Threat
is high due to its rare occurrence with restricted
distribution and harvesting of whole plant for
medicine.
Corydalis megacalyx Ludlow31
59
Family : Campanulaceae
Vernacular name : Ngonbu (Am).
Habitat & distribution : Meadows, shrubberies;
3300-4700 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Punjab to Bhutan), NE India, W China.
Locally found in Jagdulla, Dokpa, Pungmo, Bijer,
Saldang, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Low spreading
perennial herb. Leaves obovate to wedge- shaped,
deeply lobed. Flowers bright blue-purple; calyx
conspicuous covered with short blackish hairs; corolla-
tube hairy in the throat.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Warm (dro).
Use : Lymph disorders. Flowers
are mildly rubbed in case of chapped lips. Also offered
during religious ceremonies.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : It is collected during
Aug.-Nov.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found, and
collected mostly by amchis.
Major documentation : Dawa (1993).
Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth.
60
Family : Asclepiadaceae
Vernacular names : Ngo dhugmo nyung (Am,
Km); Gaiama dudh (Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Forests, open slopes,
wasteland; 2300-3600 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
SW Asia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir,
Nepal, Bhutan), India, China, Russia. Locally found in
Pungmo, Ringmo, Bijer, Nyisal, Langkar areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect perennial herb.
Leaves opposite, short stalked, broadly elliptic to
ovate, acute. Flowers small, yellowish green in
terminal and axillary umbels. Fruits cylindrical,
boarder at base and tapering gradually to apex.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jul. (fl), Jul.-Sep. (fr).
Parts used : Fruits.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Intestinal parasites, bile
fever, cough, stomachache, diarrhoea, dysentery, and
earache. Roots edible.
Toxicity : Poisonous.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Fruits are collected
during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
mostly used by amchis.
Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum.32
Cynanchum glaucum Wall. ex Wight, C. vincetoxicum auct. non Pers.,
Vincetoxicum hirundinaria Medicus subsp. glaucum (Wall. ex Wight) H. Hara,
61
Family : Boraginaceae
Vernacular name : Nema jarma (Am).
Habitat & distribution : Cultivated areas, grazing
grounds, wasteland; 1200-4100 m, WCE Nepal.
Distributed in Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to
Bhutan), India, Sri Lanka, east to China & Japan,
Malaysia. Locally found in Jagdulla, Pungmo, Rigmo,
Bijer, Saldang, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect, branched herb.
Leaves bristly hairy; oblong-elliptic, long-stalked;
upper oblong-lanceolate, stalkless. Flowers bright
blue, borne in widely branched inflorescence. Nutlets
covered with hooked bristles.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Leaves, stems, flowers &
fruits.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar), bitter (kha)
& /Cool (sil) & rough
(tsub).
Use : Sores, fresh wounds,
swellings, cough and fractured bone. It dissolves
uterus tumours and draws out lymph fluids.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
selectively from mature
plants during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Rajbhandari (2001).
Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Hornem.) Thunb. ex Lehm.33
Anchusa zeylanica Vahl ex Hornem., Cynoglossum furcatum Wall.
62
Family : Orchidaceae
Vernacular name : Khu juk pa (Am, Km).
Common name : Ladys-slipper orchid.
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes,
shrubberies; 3000-4800 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in
the Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan), China (Xizang).
Locally found in Jagdulla, Kagmara, Dokpa areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect terrestrial orchid,
stems with several sheaths at base. Leaves 3-4,
elliptic to lanceolate. Flowers with a broadly ovoid
pendent bag-like lip with a wavy to crenate mouth,
streaked with purple; petals and sepals green with red
veins; upper sepal broadly ovate; bracts leafy, larger
than the flower.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Jul. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar)/Cool (sil).
Use : Blocked channels, urine
retention and stone diseases. Also used in heart
disease, chest disorders and cough.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant is selectively
collected during Aug.-Sep.
National status : CITES Appendix II.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its rare occurrence with restricted distribution and
harvesting of whole plant for medicine.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993).
Cypripedium himalaicum
Rolfe
Cypripedium macranthon var. himalaicum (Rolfe) Kranzlin
63
Family : Orchidaceae
Vernacular names : Wangpo lagpa, Wang lag
(Am, Km); Hathejara
(Dn); Panch-aunle, (Np);
Munjataka (Sn).
Common names : Orchis, Marsh orchid,
Salep.
