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Application of the European Customer Satisfaction Index to Postal Services. Structural Equation Models versus Partial Least Squares
Abstract
The primary goal of the study is to diagnose satisfaction and loyalty drivers in Polish retail banking sector. The problem is approached with Customer Satisfaction Index (CSI) models, which were developed for national satisfaction studies in the United States and European countries. These are multiequation path models with latent variables. The data come from a survey on Poles’ usage and attitude towards retail banks, conducted quarterly on a representative sample. The model used in the study is a compromise between author’s synthesis of national CSI models and the data constraints. There are two approaches to the estimation of the CSI models: Partial Least Squares - used in national satisfaction studies and Covariance Based Methods (SEM, Lisrel). A discussion is held on which of those two methods is better and in what circumstances. In this study both methods are used. Comparison of their performance is the secondary goal of the study.
... Image refers to the brand name and the kind of associations customers get from the product/company (O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2002). Berman and Evans (1995) considered that store image is the functional and emotional mix; that is, the prior experience of having contact with enterprises that includes new information such as advertising, word-of-mouth effect, and prediction to meet expectations for the future that has a directive positive influence on satisfaction. ...
... The ACSI model predicts that as both perceived value and perceived quality increase, customer satisfaction should increase (Fornell, et al., 1996). Expected customization and expected reliability were two latent variables used to measure customer satisfaction expectations through three measures, including overall expectations, expected customization, and expected reliability (O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2002 (Fornell, et al., 1996). ...
... Image refers to the brand name and the kind of associations customers get from the product, brand, and company (Johnson, et al., 2001). This construct was first introduced in the Norwegian Customer Satisfaction Barometer (NCSB) model (O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2002;Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998a;Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998b). Martensen, et al. (2000) indicated that image is an important component of the customer satisfaction model and expected that image would have a positive effect on customer satisfaction and loyalty. ...
... Research conducted by Rous et al. [3], Akbar et al. [4], Malik et al. [5], Bostanji [6], and Poku et al. [7] collectively demonstrates a significant correlation between the quality of service provided by hotels and the loyalty of their customers. In contrast, Oloughlin and Coenders [8], Cristobal et al. [9], and Normasari et al. [10] offer alternative perspectives, indicating that service quality does not hold substantial sway in shaping customer loyalty within the hotel sector. ...
... Developing and preserving a favorable image is crucial for a service-oriented organization aiming to draw in customers and uphold their loyalty [11]. Oloughlin and Coenders [8], Malik, et al. [5], Uttami, et al. [12] concluded that hotel image affects loyalty. Beneke et al. ...
The economic growth of Gorontalo City has had an impact on many entrepreneurs who invest in various fields, including the world of hotels. One way to maintain its existence is that hotel business players must be loyal to the customers. This study is to analyze the effect of service quality and hotel image on customer trust. The effects of service quality and hotel image on customer loyalty. The effects of customer trust on customer loyalty. Customer trust mediates the effects of service quality and hotel image on customer loyalty. The research population is guests who stay at hotels in the city of Gorontalo totaling 671 hotel guests with a research sample of 250 hotel guests. The analytical technique used is descriptive statistics so as to produce the average value (mean) of each indicator. The results showed that hotel customers in Gorontalo City strongly agree that service quality is formed by tangibles, reliability, responsiveness. Keywords: service quality, hotel image, customer trust, customer loyal
... companies/organizations/agencies to advance the quality of their services and products (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Customer satisfaction receives significant attention, as high levels of customer satisfaction can create a stronger competitive position, leading eventually to a greater market share and higher profits (Fornell, 1992). ...
... High levels of customer satisfaction bring many benefits to companies, including increased customer loyalty, better reputation, lower price flexibility, customer satisfaction in future transactions, low costs and higher levels of employee efficiency (Fornell, 1992;Anderson and Fornell, 1994). Customer expectations (EXP) refers to the level of quality customers expect from a product they purchase, and are shaped by a customer's previous purchases of the products or services of a company (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). EXP serves as a predictor of a service provider's ability to offer high-quality products in the future, and so has a positive effect on evaluations of company performance, similar to PQ, PV and overall SAT (Fornell et al., 1996). ...
Mass transportation is one of the leading factors determining the quality of a city. It is known that improvements in mass transportation services affect customer satisfaction and societal quality of life. Also passengers' perception about transportation quality impress on satisfaction and loyalty of customers. It is thus of vital importance that people living in a city encounter no problems related to transportation in their lives, and that they are able to travel comfortably to their places of work and education. The present study evaluates user satisfaction in the light rail transit (LRT) services through the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI). The factors included in the study model are Customer Expectations (EXP), Perceived Quality (PQ), Perceived Value (PV), Customer Satisfaction (SAT), Customer Complaints (COM) and Customer Loyalty (LOY). First, a data collection instrument was developed to measure the quality of the light rail transit (LRT) service based on the factors in the ACSI model, with a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach used to test the ACSI. Data for the study was collected using the data collection instrument, which was applied to 360 passengers who were waiting for their trams at nine stations in May 2019. The model fit was evaluated using various fit measurement instruments and was accepted. Analyses revealed that the path coefficient from customer expectations to perceived quality was 0.66, and that from satisfaction to loyalty was 0.61. Moreover, the customer expectations variable was found to act as full mediator variable between image and loyalty.
... Customer and satisfaction are accepted as important factors in improving the quality of products and services for companies / institutions / organizations. (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Customer satisfaction is a concept that is given importance by the manufacturers. ...
... Customer expectations (CE) are identified as the level of quality that customers expect from the product they want to buy. It is the result of previous consumption experience of a product or service (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Customer expectations predict the capability of service providers to deliver quality products in the future. ...
... Kristensen et al. (2000) mention that corporate image has a significant impact on customer satisfaction and loyalty, which is confirmed in a number of ECSI studies. O'Loughlin and Coenders (2002) and Kristensen et al. (2000) also support, in a B2C setting, that corporate image positively affects customer satisfaction and loyalty. Therefore, we propose: ...
... Complaint handling refers to the way a company addresses complaints, and how this is perceived by the complainer (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). If a firm reacts slowly and inappropriately, customers might suspect opportunistic behavior or simply incompetence (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the drivers of continuance intention with mobile banking apps, in a Thai context. The secondary objective is to examine if there are underlying segments that differ meaningfully in this regard.
Design/methodology/approach
A structural equation model based on the European Customer Satisfaction Index is estimated. The data were obtained by conducting an online survey of mobile banking users in Thailand ( n =399).
Findings
The top 3 factors directly affecting continuance intention toward mobile banking are satisfaction, trust and expectancy confirmation. Image and perceived risk also have an impact, although studies have reported that the latter is less impactful than the prior. One latent segment is more influenced by observable performance characteristics like confirmation and perceived quality, the other more by credence factors like trust and image.
Practical implications
The study confirms the important role of satisfaction and expectancy confirmation in driving continuance. Somewhat unexpected is the high relative prominence of trust as a driver, at least in the Thai context. This is a “soft” variable managers should not dismiss. The identification of segments also points to potentially different treatment and actionable advice for managers.
Originality/value
This paper adds to the scant body of empirical work on continuance intention with mobile banking. In light of the large investments in mobile banking capabilities being made, this is an under-researched area. This paper to the authors’ knowledge is the first to study consumer heterogeneity in this context.
... Customer satisfaction has become a vital concern for companies and organizations in their efforts to improve product and service quality, and maintain customer loyalty within a highly competitive marketplace (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). A key motivation for the growing emphasis on customer satisfaction is that higher customer satisfaction can lead to a stronger competitive position resulting in higher market share and profit (Fornell, 1992). ...
... Customer expectations (CE) refer to the level of quality that customers expect to receive and are the result of prior consumption experience with a firm's products or services (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). CE represents both the served market's prior consumption experience with the firms offering and a forecast of the supplier's ability to deliver quality in the future. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate customers’ satisfaction associated with mobile phone services in Jordan. The American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) model is used as the framework to examine the causal relationships among customer expectations, perceived quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction, customer complaint and loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach
The responses were collected using a structured questionnaire from 447 mobile subscribers in three major universities in Jordan (Jordan, Yarmouk and Mutah Universities).
Findings
It is found that the ACSI model adequately describes the perceptions and behavior of mobile phone users in Jordan. Furthermore, customer expectations, perceived quality and perceived value are important predictors to customer satisfaction, which ultimately results in customer loyalty. In addition, customer satisfaction does not influence customer complaints. The influence of customer complaints on customer loyalty was positive.
Research limitations/implications
Ideally, national customer satisfaction indexing should be conducted in different sectors simultaneously, and the model should be tested periodically. Only then can the results be compared with other countries’ satisfaction indices.
Practical implications
The absence of the relationship between customer satisfaction and complaints means that dissatisfied customers do not complain and therefore, mobile service providers should encourage customers who are dissatisfied to complain, in order to satisfy their needs and thus turn them into loyal customers.
Originality/value
The paper is an attempt to implement a satisfaction model for the mobile phone sector in Jordan, as one of the most developing countries in this sector within the Arab region.
... This encompasses purchasers, nearby residents, acquaintances, relatives, and colleagues. As per references [29] and [30], the concept of "Word of Mouth" encompasses all the conversations individuals engage in regarding a brand, product, service, or company at various intervals within a specific timeframe. According to [31], the concept of word of mouth refers to the interpersonal communication process when individuals participate in the sharing of remarks, opinions, or ideas, without any explicit goal of engaging in sales activities. ...
This study aimed to examine the impact of customer relationship marketing on trust, word of mouth, and customer loyalty. It also sought to analyze the role of customer trust and word of mouth in mediating the influence of customer relationship marketing on customer loyalty at the Kenangan Coffee Shop in Malang City. The sample consisted of 140 customers of the Kenangan Coffee Shop in Malang City. Stratified random sampling was used to identify respondents. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze data. The research results show that customer relationship marketing that focused on developing a service culture built customer trust at Kenangan Coffee Shop in Malang City. High levels of trust has the increases customer loyalty. By convincing others to choose a Kenangan Coffee Shop, word of mouth can also increase customer loyalty. Thus, this research further develops studies on customer loyalty, customer relationship marketing, and word of mouth. Keywords: customer relationship, trust, word of mouth, customer loyalty
... Despite the precautions adopted by organizations in the company-distributor relationship, problems often appear. The management of complaints is identified with the way the company handles complaints (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Companies must measure the management of complaints as the quality perceived by the client with regard to complaint-handling. ...
Purpose
This paper first aims to examine associations between factors involved in business-to-business complaints management and results (satisfaction and loyalty) and analyses three types of distributors based on their cultural profile (domestic, low context and high context). Second, the paper investigates whether the identified associations remain stable over time.
Design/methodology/approach
Data from a sample of distributors for a manufacturing company were gathered during two periods of time. A factorial analysis of correspondences and a cluster analysis were carried out to visually represent the associations among clients, complaints and results in the associations among clients, complaints and results. The stability over time of these relationships was also analysed by calculating the correlations between the Euclidean distances on the two maps (one per year) and their mobility ratio.
Findings
The authors found significant evidence that clients from different cultures are associated with varying profiles of complaint and different result types and that certain associations remain stable over time.
Originality/value
While many studies have analysed complaint behaviour in business-to-consumer contexts, there is a lack of research from an international business-business relations point of view, leaving questions virtually unexplored. Second, the last phases of supply chain management, specifically complaints management, have been undeveloped, limiting the cultural factor to the general scope of negotiation. In this vein, this paper compares different complaint profiles and results, comparing culturally different customers/distributors. Third, research has mostly referred to a single period, while this paper investigates two different periods of time for the same company (and their distributors) to analyse the relevance of the stability (or not) over time of the associations identified.
... This is relevant information for a company, because loyalty is a truer measure of quality than satisfaction. To recommend a product or a service to other people has bigger consequences and demands more commitment than simply pointing out that someone is more or less satisfied with the product/service (Coenders & O'Loughlin, 2002). ...
Satisfied customers represent an important resource for a company. So far research has shown that customer satisfaction has an impact on the return on investment, the growth of the company's market share, and shareholder value. The importance of research on customer satisfaction is seen in the fact that it most often leads to loyalty, which represents an important prerequisite to a company's long-term profitability. In line with the significance of these two concepts in companies' success, the topics of this research are the determinants of customer satisfaction and the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty. The goal of the research is the identification of key variables and the measurement of their respective impact on customer satisfaction. An adapted expectancy-disconfirmation model was used for the identification of key determinants. Satisfaction was viewed as a function of customer expectations and perceived product performance, and an additional component, the company's image. This research was carried out on the territory of the Republic of Serbia through an online survey. The obtained conclusions can help companies in Serbia to better the quality of provided services, with the end goal being achieving an agreeable level of customer satisfaction and loyalty, and with it, higher profitability.
... Customer satisfaction has become a vital concern for companies and organizations in their efforts to improve product and service quality, and maintain customer loyalty within a highly competitive market place [3]. The paper analyzes postal services in European countries, with a special focus on Slovakia and Serbia. ...
The aim of the work is to indicate the direction of development of postal services by means of various analyses. According to the trend of recent years, the number of letters in domestic and international traffic keeps decreasing, while the number of parcels keeps increasing. The Universal Postal Union and the postal organizations of individual countries must respond to this trend. Of course, the Covid-19 pandemic, the complex geopolitical situation in Eastern Europe and the current energy crisis have had a significant impact on postal services. The analysis includes the EU member states, Schengen countries and Balkan countries. Indicators like average area covered by a permanent office and average number of inhabitants served by a permanent are analyzed. The comparative analysis of postal services in Serbia and Slovakia includes the number of letter, parcel and express services, revenues from these services and data on the coverage of the postal network in these countries. With the help of the analysis performed in this paper, a good example can be found and a way for further development in the functioning of the postal market and the provision of postal services. For example: new parcel services must be introduced, delivery times must be shortened, and the sending and receiving of parcels must be facilitated.
... This means that employers are more satisfied with higher-quality universities. higher [39]. Companies have widely varying, and often rather high, expectations of college grads with various backgrounds and experiences. ...
Despite the tremendous growth of higher education in China, persistent social obstacles make it difficult for college graduates to obtain employment. Employment quality is a key determinant of a nation's level of economic development and prosperity. The expansion of the employment theory dialogue among Chinese college students is aided by a discussion on how to accurately boost the employment quality of private college graduates. The goal of this survey is to do exploratory factor analysis on the employer satisfaction model established for graduates of private colleges. This survey is directed toward employers who recruit graduates from private schools and colleges with over 20,000 pupils. 500 questionnaires were mailed out, 462 were returned, and ineligible samples were deleted, leaving 451 valid samples and an effective sampling rate of 90.2%. This article uses SPSS to demonstrate empirically the model of employer satisfaction based on expectation confirmation and employability. It demonstrates that enhancing the employability of private college graduates is one of the most successful strategies for enhancing employer satisfaction. This study will boost employer satisfaction based on the perspectives of the three levels of government, schools, and students. The sample size chosen for this study is still somewhat little, and the structure's reasoning is relatively weak. Due to their hectic schedules, the vast majority of employers decline to participate in the survey, resulting in an enormous burden on the scale collectors. How to integrate research on employer satisfaction, the quality of higher education, and the career development of graduates requires additional consideration.
... Despite the precautions adopted by organizations in the company-distributor relationship, problems often appear. The management of complaints is identified with the way the company handles complaints (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Companies must measure the management of complaints as the quality perceived by the client with regard to complaint-handling. ...
Although the topic ‘complaint’ has been the subject of numerous studies, the present article stands out for examining the conceptual, social, and intellectual evolution of this field of research through a longitudinal global analysis from 1900 to 2019. Additionally, a comparative analysis of four different periods of time was developed. To this end, 2,084 scientific articles published in the Web of Science (WoS) were retrieved. The SciMAT tool was used to analyse them through scientific maps of co-words, citations, and the h-index. Performance analysis and scientific assignment were combined. Our results, based on bibliometric indicators, led us to conclude that research on complaints can be separated into nine main research blocks that have evolved differently over time: Satisfaction, Behaviour, Customers, Countries, Communication, Data analysis, Business, Law, and Theories.
... Perceived quality is a measure of the customer's evaluation via recent consumption experience of the quality of a company's products or services. Perceived value is the perceived level of product quality relative to the price paid or the "value for money" aspect of the customer experience (Coenders and O'Loughlin, 2002). Customer expectation is de ned as the level of values and bene ts that a customer wants to receive from the goods and services. ...
The study aims to identify the determinants of customer satisfaction towards purchasing fresh food in the supermarkets in Ho Chi Minh City. Based on synthesizing and systematizing related studies as well as the model of service quality and customer satisfaction to the retail market, we find that there are five factors impacting customer satisfaction towards buying fresh food in supermarkets. These factors are merchandise, price, physical aspects, supermarket employees, and supermarket policies. The data were collected randomly through online and offline channels from the first half of March 2020 till the end of April 2020. The results from the exploratory factors analysis and multiple regression analysis, using data collected from a survey with 261 valid responses, show that merchandise has the most powerful effect on customer satisfaction, which is followed by physical aspect, price, supermarket employee, and supermarket policies. The study indicates that customer satisfaction from buying goods in supermarkets relies on product quality and service quality.
... La experiencia en la estimación de la satisfacción sugiere el uso de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales en comparación con los modelos de mínimos cuadrados parciales; esto se debe fundamentalmente a que generan resultados más robustos. Existe consenso en cuanto a qué los modelos estimados a través de mínimos cuadrados parciales generan resultados sesgados, mientras que el modelo estructural con variables latentes, aún en circunstancias donde se presenten medidas con error, proporcionan estimadores insesgados (Caballero, 2006;Casas, 2002;Hontangas et al., 1999;O'Loughlin y Coenders, 2002). ...
El programa Abasto Social de Leche, que otorga esta bebida de manera subsidiada a personas en estado de pobreza, es uno de los más antiguos en México. El producto ha pasado por diversos mejoramientos de corte nutricional y de imagen; en este el artículo se presentarán los hallazgos sobre la satisfacción que tienen los beneficiarios del programa, a través del uso de una metodología integral que abarca la gestión del mismo, la perspectiva de los beneficiarios en diversos ámbitos y el aspecto comunitario. Los resultados, obtenidos por medio de un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales con variables latentes, señalan que la población objetivo se encuentra satisfecha con el programa.
... Despite the precautions adopted by organizations in the company-distributor relationship, problems often appear. The management of complaints is identified with the way the company handles complaints (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). Companies must measure the management of complaints as the quality perceived by the client with regard to complaint-handling. ...
Purpose
Complaint management is at the heart of customer relationship management. While many studies have analyzed a client’s complaint behavior in business-to-business (B2B) relationships, there is a lack of research in the study of complaints by distributors from different countries. The purpose of this paper is to explain the following two main objectives: to analyze if the complaint management strategy of a manufacturer varies depending on the type of international distributor used (indirect exporters, direct exporters and commercial subsidiaries); and to analyze the potential effects of complaint management on the satisfaction and fidelity of distributors and the quantity of complaints that they put.
Design/methodology/approach
A stratified probabilistic sampling method was used, dividing the entire population of distributors of a leading Spanish manufacturer into three different groups. In total, 79 valid responses were obtained as follows: 24 per cent from indirect exporters (organizational commitment Grade 1), 68 per cent from direct exporters (organizational commitment Grade 2) and 8 per cent from commercial subsidiaries (organizational commitment Grade 3). Partial least squares were used to analyze the proposed relationships.
Findings
The results have confirmed that the procedure for resolving the complaint and its length (resolution time) depends on the seriousness of the complaint (the type of complaint). In turn, the resolution of the complaint influences the satisfaction of the vendor and the latter will influence its fidelity. Regarding the number of complaints, those distributors with the highest number of complaints satisfactorily resolved are those who remain loyal to the company. On the contrary, it is not possible to affirm that the type of distribution channel affects the types of complaints that are presented. Different kinds of distributors of the same manufacturer (indirect exporters, direct exporters and commercial subsidiaries) complain equally. In addition, those whose complaints take longer to resolve are not significantly less satisfied. Even more, low-satisfied distributors will present more complaints than the most satisfied ones.