Habitat & distribution : Damp places, open
slopes; 2800-4000 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in
Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), China. Locally found in
Pungmo, Ringmo, Kaigaon, Jagdulla areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect, terrestrial orchid
with palmately divided, fleshy tubers. Leaves, oblong-
lanceolate or elliptic. Flowers rosy-purple, spotted, in a
many-flowered dense cylin-drical terminal spike,
borne on a robust leafy stem; spur stout, cylindrical;
bracts leaf-like.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Jul. (fl), Jul.-Sep. (fr).
Parts used : Root tubers.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar)/Warm (dro).
Use : Increases regenerative
fluid, vitality and strength and heals wounds, cuts and
burns. The roots with five or more tuberous divisions
are superior than those with fewer divisions.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Chief constituents : Tubers contain a
glucoside, starch, mucillage, albumen, volatile oil, etc.
Harvesting : Tubers are collected
selectively during Oct. leaving young buds.
National status : CITES Appendix II, HMG
Nepal protection 1 (banned for collection, use, sale,
distribution, transportation and export).
Local status : Highly vulnerable. Threat
is due to its rare occurrence and harvesting of whole
plant for medicine and trade.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1986), Dawa (1993), HMG (1970), HMG
(2001), IUCN (2000), Joshi and Joshi (2001), Pohle
(1990), Rajbhandari (2001), Warrier et al. (1995b).
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó
Orchis hatagirea D. Don, O. latifolia var. indica Lindl.
64
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular names : Jagopoe (Am); Siksike,
Mangro mulo (Dn);
Bishadi ghans (Np).
Habitat & distribution : Stony slope, screes,
shrubberies; 3500-6000 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
Afghanistan, Himalaya (Kashmir to Nepal), China (SE
Xizang). Locally found in Kagmara and Pungmo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Hairy perennial herb, with
a musky odour when fresh, and with slender rootstock
and glandular pubescent, erect, leafy stems. Leaves 5-
fid or deeply partite; lobes folded, dentate; hairy
beneath; long stalked. Flowers large, blue to purple,
woolly-haired, veined, borne in a few-flowered raceme;
spurs broad, straight and blunt.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Sep.
Parts used : Leaves, stems & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Fever, appetite loss,
headache, dysentery, body swelling and wounds. Also
used in dysentery and ticks in cattle. Plant is
substituted for musk.
Toxicity : Poisonous. It is detoxified
by slightly boiling the plants in the extract of aru
(Terminalia chebula Retz.).
Mode of use : Used singly or with others.
Chief constituents : Plant contains brunonin,
delbrunine, delbruline, delbrusine, lappaconitine, N-
deacetyllappaconitine, etc.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
selectively from the matured plants during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its rare occurrence and possible commercial
exploitation.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), CSIR
(1986), Dawa (1993), Rajbhandari (2001).
Delphinium brunonianum Royle
Delphinium moschatum Munro ex Hook. f. & Thoms.
65
Family : Ranunculaceae
Vernacular names : Jakang, Metok jakang,
Timusa (Am, Km).
Habitat & distribution : Grassy and rocky slopes;
3000-5800 m, WC Nepal. It is distributed in Pakistan,
Himalaya (Kunawar to Bhutan), China (Xizang). Locally
distributed in Bheri valley, Khanigaon and Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Much branched
perennial herb. Lower leaves large, long petioled,
gradually reduced upwards with much shorter
petioles; lamina sub-orbicular, deeply cut into much
narrower, linear, acute or sub-acute segments. Flowers
blue or violet, borne in racemes; bracts and bracteoles
linear; spur straight or slightly curved at tip.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Oct.
Parts used : Leaves & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha) & astringent
(ka)/Cool (sil).
Use : Diarrhoea, intestinal
fever and wounds. It dries up lymph fluid, pus and
blood. It is also used to kill lice.
Toxicity : Slightly poisonous. It is
detoxified before use.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are collected
selectively from matured plants during Jul.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its low availability and possible commercial
exploitation.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993).
Delphinium cf. caeruleum Jacquem. ex Cambess.
Delphinium grandiflorum var. kunawarensis Brühl
66
Family : Labiatae
Vernacular names : Jibkar (Am); Atunmetok
(Km).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes,
shrubberies; 3400-5500 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
Turkestan, Himalaya (Kashmir to Sikkim), China
(Xizang). Locally found in Bijer, Saldang, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Aromatic perennial herb.