Originality/value
First, this study investigates if different kinds of distributors with different international commitments (indirect exporting, direct exporting and commercial subsidiary) behave differently in terms of claims and complaints. Second, this paper analyzes the role of complaint management in international B2B relations to improve distributors' satisfaction and loyalty; but considering the join impact of three dimensions of a successful complaint management strategy that literature usually has examined separately as follows: what (the type of complaint), how it is resolved (management procedure) and when it is closed (duration).
... According to Oliver (1997), satisfaction is defined as consumers' fulfillment response, it is an assessment of a product or service feature; or from psychological point of view, it can be understood as customers emotion based on their expectations and consumption experience (Oliver, 1981). Customer satisfaction has become a vital concern for companies and organizations in their efforts to improve product and service quality as well as maintain customer loyalty within a highly competitive marketplace (O'Loughlin & Germà, 2002). From 2016 to 2018, chatbots were popularly and strongly applied in all fields, creating a new technological trend in the 4.0 industrial revolution especially in the online marketing and sales sectors platforms, e-commerce and customer services (Topbots, 2017). ...
This research is intended to systematize the theoretical background of chatbots and assess the factors affecting customer satisfaction when they use Facebook chatbot. The study provides an insightful analysis for planners and field workers who are involved in the promotion of Facebook chatbot for online stores in Vietnam. It suggests different recommendations and solutions for individuals and organizations providing chatbot services on Facebook platform, in order to improve service quality and operational efficiency. An analysis of 271 customers who used chatbot services pointed out and evaluated the positive and negative relationships around customer satisfaction.
... Beklentiler hem reklamcılık ve ağız yoluyla konuşma gibi bazı deneyimsiz bilgiler içeren gelecekteki tüketim deneyimini hem de şirketin gelecekte kaliteyi sunma yeteneğini gösteren bir tahmindir. Bu nedenle, genel müşteri memnuniyeti gibi, firmanın performansının değerlendirilmesi ile doğrudan ve pozitif bir ilişkisi olduğu düşünülmektedir (O'Loughlin ve Coenders, 2002). Bu düşünceye dayanarak H1, H2 ve H4 hipotezleri önerilmiştir. ...
Z Cep telefonu sektörü, teknolojiyle beraber her geçen yıl daha fazla gelişerek inovasyonun en önemli faktör olduğu bir sektör haline gelmektedir. Her marka tüketiciyi daha iyiye ve daha yeniye kavuşturmak için çaba göstermekte, yüzlerce ürün tasarlanmaktadır. Bu durum tüketicinin karar vermesi için çok fazla faktörün ortaya çıkmasına neden olmaktadır. Böylelikle özellikle cep telefonu pazarında müşteri memnuniyetini sağlamak büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Amerikan Müşteri Memnuniyeti Modeli (ACSI) ile İzmir'de yaşayan ve akıllı telefon kullanan insanların cep telefonu markalarına olan memnuniyet ve sadakatlerini araştırmaktır. Modelin test edilmesinde Yapısal Eşitlik Modeli (YEM) kullanılmıştır. Araştırma modelinde yer alan faktörler; Algılan Kalite, Algılanan Değer, Müşteri Şikayetleri, Müşteri Beklentileri ve Müşteri Sadakatidir. Çalışmada kullanılan veriler, İzmir'de Bornova, Karşıyaka, Foça, Buca, Çiğli, Bayraklı ilçelerinde ikamet eden farklı meslek ve yaş gruplarına ait kişiler arasından rastgele seçilen 319 kişiye birebir görüşme neticesinde anket yapılarak elde edilmiştir. Çalışmada, önerilen araştırma modeli YEM ile analiz edilmiş ve modelin uygunluğu çeşitli uyum ölçütlerine göre değerlendirilmiştir. Model uyumu için hesaplanan ki-kare değeri 290,60 ve (χ 2 /sd) değeri ise 2,64 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Verilerin analizlerden; memnuniyet ile şikâyet ve sadakat arasındaki ilişki katsayıları sırasıyla 0,76 ve 0,94 olarak hesaplanmıştır.
... Beklentiler hem reklamcılık ve ağız yoluyla konuşma gibi bazı deneyimsiz bilgiler içeren gelecekteki tüketim deneyimini hem de şirketin gelecekte kaliteyi sunma yeteneğini gösteren bir tahmindir. Bu nedenle, genel müşteri memnuniyeti gibi, firmanın performansının değerlendirilmesi ile doğrudan ve pozitif bir ilişkisi olduğu düşünülmektedir (O'Loughlin ve Coenders, 2002). Bu düşünceye dayanarak H1, H2 ve H4 hipotezleri önerilmiştir. ...
Cep telefonu sektörü, teknolojiyle beraber her geçen yıl daha fazla gelişerek inovasyonun en önemli faktör olduğu bir sektör haline gelmektedir. Her marka tüketiciyi daha iyiye ve daha yeniye kavuşturmak için çaba göstermekte, yüzlerce ürün tasarlanmaktadır. Bu durum tüketicinin karar vermesi için çok fazla faktörün ortaya çıkmasına neden olmaktadır. Böylelikle özellikle cep telefonu pazarında müşteri memnuniyetini sağlamak büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Amerikan Müşteri Memnuniyeti Modeli (ACSI) ile İzmir’de yaşayan ve akıllı telefon kullanan insanların cep telefonu markalarına olan memnuniyet ve sadakatlerini araştırmaktır. Modelin test edilmesinde Yapısal Eşitlik Modeli (YEM) kullanılmıştır. Araştırma modelinde yer alan faktörler; Algılan Kalite, Algılanan Değer, Müşteri Şikayetleri, Müşteri Beklentileri ve Müşteri Sadakatidir. Çalışmada kullanılan veriler, İzmir’de Bornova, Karşıyaka, Foça, Buca, Çiğli, Bayraklı ilçelerinde ikamet eden farklı meslek ve yaş gruplarına ait kişiler arasından rastgele seçilen 319 kişiye birebir görüşme neticesinde anket yapılarak elde edilmiştir. Çalışmada, önerilen araştırma modeli YEM ile analiz edilmiş ve modelin uygunluğu çeşitli uyum ölçütlerine göre değerlendirilmiştir. Model uyumu için hesaplanan ki-kare değeri 290,60 ve (χ2/sd) değeri ise 2,64 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Verilerin analizlerden; memnuniyet ile şikâyet ve sadakat arasındaki ilişki katsayıları sırasıyla 0,76 ve 0,94 olarak hesaplanmıştır.
... The expectancy value concept stipulates that the customers make judgments about a product or service, its benefits and the likely outcome of using or consuming the service or product. Normally, people learn to perform behaviours that they hope will result in positive outcomes (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002). ...
Increasingly, hotel industry has witnessed rapid growth in the 21stcentury and as a result competition within the industry has also intensified. This competition has been fueled by the preoccupation of service quality to add value and strengthen the complete guest experience. However, a major challenge facing the sector is the aspect of service quality particularly in budget hotels which target price sensitive customers. These hotels provide the customers with satisfactory core product at a reasonable price but tend to focus more on profits than on customer satisfaction. The services offered are not standardized and service quality variability is a challenge. The study used an integrated SERVQUAL and Gap model to evaluate customer satisfaction in budget hotels in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were to determine the effect of service design on customer satisfaction, establish the effect of service delivery on customer satisfaction and determine the moderating effect of management perception of service quality on customer satisfaction in budget hotels in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The study adopted a cross sectional survey design and was conducted in 50 budget hotels. A sample size of 334 drawn from the hotel managers, customers and employees were involved in this study. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select the study sample for customers and employees. Data were collected through use of questionnaires and interviews. Both descriptive and inferential statistics was used in data analysis. The study hypotheses were tested was tested using multiple regression (ANOVA) and qualitative data from management perception was analyzed using qualitative data analysis (QCA). The regression analysis indicated that all five dimensions of service quality in service design were significant (0.000) when tested at 95% confidence level. The model was found to be significant. Correlation analysis indicated that the service design factors that had significant impact were realization of assured service in reliability (p = .044 < .05), responsiveness in informing the customers about the time of service delivery (p = .000< .05) and empathy in that operating hours are convenient to customers (p = .030 < .05). The other variables did not have significant values. The results indicate that there are gaps in the budget hotels under study between service design and customer satisfaction. Relationship between service delivery and customer satisfaction was found to be positive but not all the variables were significant. The study findings indicated that four variables; good location (p = .115 > .05), closeness to main city facilities (p = .527 > .05), someone recommended hotel (p = .665 > .05), and good experiences from the hotel (p = .458 > .05) did not have no significant values. This implied that these variables did not have an effect on customer satisfaction resulting in a gap between service delivery and customer satisfaction. This indicated that the service delivery did fully not meet customer expectations. Management perception was found to have a moderating effect between service quality and customer satisfaction. The study concluded that although managers seemed to have a reasonably good understanding of the customer and developed service designs for quality service delivery, the services delivered still fell short of customer expectations. The study therefore recommends that to enhance customer satisfaction, management needs to focus on the changing needs of their customers and develop service designs that twill offer service delivery that satisfies the customer. The study makes some contribution to the body of knowledge as an integrated model in evaluating customer satisfaction. This is an open-access article published and distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License of United States unless otherwise stated. Access, citation and distribution of this article is allowed with full recognition of the authors and the source.
... Customer satisfaction is a major issue for organizations or companies in today's highly competitive market [5]. It is important for a company to improve the quality of service, products, and customer loyalty in order to survive in the competitive market [6]. Yayasan Lembaga Konsumen Indonesia (YLKI) reported that customers still complained about the poor performance of online taxi mobile apps, such as the system error, double order, inaccurate location, and confusing menu display [7]. ...
Background: High number of complaints that have been filed about the performance of online taxi services has prompted research on customer satisfaction factor analysis. Substantial research has addressed customer satisfaction factors in online taxi services, but none of them investigated the satisfaction in using the mobile apps.
Objective: This study aims to find out the level of customer satisfaction and customer satisfaction factors in the online taxi mobile app services.
Methods: This study is quantitative in nature, using questionnaires and purposive sampling method. The Customer Satisfaction Index (CSI) and Important-Performance Analysis (IPA) were used to determine the customer satisfaction factors, with the variables being route detection, connection, interaction, content, and service quality; as well as customer satisfaction, customer’s complaint, and customer loyalty. The data was processed using SPSS software.
Results: The results showed that the level of customer satisfaction was 76.117% and fell into Cause of Concern category. This means that the system performance did not meet customer expectations. The results also showed that the best three factors in online taxi mobile apps are route detection, interaction, and content quality. Meanwhile, the factors that caused customer dissatisfaction were connection and service quality. The variables that led to satisfaction need to be maintained and the variables that did not were in Quadrant 1.
Conclusion: The customer satisfaction was low so it is advisable that the companies immediately take an action to improve their performance and revise their strategic planning. In doing so, they must prioritize the attributes which have the biggest gap because these are the ones that will improve customer satisfaction.
... Retaining customer loyalty is an important thing to maintain the going concern of the company. Prayoga et al., (2015); Orel and Kara (2014), Sudarti and Atika (2012); Bloemer et al., (1998), Oloughlin, O.Christina and Germa Coenders (2002) found that customer satisfaction has positive and significant influence on customer loyalty. Another factor that could affect customer satisfaction and loyalty is the bank brand image. ...
This study aims to examine the influence of relational benefits and bank brand image on customer loyalty through sharia bank customer satisfaction at PT Bank Syariah Mandiri Kediri Branch. This study uses survey method and questionnaire is used to collect the data. The sample of this study is individu who are customers of PT Bank Syariah Mandiri Kediri Branch and are chosen by using convenience sampling technique. The data analysis uses Partial Least Square (PLS) through SmartPLS version 2.0 software. The findings of this study show that: (1) Relational benefits has no influence to customer satisfaction, (2) Relational benefits has influence to customer loyalty, (3) Relational benefits has influence indirectly to customer loyalty through customer satisfaction, (4) Satisfaction has influence to customer loyalty, (5) Bank brand image has influence to customer satisfaction, (6) Bank brand image has influence to customer loyalty, (7) Bank brand image has no influence indirectly to loyalty through customer satisfaction.
... eived value ca on perception n consumers pe l fairly treated hase and exper e that perceive perceive superi und, (2010), satisfac uality (Cronin bank custom eive superior q yal patrons (F nce, perceived tomer satisfac an be consider s of what is r erceive their o d based on the rience of prev ed value is a s ior value tend ince, this stud onetary value, Brand image has been widely defined as the sum of impressions that is created in the minds of the buyers about the brand (Newman, 1957; Ditcher, 1985). Researchers have ascertained that brand image is a significant driver of customer satisfaction (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Koo, 2003; O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2004; Sondoh Jr, Omar, Wahid, Ismail & Harun, 2007). A successful brand image helps consumers to understand and differentiate the brand. ...
The conventional financial measures have always dominated the business performance evaluation in India. There is a need to augment the current approaches to evaluate the financial health of individual firms and industries. Customer Satisfaction Index (CSI) is one of the best solutions which is a customer-based satisfaction benchmarking system and serves as a standard metric, widely implemented in the United States and Europe. However, there is no such index in India and there is a need for a non-financial, customer-based satisfaction metric. This study is a pilot attempt to develop a Customer Satisfaction Index (CSI) model, specifically for the Indian banking industry. To achieve this, the focus group technique was employed to find the key determinants of customer satisfaction in the banking industry. The comprehensive thematic analysis revealed a total of six themes and nine sub-themes which have been proposed as the antecedents of customer satisfaction in the CSI model for the Indian banking industry. The future research intends to develop instrumentation based on the focus group results and validate the hypothesized CSI model proposed in this study.
... Depending on the sector to which the model is aimed, variables are included, such as value or specific activities, where the user participates. However, in regards to social responsibility and environmental variables, the national models do not include them, except the European model, which only includes the social responsibility only partly (O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2004). Then, when the form of consumption is changing among present society, social responsibility will affect satisfaction (Pérez and Rodríguez del Bosque, 2015) as will the environmental factors (Kotler et al., 2011). ...
Purpose
– The trend toward the indiscriminate use of natural resources and social decay has widened the gap between social classes, rich and poor, leaving the poorest unprotected. This situation, with the current financial crisis has also led to the creation of social organizations by the people in the highest levels of marginalization, through which they sell products manufactured by themselves and support enhance the economy and enhance a better quality of life for themselves. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
– A major development for growth of these organizations is the existence of responsible consumerism. Thanks to the technological advancements and the mass distribution of information, and the supply chain, the world population is beginning to get aware and becoming concerned by the effects of the hyper-consumption culture currently prevailing.
Findings
– The existing models of national indices based on consumer opinion and satisfaction merely include the characteristics of the products and services offered, but do not include variables that aid in determining their impact on a social enterprise. This research aims to fill that gap.
Originality/value
– The paper shares the results of a qualitative and quantitative survey performed during the first half of 2014 using a model of structural equations developed to test new hypotheses that include a variable which has been called “social responsibility.”
... The CFA is carried out using Amos 20 and the model is estimated using the Maximum Likelihood pro- cedure as it maximizes the difference between factors and provides a good, robust and unbiased model fit estimate (O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2004). The CFA admits a statistical test of how well a priori specified factor model demonstrates the observed pattern of sample correlations or covariances, usually mentioned as a model fit which can be judged using indices of absolute fit (e.g., χ2, GFI, AGFI, RMSEA) and incremental fit (e.g., CFI, TLI) and Hoelter's critical N. Past research studies have indicated that model fit should be reckon using informa- tion from these different sets of indices (Bollen & Long, 1993). ...
This study tries to explore the factors contributing to the source credibility of celebrities as brand endorsers and, subsequently develops a conceptually integrated scale for the same in Indian perspective. To conduct an empirical investigation, a survey is conducted consisting of 432 participants. In this study exploratory factor analysis (EFA) followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) has been conducted. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in three factors or dimensions. All the indicators are strongly loaded into their respective construct. The Cronbach’s alpha, composite factor reliability and variance extracted measure for validity checks are found to be satisfactory. All pair’s of Inter-construct correlation are found to be positive and significant. The issue of multicollinearity did not bear a serious threat to the data. Common method effect of Harmen's one-factor post hoc test result indicates that multidimensional three-factor model fits the data well than the one-factor model. These results are also invariant across different demographic profile, namely gender, educational qualification, and age.
... La experiencia en la estimación de la satisfacción sugiere el uso de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales en comparación con los modelos de mínimos cuadrados parciales; esto se debe fundamentalmente a que generan resultados más robustos. Existe consenso en cuanto a qué los modelos estimados a través de mínimos cuadrados parciales generan resultados sesgados, mientras que el modelo estructural con variables latentes, aún en circunstancias donde se presenten medidas con error, proporcionan estimadores insesgados (Caballero, 2006;Casas, 2002;Hontangas et al., 1999;O'Loughlin y Coenders, 2002). ...
The "Abasto Social de Leche" program is one of the oldest in Mexico; it provides subsidized milk to people in poverty. The product has been gradually improved over time at two aspects: nutrition and image, that's the reason this article shows the findings about satisfaction with the program using an integral methodology that covers the administration of it, the perspective of beneficiaries and the community aspect. The results obtained using a model of structural equations with latent variables show that the target population is satisfied with the program.
... Perceived quality Overall perceived quality of products PERQ1 Overall perceived quality of service PERQ2 Quality of product completely meets customer's requirements PERQ3 Quality of service completely meets customer's requirements PERQ4 Assortment of the Questionnaire is based on the requirements for the ECSI model, opinions of various authors (Kristensen et al., 1999; Bayol et al., 2000; O'Loughlin, Coenders, 2004; Turkyilmaz, Ozkan, 2007; Eklof, Selivanova, 2008; Alireza, 2011) and catering services' specifications. 10-point evaluation scale was applied for respondents' evaluations towards catering services in Lithuania. ...
Customer satisfaction is considered as key factor determining organization’s success in today’s competitive market place. The growth of popularity of catering services in Lithuania substantiates the necessity of evaluation of their customer loyalty. Accordingly, the research was provided endeavouring to evaluate customer satisfaction with catering services in Lithuania. The obtained results reveal that evaluating either customer satisfaction with overall catering services in Lithuania, or customer satisfaction with particular caterer, Customer Expectations and Image has no direct effect on Customer Satisfaction, in addition Complaints has no direct neither indirect effect on Loyalty. Furthermore, the created model of Customer Satisfaction with catering services in Lithuania can be used for any type of research that evaluates customer satisfaction with catering services in Lithuania: any the place in Lithuania and / or the type of catering facility.
... Research around loyalty in B2B markets is lagging behind consumer marketing. Although numerous studies have made an effort to conceptualize and measure the drivers of satisfaction and loyalty in B2C environment (Andreassen and Lindestad, 1997;Bayol et al., 2000;O'Loughlin and Coenders, 2002;Ball et al., 2003;Aydin and Özer, 2005;Chitty et al., 2007), far less research has been done in the B2B area (Chumpitaz and Paparoidamis, 2004;Rauyruen and Miller, 2007). A deep review of the related literature on B2B loyalty has demonstrated that the majority of previous models in B2B mainly focus on modeling loyalty using few relationship variables such as relationship quality and relationship value (Chumpitaz and Paparoidamis, 2004;Caceres and Paparoidamis, 2005;Rauyruen and Miller, 2007;Ulaga and Eggert, 2006;Gil-Saura et al., 2009). ...
Purpose
– This paper aims to examine the most important antecedents of customer loyalty in business-to-business (B2B) context using European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI) model.
Design/methodology/approach
– A questionnaire is designed consisting of measures of customer loyalty gathered mainly from previous related studies. A survey of business customers in construction and mining equipment industry in Iran is conducted, and a total of 90 responses are obtained. The collected data are analyzed according to the structural equation modeling technique using partial least square path modeling software.
Findings
– The ECSI model shows sufficient explanatory power in explaining loyalty in the B2B context. Adding trust to the original model leads to a better explanation of loyalty in the proposed model. In this model, corporate image is the main route to predict loyalty, while satisfaction, complaint handling and trust also are important. Although there is no direct effect of perceived quality, perceived value and expectation on loyalty, their total impact is considerable which is mediated through satisfaction.