Leaves leathery, oblong-ovate. Flowers white, or tinged
mauve or pink, hoary, in dense leafy spikes; corolla-
tube inflated; calyx broad, hairless, tips bristle-like.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Jun.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & bitter
(kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Liver disease, fever, oral
sores, and toothache.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Harvesting : Plant is harvested
selectively from the matured stocks during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993).
Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth.
67
Family : Polypodiaceae
Vernacular names : Bejang reral (Am);
Gyalpo reral (Km); Hatpusaro, Hatpaharo (Dn).
Common name : Oak leaf fern.
Habitat & distribution : Epiphyte on trees, mossy
rocks on forests; 800-3500 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed
in the Himalaya, N India, Myanmar, China, Malay
Peninsula and Thailand. Locally found Jagdulla,
Suligad and throughout the Thuli Bheri valleys.
Diagnostic characters : Epiphytic fern with
creeping rhizome, clothed with brown scales. Sterile
fronds small, sessile, becoming brown on aging, fertile
fronds large, long stalked, pinnately lobed, with a
network of areoles. Sori brown, single row on either
side of main vein.
Occurrence : Common.
Parts used : Rhizomes.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Food and meat poisoning
and fever due to poisoning; also used in massage to
cure pain due to wounds.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Harvesting : Rhizomes are harvested
selectively from the matured stocks during Aug.-Sep.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found, and
collected mostly by
amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), Dawa
(1993).
Drynaria propinqua
(Wall. ex Mett.) J. Sm.
Polypodium propinquum Wall. ex Mett.
68
Family : Labiatae
Vernacular names : Jirug serpo (Am); Khun
juk (Km); Bhotepati (Np)
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, alpine
meadows, damp places; 3000-4800 m, WCE Nepal.
Distributed in the Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan),
India, SW China. Locally found in Jagdulla, Kagmara,
Pungmo, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Erect, aromatic, annual
herb with 4-angled stems. Leaves oblong to
lanceolate, toothed, softly hairy, or sometimes wooly
beneath, shortly stalked. Flowers very tiny, yellow,
numerous, in terminal stout cylindrical shaggy-haired
spikes.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : Jul.-Aug. (fl).
Parts used : Whole plant.
Taste/Potency : Acrid (tsa) & astringent
(ka)/Warm (dro).
Use : Intestinal parasites and
all kinds of bacterial
infections.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used singly or with other
herbs.
Harvesting : It is harvested during
Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Chophel (1993), Dawa
(1993), Pohle (1990),
Rajbhandari (2001).
Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.34
Aphanochilus eriostachyus Benth., Elsholtzia pusilla Benth., E. eriostachya var. eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.
69
Family : Ephedraceae
Vernacular names : Tshe, Tshedum; Tshe
(Km); Kag-chhalo, Kagcharo, Sallejari (Dn); Somlata
(Np); Soma (Sn).
Habitat & distribution : Open stony slopes, gravel
terraces; 2400-5200 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed from
Afghanistan to Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan). Locally
found throughout the Thuli Bheri, Suligad and Jagdulla
valleys.
Diagnostic characters : Tufted shrub, with
densely clustered, erect, joined branches. Leaves
scale-like, ovate, uniting to form a sheath around
node. Male cones ovate, 2-3, each with 4-8 flowers;
female flowers in opposite, sessile pairs at each node,
with 2 ovules enveloped by red, succulent bracts.
Occurrence : Abundant.
Flowering & fruiting : May-Jun. (fl), Jul.-Sep. (fr).
Parts used : Stems & fruits.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar) & bitter
(kha)/ Cool (sil).
Use : Liver fever, fever due to
common cold, bleeding, blood pressure, and cuts.
Fruits are digestive. Smoke from the plant is used for
eye problems. Fruits are substituted for kakola
(Amomum subulatum Roxb.) by amchis.
Toxicity : Slightly-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Chief constituents : Plant contains ephe-
drine, pseudoephedrine, tannins, catechins, saponin
and an essential oil.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
during Sep.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Abundantly found and collected mostly by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), CSIR (1986), Dawa (1993), HMG (1970), IUCN
(2000), Joshi and Joshi (2001), Rajbhandari (2001).
Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf
70
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Vernacular names : Dhurji (Am); Dhurtsi
(Km).