Research limitations/implications
– The research should be expanded to other B2B sectors to validate its findings in different industries. Future research can also assess the impact of moderating variables.
Originality/value
– Most previous customer loyalty models concern business-to-consumer (B2C) rather than the B2B context. Moreover, research examining the suitability of the ECSI model in B2B is scarce. This paper addresses these shortcomings by examining a holistic customer loyalty model which incorporates some overlooked constructs as corporate image, expectation and complaint handling from the ECSI model. The proposed model, also adds trust which is not incorporated in national indices despite its importance in predicting loyalty.
... La experiencia en la estimación de la satisfacción sugiere el uso de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales en comparación con los modelos de mínimos cuadrados parciales; esto se debe fundamentalmente a que generan resultados más robustos. Existe consenso en cuanto a qué los modelos estimados a través de mínimos cuadrados parciales generan resultados sesgados, mientras que el modelo estructural con variables latentes, aún en circunstancias donde se presenten medidas con error, proporcionan estimadores insesgados (Caballero, 2006;Casas, 2002;Hontangas et al., 1999;O'Loughlin y Coenders, 2002). ...
Resumen El programa Abasto Social de Leche, que otorga esta bebida de manera subsidiada a personas en estado de pobreza, es uno de los más antiguos en México. El producto ha pasado por diversos mejoramientos de corte nutricional y de imagen; en este el artículo se presentarán los hallazgos so-bre la satisfaccí on que tienen los beneficiarios del programa, a través del uso de una metodología integral que abarca la gestí on del mismo, la perspectiva de los beneficiarios en diversos ambitos y el aspecto comunitario. Los resultados, obtenidos por medio de un modelo de ecuaciones es-tructurales con variables latentes, se nalan que la poblací on objetivo se encuentra satisfecha con el programa.
... The aim of this study is to find out the role of corporate reputation on customer loyalty in B2B context in B2B in Iran. Although the impact of corporate reputation is stated by many studies (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1997, 1998O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2002), limited research investigates the importance of corporate reputation in B2B, therefore discovered variable in the extended model can be contribution of this study. The basis of our model is the previous research by Cretu & Brodie (2007). ...
Corporate reputation researches have largely focus on consumer market and attention has been given to the business market recently. The purpose of this paper is to develop an integrated model that indicates the influence of corporate reputation on customer loyalty in Business-to-Business (B2B) markets by implementing the model of Cretu and Brodie (2007) with additional concentration on personal relationship in B2B. To achieve this purpose, a structured questionnaire distributed among 80 executive managers who work in variety industries such as construction, mining and generator motor equipment in Iran. The results prove that corporate reputation has effect on loyalty but with less impact in compared to satisfaction; moreover the personal relation has no significant impact on loyalty.
... The aim of this study is to find out the role of corporate reputation on customer loyalty in B2B context in B2B in Iran. Although the impact of corporate reputation is stated by many studies (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1997, 1998O'Loughlin & Coenders, 2002), limited research investigates the importance of corporate reputation in B2B, therefore discovered variable in the extended model can be contribution of this study. The basis of our model is the previous research by Cretu & Brodie (2007). ...
This research aims to determine the effects of Service Quality and Bank Image variables on customer Satisfaction and the impact on Word of Mouth (WOM). This Research uses quantitative approach with causal design that aims to test theories, build facts, show relationship between variables. This study uses SPSS 16.0 analysis tools with path analysis regression models. Using primary data, the distribution of data collection used is the questionnaire method. The sample used includes 100 active customers at BNI KCP Sekadau. The results indicate that Service Quality and Bank Image variable have a positive and significant effect on customer Satisfaction and that Service Quality and Bank Image variables have no significant impact on WOM. Finally, the Satisfaction variable has a positive and significant effect on WOM.
Systematic research and comprehensive analyses allow to monitor the implementation of the sustainable development goals. Obviously, when you are interested in the selected issue of sustainable development, it is worth using data from the secondary sources in the first place.
This e-book presents a few selected methods that will allow you to answer the questions: how to gather data and how to analyse them? Among the data collection methods presented in this book, we have chosen both: qualitative, in particular focus group interview, and quantitative—based on a questionnaire. In terms of data analysis methods, we present three methods: factor analysis, structural equation modelling and data envelopment analysis. The examples presented in this book relate to sustainable development, for example: sustainable consumption, ecological culture, better nutrition, agricultural development and many more.
The book consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 “Qualitative methods” presents the issues concerning the methodology of qualitative research, designing a focus group interview, conducting a focus group interview and analysis of qualitative data using the CAQDAS programs. The main goal of Chapter 2 titled “Quantitative methods” is to exhibit the basics of survey research that can be used in analyses of sustainable development. In particular, this part presents the measurement levels, questionnaire design, population and sample, and the ways of presenting the results of quantitative research. Chapter 3 “Factor analysis in sustainable development research” describes the basic theoretical aspects of factor analysis. The second part of this chapter presents an example of the use of this method in research on sustainable consumption. The last part of this chapter presents case study of the use of factor analysis in research on managers’ ethics in retail industry. Chapter 4 titled “Structural equation modelling in sustainable development research” is dedicated to the structural equation modeling methods applied to solve sustainable development research problems. A structural equation model is an abstraction of reality, and the researcher's job is to build a model that approximates that reality as closely as possible. And the aim of Chapter 5 “Data envelopment analysis methods in sustainable agricultural development research” is to determine the relative technical efficiency of representative agricultural farms from the individual European Union countries.
more:
http://cenetsie.ue.poznan.pl/methods-in-sustainable-development/
Teacher online learning is an important way to solve teacher shortage and improve teachers’ professional development. However, previous research works that focused on teacher-as-learner satisfaction with online learning were not enough. The aim of this study is to investigate factors that influence teacher satisfaction with online learning. The potential relation and whether there are differences in gender and teaching year among the factors were also studied. The Teacher Satisfaction Index (TSI) model is newly proposed based on the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) model. A questionnaire survey was administered to 108 middle school teachers from four cities in China. Structure equation modeling was used to corroborate the initial model hypotheses regarding the relationship between variables (teacher satisfaction, teacher perceived quality, teacher expectation, teacher loyalty, and teacher complaint). A t-test and analysis of variance were conducted to investigate whether gender and teaching year were related to teacher satisfaction with online learning. Three main findings emerged. First, perceived quality predicted by teacher expectation significantly influenced teacher satisfaction with online learning. Also, teacher satisfaction significantly affected complaints and loyalty. Second, gender had no effect on the five variables. Third, teaching year played a significant role in teacher expectation. This study provides empirical evidence on what factors affect teacher satisfaction with online learning, gives insight into the development of the teacher online learning system, and suggests designer and administrator strategies for the platform content design and management.
 Today, tablet computer business world is growing and developing very rapidly. In Indonesia, the most striking development is the competition of two famous vendors, that be the market leader in table computer market, namely between Apple with its iPad product, and Samsung with its Galaxy tab product that having Android OS. The both tablet computers so steal Indonesian attention, in particular the gadget lovers. With the different OS specifications and uses, of course, each of products has its advantages and disadvantages. Every product has certain uniqueness, which may attract the consumer interest; it also includes the selling price. Likewise with the EMAX Apple Store of Surabaya that always wants to attract the consumer interest to choose the Apple iPad Tablet Computer products.From the result of testing on the model in this research, by using random sampling, structural equation model (SEM) analysis, and the assistance of software Amos 20, on 200 respondents, it has been able to explain the correlation of consumer motivation, quality perception, consumer attitude, and Brand Image, on the decision of Apple iPad Tablet computer buying at EMAX Apple Store of Surabaya.In this research, it was obtained 1) Consumer motivation had positive effect on the decision of Apple iPad tablet computer buying, 2) Quality perception had positive effect on the decision of Apple iPad tablet computer buying, 3) Consumer attitude had positive effect on the decision of Apple iPad tablet computer buying, 4) Brand image had positive effect on the decision of Apple iPad tablet computer buying, 5) Consumer motivation, Quality perception, Consumer attitude, and Brand image simultaneously had positive effect on the decision of Apple iPad tablet computer buying at EMAX Apple Store of Surabaya.Key words: EMAX Apple Store, consumer motivation, quality motivation, consumer attitude, brand image, buying decision.
Technological advancements provided convenience to people availing different kinds of services, prompting mobile commerce growth through mobile applications. Motorcycle taxi applications (MTA) are alternatives used by commuters at present to avoid experiencing traffic congestion and breakdowns in public transportation. The growing demand of customers using MTAs in the Philippines and the limited studies available for use in the local setting were the motivation of this study which addressed three (3) objectives: examine the awareness of motorcycle taxi commuters, identify the significant factors that affect the customer’s satisfaction in using the MTAs, and determine the level of satisfaction that customers experience in using the various MTAs. Data gathering was done using purposive sampling and survey questionnaires while cross-tabulation, Chi-Square analysis, and one-way ANOVA were used to statistically test the data gathered. The Customer Satisfaction Index (CSI) model was used to measure the customers’ satisfaction. Results indicated that the most common users of MTAs were students and young professionals while age, occupation, and gender showed significance in MTA usage. Users in the income range of Php 40,000 and above considered the factor mindfulness of the territory to be significant while users with an income range of Php 12,000 and below considered the factor rider’s helpfulness and attitude. A CSI value of 76.86% was also computed, signifying that customers in the Philippines were satisfied in using the various MT applications but suggests that the features and services in the applications can still be further improved to continue providing adequate service and increase customer satisfaction.
The use of technology in these services has significantly become an important part of people's daily lives. The ease of using ride-hailing services makes the adoption of this service easier to accept and use. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors influencing customer satisfaction in using online-based ride-hailing services in the sharing economy of business platforms in Indonesia. This study empirically analyzed variable data using non-probability sampling techniques on a questionnaire to 500 sample data from respondents who have used online-based four-wheeled car transportation with a frequency of more than five times a year. The linear regression analysis model is used to examine the effect of 7 variables affecting Indonesia's customer satisfaction. Based on the results, four variables significantly influenced customer satisfaction: tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, and information and communication technology (ICT). The variable that affected but was not significant (marginally significant) was the price, and two variables that did not affect customer satisfaction were assurance and empathy. Thus, ride-hailing service providers need to maintain service quality standards to ensure customer satisfaction. This research is also useful for ride-hailing services to maintain fairness in prices, pay attention to the ease of use of information and communication technology, and maintain customer satisfaction to increase competitive advantage over competitors.
Keywords: customer satisfaction, ICT, price, Ride hailing, service quality
The objectives of this study are to examine the effects of product, service and human resource performances on repurchasing intention through company image and customer satisfaction of PT Asuransi Jiwasraya. 115 customers from 245 customers of six branch offices of PT Asuransi Jiwasraya Surabaya Region were selected as respondents, using simple random sampling technique and participated in this study. The data were collected in 2004 using questionnaires and analyzed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).
The result of this study proved that product, service as well as human resource performances had positive and significant effects on company image as well as on customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction also had a significant effect on repurchase intention. However, company image had insignificant effects on repurchase intention. Therefore, out of nine hypotheses proposed, only one hypothesis was rejected, which was the significant effect of company image on repurchase intention. This finding reminded an important empirical evidence on the development of customer behavior theories and practices.
The issue of countries' competitiveness and sustainable economic growth is constantly at the centre of interest and represents the frequent object of research in economic theory as well as economic practice. The multi-criterial approach and the assessment methodologies relating to the global competitiveness have been dynamically adjusted over the recent years to reflect the current globalization trends in the world economy. The main objective of this study is to analyse the objectivity and resulting values' deviations of the Global competitiveness Index (GCI) and World Competitiveness Index (WCI) composite indexes that are currently considered to be the world's most respected and to identify the impact of key factors that affect the countries' competitive positions with a focus on Slovakia. The research study is realized within the group of EU (24) countries for the period 2006 – 2016. The partial objective is to summarize the main starting points of the World Economic Forum (WEF) and Institute for Management Development (IMD) composing these indices, to identify their common features and different approaches that create differences in the results achieved. Then we analyzed the differences between the resulting rankings and the resulting scores of the GCI and WCI rated countries. In the next part, we focused on analyzing the position of Slovakia using the correlation and multiple regression analysis and identifying the interrelationships between individual pillars and the GCI score in order to determine the impact of key factors that influence the competitive position and sustainable growth of Slovakia and improve or worsen its position. Our results highlighted the economic and statistical context of GCI Slovakia development and the impact of the following key pillars and key factors: pillar P1 (P1: Institutions – Public trust in politicians), pillar P3 (P3: Macroeconomic environment – Government debt) and pillar P11 (P11: Business sophistication – Nature of competitive advantage). All three pillars, identified as crucial to the development of the overall Slovakias' GCI scores, occupy unflattering positions in the comparison of pillar rankings. Therefore, we conclude that it is necessary to clarify the causes of their development and eliminate these identified factors as soon as possible. The results can be seen as beneficial to countries' economic policies in increasing global competitiveness. © 2018 by author(s) and VsI Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Center.
There is currently a significant trend toward measuring the success of e-government developments for the better satisfaction of stakeholders. In the Kingdom of Bahrain, many initiatives have been formulated to leverage the quality of governmental electronic services including the establishment of robust measures that provide valuable indications of satisfaction with government e-services from the perspective of stakeholders. Therefore, the current study aims to develop a recognized model based on ACSI for measuring the customer satisfaction index for the e-services in the Kingdom of Bahrain (BHCSI). For this purpose, the key factors affecting customer satisfaction with e-services will be identified. Moreover, the BHCSI will be explored for eservices at different levels using the developed model. In view of these aims, questionnaires were developed and distributed to three different types of stakeholders (residents, business and government). The main finding of this research is that the e-services provided by the iGA are accepted and used by individuals with various ages, gender, nationality and education due to the huge efforts provided by iGA to transform the Kingdom of Bahrain into a digital society and economy. Moreover, reaching a customer index (BHCSI) of 79.4 is another achievement for this small country. Many countries have failed to reach this high score, and it is therefore an outstanding accomplishment and indication of success for the iGA and the Kingdom of Bahrain.
The present study has attempted to identify Indian farmers’ level of satisfaction and loyalty pertaining to the purchase and use of different fertilizer brands. Fertilizer brands have to operate under certain prevailing constraints, such as uncertainty in weather conditions, the nature of the product and its usages. Added to this, there has been a reduction in the subsidy offered by the government of India, resulting in the escalation of complex fertilizer prices from INR 500 per bag to more than INR 1200 per bag. In order to gain competitive advantage through larger market share and increased profitability under the aforementioned constraints, retention of existing customers and strengthening brand loyalty have become significant preferences for fertilizer-selling firms. The study has employed data envelopment analysis as a tool to measure farmers’ satisfaction and brand loyalty efficiency toward existing fertilizer brands. The European Customer Satisfaction Index model has been used as a reference for the paper. The data analysis reveals that Paradeep Phosphates Limited featured as the most preferred brand. The study has several implications. Managers can use these findings for their self-assessment of the fertilizer brands and then improve upon or manage the farmers’ satisfaction and loyalty patterns.
Business environment, including in insurance industry,y is very dynamic and hypercompetitive, particularly in time of financial crises. Every company is continuously demanded to make any improvement to face some changes and competitive advantages for achieving its ultimate goals (company performances’ growth and development). Therefore, the efficiency, effectiveness and productivity of the company must be increased. on its product, service as well as human resource performances. When these performances are continuously improved, they may improve their customers’ trustworthy on the company’s product and or services, create the company’s image and customers’ satisfaction which can be proved by their intention to repurchase.The objectives of this study are to examine the effects of product, service and human resource performances on repurchase intention through company image and customer satisfaction of PT Asuransi Jiwasraya. 115 customers from 245 customers of six branch offices of PT Asuransi Jiwasraya Surabaya Region were selected as respondents, using simple random sampling technique and participated in this study. The data were collected in 2004 using questionnaires and analyzed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis, which were processed using Amos 5.0 version of statistic computer program. Results of this study proved that product, service as well as human resource performances have positive and significant effects on company image as well as on customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction also had a significant effect on repurchase intention. However, company image had insignificant effects on repurchase intention. Therefore, out of nine hypotheses proposed, only one hypothesis was rejected, which was the significant effect of company image on repurchase intention. This finding reminds an important empirical evidence on the development of customer behavior theories and practices.
A satisfação dos clientes tornou-se um dos aspectos mais relevantes para as empresas devido ao aumento das exigências dos consumidores que passaram a usufruir de uma crescente oferta de produtos e serviços. Nesse sentido, vários estudos foram realizados visando a criar e aperfeiçoar modelos, como o Swedish Customer Satisfaction Index, American Customer Satisfaction Index e European Customer Satisfaction Index, para identificar o nível de satisfação dos clientes. O presente artigo tem como objetivo mensurar o nível de satisfação dos clientes com o serviço de fast food, considerando as variáveis referentes a expectativas dos clientes, qualidade percebida, imagem, valor percebido, reclamações e lealdade, que fazem parte do Índice Europeu de Satisfação do Consumidor. A pesquisa realizada é de caráter descritivo e a coleta de dados foi obtida por meio de questionário, composto por 30 questões, aplicado a 210 universitários na cidade de Santa Maria/RS. Para análise dos dados, foi utilizado o método PLS-PM. Os resultados encontrados evidenciam que a variável valor percebido foi a que mais influenciou na satisfação dos clientes, seguida das variáveis qualidade percebida, imagem e expectativa dos clientes. A maioria das hipóteses da pesquisa foram comprovadas, dessa forma, o modelo utilizado demonstrou ser adequado para verificar a satisfação dos clientes em relação aos serviços de fast food.
This study inferred to many domestic and foreign literature as well as research reports, we used the FEMA method to analyze every phrase in B to C e-commerce transactions to build the service quality index, then the multidimensional scaling method to categorize these service quality indexes, in order to establish the five dimensions of e-service.
Sometimes, the satisfaction of the citizens with the city in which they live is high, but local and municipal governments do not get much credit for it. It is important for local and municipal authorities to understand what they can control and what they cannot. Then, they can focus on the most important factors that can affect citizens. A causal model based on partial least squares structural equation will be proposed. The Citizen Satisfaction Index (CSI) model developed by Zenker, Petersen & Aholt (2013) is taken as reference. This model discusses that overall satisfaction with a place is mainly described by four different basic factors: Urbanity and Diversity, Nature and Recreation, Job Opportunities and Cost-efficiency. The aim of this work was the presentation of our model of Citizen Satisfaction with local Government Management and the comparison between our results and the Duffy et al. (2010) model.
We present an application of the European Customer Satisfaction Index to the Mexican Restaurant Industry. We model the Index using Partial Least Squares Path Modeling. We will present the literature review that supports the construction of the manifest variables that serve as a proxy for the latent variables of the model. We also give an economic background on the importance of the Restaurant industry in Mexico, in particular in Guadalajara´s Metropolitan Area. We aim to contribute to the literature with a better understanding of customer satisfaction, which is measured through loyalty. Introduction Measurement of quality in services and products entered the realm of academics and industry in Mexico in the late 90s. To date, the Mexican consumer has become more demanding, having had contact with robust systems of excellence, including global franchises. Even the government is beginning to feel the demands of taxpayers who ask for accountability and transparency in regards to their taxes. In the early 70s, quality gurus emphasized the fact that quality is free, and that it was enough to produce quality goods or offer quality services in order to increase sales. However, the 80s saw a different trend. Firms opted to keep their customers satisfied, as this was cheaper than implementing costly campaigns to find new customers. As a consequence, measures of satisfaction were required to clarify a firm's areas of opportunity.