Habitat & distribution : Wastelands, cultivated
areas, grazed slopes, shady banks; 1700-2900 m;
WCE Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Nepal,
Bhutan). Locally found in Kaigaon, and Jagdulla areas.
Diagnostic characters : Tall, nearly hairless,
perennial herb. Leaves leathery, linear-oblong or
linear-lanceolate. Flower heads yellow, few in
branched, flat-topped clusters, each flower-head with
3-4 rounded or broadly ovate pointed bracts. Involucre
with bell-shaped glands, hairy within, with rounded
lobes. Fruits with conical swellings.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting : Mar.-Jun. (fl).
Parts used : Roots.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Warm (dro).
Use : Constipation, hot and
cold diseases, skin
diseases, and bacterial
infections.
Toxicity : Toxic. It is detoxified
before use.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Roots are harvested
selectively from the
matured plant during
Nov.-Dec.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Vulnerable. Threat is due
to its low availability and
habitat encroachment.
Euphorbia longifolia D. Don35
Tithymalus longifolius (D. Don) Hurus. & Ya. Tanaka
71
Family : Rosaceae
Vernacular names : Ditha sazin, Sazin (Am,
Km); Bhuin kafal, Lahare kafal, Bhuin ainselu (Dn, Np).
Common name : Strawberry.
Habitat & distribution : Open, moist places at
forest margins, shrubberies; 1600-4000 m, WCE
Nepal. Distributed in the Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan),
N Myanmar, W China. Locally found in Pahada, Dokpa,
Mukroman areas.
Diagnostic characters : Small, softly silky-haired,
prostrate perennial herb, with long runners rooting at
nodes. Leaves trifoliate, long-stalked, arising from the
rootstock; leaflets obovate or elliptic, toothed. Flowers
white, on 1-3-flowered scapes. Fruits globose, red when
ripe.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Apr.-Jun. (fl), Jun.-Aug. (fr).
Parts used : Leaves, flowers & fruits.
Taste/Potency : Sweet (ngar)/Cool (sil).
Use : Used to check excessive
bleeding during menstruation; and in cough and cold. It
is beneficial for inflammation of the nerves and draws
out the impure fluid from the lungs. It is also used in
foot and mouth disease of cattle. Fruits are edible.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
selectively from the
matured plant during
Apr.-Jul.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found, and
collected mostly by
amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Dawa
(1993).
Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita
Fragaria vesca L. var. nubicola Hook. f.
72
Family : Gentianaceae
Vernacular names : Pangyen thrabo,
Pangyen ngonpo (Am).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes, meadows;
4000-5600 m, WCE Nepal. Distributed in the
Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), NW India, China.
Locally found in Pungmo, Bijer, Dho areas.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb. Basal
leaves spathulate to linear-oblong blunt, thick and
fleshy; stem leaves lanceolate, shorter. Flowers
yellowish-white spotted with blue, and blue-ribbed
outside, in terminal and axillary stalked clusters;
corolla funnel-shaped; calyx tubular.
Occurrence : Common.
Flowering & fruiting : Aug.-Oct.
Parts used : Leaves & flowers.
Taste/Potency : Bitter (kha)/Cool (sil).
Use : Throat disease, lung
fever, chest pain, poor
eyesight and blood
disorders.
Toxicity : Non-toxic.
Mode of use : Used with other herbs.
Harvesting : Plant parts are harvested
from matured plant
during Aug.-Oct.
National status : Threat not known.
Local status : Not vulnerable.
Commonly found and
collected only by amchis.
Major documentation : Arya (1998), Chophel
(1993), Dawa (1993),
Mikage et al. (1988).
Gentiana nubigena Edgew.
Gentiana algida Pall. var. nubigena (Edgew.) Kusn.
73
Family : Gentianaceae
Vernacular names : Kyiche, Kyiche karpo
(Am); God tito (Dn).
Habitat & distribution : Open slopes,
shrubberies; 3500-4000 m, WC Nepal. Distributed in
the Himalaya (Nepal, Sikkim). Locally found in
Pungmo and Ringmo areas.
Diagnostic characters : Perennial herb, with
robust, ascending stem. Leaves narrow-lanceolate,
acute; basal leaves large, leathery, fused at base in
a tubular sheath; uppermost leaves shorter and
broader at base, forming crowded involucre
subtending the flowers. Flowers creamy or greenish-
white, axillary or in dense terminal heads.
Occurrence : Rare.
Flowering & fruiting :