El objetivo principal de este artículo es explicar qué son y cómo funcionan los índices de calidad percibida y satisfacción de los egresados de las universidades basados en modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Como objetivos secundarios nos proponemos explicar la importancia de complementar las evaluaciones tradicionales de la calidad universitaria (evaluación institucional, acreditación y rankings) con la calidad percibida y la satisfacción de los egresados y el sentido de esta nueva perspectiva por su capacidad de aportar información sumamente relevante para la mejora institucional en términos de eficacia y eficiencia. En líneas generales, los índices de calidad percibida y satisfacción permiten conocer 1) cuáles son los factores que determinan los niveles de calidad percibida y satisfacción de los egresados, 2) en qué medida lo hace cada uno de ellos, 3) cuáles son las variables más relevantes dentro de cada factor y 4) cuáles son las consecuencias de esos niveles de calidad percibida y satisfacción en los comportamientos, opiniones y actitudes de los egresados hacia la institución.
In this paper, four influential national CSIs are compared from two perspectives – the latent and manifest variables in CSI models, the relationships among latent variables. Some valuable results are obtained and they will be instructive to establish future Chinese CSI.
Based on theory from consumer behavior; cognitive psychology, and social cognitive psychology, this article explores the effect of corporate image in the formation of customer loyalty. Findings from the goods and service sector indicate that corporate image has a significant but indirect impact on customer loyalty. In conclusion, the authors claim that customer loyalty is driven both by disconfirmation of expectations and corporate image.
This paper discusses a new customer satisfaction index which is based on the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) model but takes into account company- or sector-specific satisfaction drivers. The concept is developed for the Austrian food retail market. Suitable satisfaction drivers have been identified from the literature and talks with experts. Application of factor analysis shows that these variables are well represented by three factors, viz. the emotional perception, the assessment of the customer orientation and the price-performance ratio. An empirical investigation based on 1000 households shows that the emotional factor and the price-performance ratio but not the assessment of the customer orientation contribute significantly to the explanation of the data. These empirical results show that the extension of the model by satisfaction drivers is a necessary feature for the ACSI model to be adequate, at least in the case of the food retail market. From the point of view of the user, an advantage of the new customer satisfaction index is that the values of the coefficients of the satisfaction drivers give clear hints on potential improvements.
The customer asset is an important intangible. Its value depends, for example, on the customer satisfaction level. Thus, it is important to monitor that level, and to identify cost-efficient actions to improve it. The European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI) system is based on a structural model for such monitoring, a model that is estimated by partial least squares (PLS). The robustness of PLS applied on an ESCI-like measurement model is studied in the present paper. Monte Carlo simulations show that PLS is reasonably robust against multicollinearity, skew response distributions and various types of model misspecifications. This is true, in particular, when estimating the customer satisfaction index.
A nonlinear mean- and covariance-structure model for one or more groups is constructed. The model subsumes the usual linear model considered in the literature. It is then shown how to estimate the parameters of the model and the asymptotic covariance matrix of the parameter estimates using pseudo-maximum likelihood (PML) estimation. The resulting estimates are strongly consistent under general regularity conditions, provided only that the model for the first two moments is correctly specified. Nevertheless, because the data are not necessarily drawn from a multivariate normal distribution, the usual likelihood ratio tests for model comparisons in mean- and covariance-structure models do not apply. Wald tests and Lagrange multiplier tests may be used to implement such comparisons. Next, the standard results on ML estimation with missing data are extended to the case of PML estimation with missing data, and the results are applied to the model. The approach to the missing-data problem adopted, which decomposes the pseudo-log-likelihood function from normal theory into a sum of individual components, cannot generally be implemented by using existing mean- and covariance-structure programs. In some important instances, however, the approach can be implemented by using one of the standard programs (e.g., LISREL). Finally, an example is used to illustrate the approach used. In particular, data from various sources are combined to circumvent an omitted-variables problem in a linear system of equations. The example is somewhat novel because there is no complete data sample from which the model could be estimated. Comments are made on other research situations where data can be combined from multiple sources in the absence of a complete data sample to estimate models that could not otherwise be considered.
Based on theory from consumer behavior and cognitive psychology, the purpose of this paper is to discuss and test corporate image and customer satisfaction as two routes to customer loyalty. Based on data from 600 individual customers categorized as having high or low service expertise of three companies within the package tour industry, a conceptual model is proposed and tested empirically using structural equation modeling. The data used in the study are included in The Norwegian Customer Satisfaction Barometer. The paper concludes by claiming that for complex services, corporate image and customer satisfaction are not two separate routes to customer loyalty. Corporate image impacts customer loyalty directly whereas customer satisfaction does not. This finding was consistent with high and low service expertise. These results challenge the disconfirmation paradigm which predicts customer satisfaction as the primary route to customer loyalty. From a managerial perspective, information regarding the relative strength of the two routes is vital with regard to resource allocation in order to improve customer loyalty.
A number of both national and international customer satisfaction barometers or indices have been introduced in the last decade. For the most part, these satisfaction indices are embedded within a system of cause and eect relationships or satisfaction model. Yet there has been little in the way of model development. Of critical importance to the validity and reli-ability of such indices is that the models and methods used to measure customer satisfaction and related constructs continue to learn, adapt and improve over time. The primary goal of this research is to propose and test a number of modi®cations and improvements to the na-tional index models. Using survey data from the Norwegian Customer Satisfaction Barometer (NCSB), we ®nd general support for the proposed modi®cations. Ó 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. PsycINFO classi®cation: 3920
Uses a simulation example to show that maximum likelihood (ML) approaches and associated multiple imputations of missing data provide unbiased, efficient estimates of variance and covariance parameters in normally distributed and skewed data. The authors also examine parameter estimates obtained from mean replacement, single imputation, and pairwise deletion when data are missing completely at random (MCAR) and where nonrandom missingness is overlaid on the 3-form design. An example from an alcohol and drug abuse prevention program is analyzed using ML and pairwise estimation. A simulation is performed to indicate when it is better to choose to split scales across forms or keep scales complete within forms. Results show that ML estimation and multiple imputation methods produce the most efficient and least biased variance and covariance estimates for normally distributed and slightly skewed data when data are MCAR. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of the present article was to reconsider several conclusions by Velicer and Jackson (1990a) in their review of issues that arise when comparing common factor analysis and principal component analysis. Specifically, the three conclusions by Velicer and Jackson that are considered in the present article are: (a) that common factor and principal component solutions are similar, (b) that differences between common factor and principal component solutions appear only when too many dimensions are extracted, and (c) that common factor and principal component parameters are equally generalizable. In contrast, Snook and Gorsuch (1989) argued recently that principal component analysis and common factor analysis led to different, dissimilar estimates of pattern loadings, terming the principal component loadings biased and the common factor loadings unbiased. In the present article, after replicating the Snook and Gorsuch results, an extension demonstrated that the difference between common factor and principal component pattern loadings is inversely related to the number of indicators per factor, not to the total number of observed variables in the analysis, countering claims by both Snook and Gorsuch and Velicer and Jackson. Considering the more general case of oblique factors, one concomitant of overrepresentation of pattern loadings is an underrepresentation of intercorrelations among dimensions represented by principal component analysis, whereas comparable values obtained using factor analysis are accurate. Differences in parameters deriving from principal component analysis and common factor analysis were explored in relation to several additional aspects of population data, such as variation in the level of communality of variables on a given factor and the moving of a variable from one battery of measures to another. The results suggest that principal component analysis should not be used if a researcher wishes to obtain parameters reflecting latent constructs or factors.
Examines whether common procedures for conducting specification searches are likely to lead to discovery of the correct population model by constructing artificial data for which there is a known correct model, fitting a misspecified model to the data, and determining whether a specification search would lead to specification of the correct model. Results indicate that the likelihood of success in a specification search is optimal when (a) the investigator's initial model corresponds closely to the true model, (b) the search is allowed to continue even when a statistically plausible model is obtained, (c) the investigator can place valid restrictions on permissible modifications, and (d) a large sample is used. It is shown that even under favorable conditions, models arising from specification searches must be viewed with caution. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A family of scaling corrections aimed to improve the chi-square approximation of goodness-of-fit test statistics in small
samples, large models, and nonnormal data was proposed in Satorra and Bentler (1994). For structural equations models, Satorra-Bentler's
(SB) scaling corrections are available in standard computer software. Often, however, the interest is not on the overall fit
of a model, but on a test of the restrictions that a null model sayM
0 implies on a less restricted oneM
1. IfT
0 andT
1 denote the goodness-of-fit test statistics associated toM
0 andM
1, respectively, then typically the differenceT
d
=T
0−T
1 is used as a chi-square test statistic with degrees of freedom equal to the difference on the number of independent parameters
estimated under the modelsM
0 andM
1. As in the case of the goodness-of-fit test, it is of interest to scale the statisticT
d
in order to improve its chi-square approximation in realistic, that is, nonasymptotic and nonormal, applications. In a recent
paper, Satorra (2000) shows that the difference between two SB scaled test statistics for overall model fit does not yield
the correct SB scaled difference test statistic. Satorra developed an expression that permits scaling the difference test
statistic, but his formula has some practical limitations, since it requires heavy computations that are not available in
standard computer software. The purpose of the present paper is to provide an easy way to compute the scaled difference chi-square
statistic from the scaled goodness-of-fit test statistics of modelsM
0 andM
1. A Monte Carlo study is provided to illustrate the performance of the competing statistics.
Missing data problems have been a thorn in the side of prevention researchers for years. Although some solutions for these problems have been available in the statistical literature, these solutions have not found their way into mainstream prevention research. This chapter is meant to serve as an introduction to the systematic application of the missing data analysis solutions presented recently by Little and Rubin (1987) and others. The chapter does not describe a complete strategy, but it is relevant for (1) missing data analysis with continuous (but not categorical) data, (2) data that are reasonably normally distributed, and (3) solutions for missing data problems for analyses related to the general linear model in particular, analyses that use (or can use) a covariance matrix as input. The examples in the chapter come from drug prevention research. The chapter discusses (1) the problem of wanting to ask respondents more questions than most individuals can answer; (2) the problem of attrition and some solutions; and (3) the problem of special measurement procedures that are too expensive or time consuming to obtain for all subjects. The authors end with several conclusions: Whenever possible, researchers should use the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm (or other maximum likelihood procedure, including the multiple-group structural equation-modeling procedure or, where appropriate, multiple imputation, for analyses involving missing data [the chapter provides concrete examples]); If researchers must use other analyses, they should keep in mind that these others produce biased results and should not be relied upon for final analyses; When data are missing, the appropriate missing data analysis procedures do not generate something out of nothing but do make the most out of the data available; When data are missing, researchers should work hard (especially when planning a study) to find the cause of missingness and include the cause in the analysis models; and Researchers should sample the cases originally missing (whenever possible) and adjust EM algorithm parameter estimates accordingly.
Cross-sectional studies of attitude-behavior relationships are vulnerable to the inflation of correlations by common method variance (CMV). Here, a model is presented that allows partial correlation analysis to adjust the observed correlations for CMV contamination and determine if conclusions about the statistical and practical significance of a predictor have been influenced by the presence of CMV. This method also suggests procedures for designing questionnaires to increase the precision of this adjustment.
The American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) is a new type of market-based performance measure for firms, industries, economic sectors, and national economies. The authors discuss the nature and purpose of ACSI and explain the theory underlying the ACSI model, the nation-wide survey methodology used to collect the data, and the econometric approach employed to estimate the indices. They also illustrate the use of ACSI in conducting benchmarking studies, both cross-sectionally and over time. The authors find customer satisfaction to be greater for goods than for services and, in turn, greater for services than for government agencies, as well as find cause for concern in the observation that customer satisfaction in the United States is declining, primarily because of decreasing satisfaction with services. The authors estimate the model for the seven major economic sectors for which data are collected. Highlights of the findings include that (1) customization is more important than reliability in determining customer satisfaction, (2) customer expectations play a greater role in sectors in which variance in production and consumption is relatively low, and (3) customer satisfaction is more quality-driven than value- or price-driven. The authors conclude with a discussion of the implications of ACSI for public policymakers, managers, consumers, and marketing in general.
Sure, and longitudinal studies in the social and behavioral sciences generally contain missing data. Mean and covariance structure models play an important role in analyzing such data. Two promising methods for dealing with missing data are a direct I,maximum-likelihood and a two-stage approach based on the unstructured mean and covariance estimates obtained by the EM-algorithm. Typical assumptions under these two methods are ignorable nonresponse and normality of data. However, data sets in social and behavioral sciences are seldom normal. and experience with these procedures indicates that normal theory based methods for nonnormal data very often lead to incorrect model evaluations. By dropping the normal distribution assumption, we develop more accurate procedures for model inference. Based on the theory of generalized estimating equations, a way to obtain consistent standard errors of the two-stage estimates is given. The asymptotic efficiencies of different estimators are compared under various assumptions. Ne also propose a minimum chi-square approach and show that the estimator obtained by this approach is asymptotically at least as efficient as the two likelihood-based estimators for either normal or nonnormal darn. The major contribution of this paper is that for each estimator, we give a test statistic whose asymptotic distribution is chi-square as long as the underlying sampling distribution enjoys finite fourth-order moments. Ne also give a characterization for each of the two likelihood ratio rest statistics,when the underlying distribution is nonnormal. Modifications to the likelihood ratio statistics are also Riven. Our working assumption is that the missing data mechanism is missing comptetely at random. examples and Monte Carlo studies indicate that, for commonly encountered nonnormal distributions, the procedures developed in this paper are quite reliable even for samples with missing data that ar-e missing at random.
A general method for estimating the unknown coefficients in a set of linear structural equations is described. In its most general form the method allows for both errors in equations (residuals, disturbances) and errors in variables (errors of measurement, observational errors) and yields estimates of the residual variance-covariance matrix and the measurement error variances as well as estimates of the unknown coefficients in the structural equations, provided all these parameters are identified. Two special cases of this general method are discussed separately. One is when there are errors in equations but no errors in variables. The other is when there are errors in variables but no errors in equations. The methods are applied and illustrated using artificial, economic and psychological data.
Large-scale surveys using complex sample designs are frequently carried out by government agencies. The statistical analysis technology available for such data is, however, limited in scope. This study investigates and further develops statistical methods that could be used in software for the analysis of data collected under complex sample designs. First, it identifies several recent methodological lines of inquiry which taken together provide a powerful and general statistical basis for a complex sample, structural equation modeling analysis. Second, it extends some of this research to new situations of interest. A Monte Carlo study that empirically evaluates these techniques on simulated data comparable to those in largescale complex surveys demonstrates that they work well in practice. Due to the generality of the approaches, the methods cover not only continuous normal variables but also continuous non-normal variables and dichotomous variables. Two methods designed to take into account the complex sample structure were investigated in the Monte Carlo study. One method, termed aggregated analysis, computes the usual parameter estimates but adjusts standard errors and goodness-of-fit model testing. The other method, termed disaggregated analysis, includes a new set of parameters reflecting the complex sample structure. Both of the methods worked very well. The conventional method that ignores complex sampling worked poorly, supporting the need for development of special methods for complex survey data.
Standard methods in moment-structure analysis extensively use the assumption that the vector of observable variables is normally distributed. In practice, however, the data tend to deviate from this normality assumption. In contrast with parameter estimators that are consistent even under non-normality, standard errors of estimators and the asymptotic chi-squaredness of usual goodness-of-fit statistics can suffer from violation of distributional assumptions. Asymptotic distribution-free (ADF) methods have been proposed in structural-equation models to deal with non-normal data. The ADF methods, however, require the explicit computation of a large matrix of fourth-order sample moments which then needs to be inverted. It is widely recognised that ADF methods are computationally a burden and lack robustness against small samples. As an alternative to the ADF methods, asymptotic robust standard errors and asymptotic robust chi-square goodness-of-fit statistics have been proposed in single-sample analysis. In the present paper these robust statistics will be generalised to multi-sample analysis, and it will be shown that they do not require explicit computation of an estimator of the mentioned large matrix of fourth-order moments. Further, it will be shown, in the multi-sample context, that there are some instances where robust standard errors and chi-square statistics are not required despite non-normality of the data. The last point requires us to deal with issues which were not present in developing the corresponding theory in the context of single-sample analysis. Simulated data are used to illustrate the performance of the asymptotic results of the paper in finite samples.
The authors investigate whether it is necessary to include disconfirmation as an intervening variable affecting satisfaction as is commonly argued, or whether the effect of disconfirmation is adequately captured by expectation and perceived performance. Further, they model the process for two types of products, a durable and a nondurable good, using experimental procedures in which three levels of expectations and three levels of performance are manipulated for each product in a factorial design. Each subject's perceived expectations, performance evaluations, disconfirmation, and satisfaction are subsequently measured by using multiple measures for each construct. The results suggest the effects are different for the two products. For the nondurable good, the relationships are as typically hypothesized. The results for the durable good are different in important respects. First, neither the disconfirmation experience nor subjects' initial expectations affected subjects' satisfaction with it. Rather, their satisfaction was determined solely by the performance of the durable good. Expectations did combine with performance to affect disconfirmation, though the magnitude of the disconfirmation experience did not translate into an impact on satisfaction. Finally, the direct performance-satisfaction link accounts for most of the variation in satisfaction.
This paper expands on a recent study by Muthen & Kaplan (1985) by examining the impact of non-normal Likert variables on testing and estimation in factor analysis for models of various size. Normal theory GLS and the recently developed ADF estimator are compared for six cases of non-normality, two sample sizes, and four models of increasing size in a Monte Carlo framework with a large number of replications. Results show that GLS and ADF chi-square tests are increasingly sensitive to non-normality when the size of the model increases. No parameter estimate bias was observed for GLS and only slight parameter bias was found for ADF. A downward bias in estimated standard errors was found for GLS which remains constant across model size. For ADF, a downward bias in estimated standard errors was also found which became increasingly worse with the size of the model.
In practice, several measures of association are used when analyzing structural equation models with ordinal variables: ordinary Pearson correlations (PE approach), polychoric and polyserial correlations (PO approach), and conditional polychoric correlations (CPO approach). In the case of structural equation models without latent variables, the literature has shown that the PE approach is outperformed by the alternatives. In this article we report a Monte Carlo study showing the comparative performance of the aforementioned alternative approaches under deviations from their respective assumptions in the case of structural equation models with latent variables when attention is restricted to point estimates of model parameters. The CPO approach is shown to be the most robust against nonnormality. It is also robust to randomness of the exogenous variables, but not to the existence of measurement errors in them. The PO approach lacks robustness against nonnormality. The PE approach lacks robustness against transformation errors but otherwise it can perform about as well as the alternative approaches.
This article gives an introduction to some new techniques for multilevel covariance structure modeling with latent variables. Although these techniques only incorporate a subset of models that are relevant to multilevel data, the techniques do provide a large set of new analysis possibilities and have the advantage that they only require conventional structural equation modeling software. The presentation draws on methodology presented in earlier works by the author.
Questions of whether hypothesized structure models are appropriate representations of the pattern of association among a group of variables can be addressed using a wide variety of statistical procedures. These procedures include covariance structure analysis techniques and correlation structure analysis techniques, in which covariance structure procedures are based on distribution theory for covariances, and correlation structure procedures are based on distribution theory for correlations. The present article provides an overview of standard and modified normal theory and asymptotically distribution-free covariance and correlation structure analysis techniques and also details Monte Carlo simulation results on the Type I and Type II error control as a function of structure model type, number of variables in the model, sample size, and distributional nonnormality. The present Monte Carlo simulation demonstrates clearly that the robustness and nonrobustness of structure analysis techniques vary as a function of the structure of the model and the data conditions. Implications of these results for users of structure analysis techniques are considered in the context of current software availability.
Are there economic benefits to improving customer satisfaction? Many firms that are frustrated in their efforts to improve quality and customer satisfaction are beginning to question the link between customer satisfaction and economic returns. The authors investigate the nature and strength of this link. They discuss how expectations, quality, and price should affect customer satisfaction and why customer satisfaction, in turn, should affect profitability; this results in a set of hypotheses that are tested using a national customer satisfaction index and traditional accounting measures of economic returns, such as return on investment. The findings support a positive impact of quality on customer satisfaction, and, in tum, profitability. The authors demonstrate the economic benefits of increasing customer satisfaction using both an empirical forecast and a new analytical model. In addition, they discuss why increasing market share actually might lead to lower customer satisfaction and provide preliminary empirical support for this hypothesis. Finally, two new findings emerge: First, the market's expectations of the quality of a firm's output positively affects customers' overall satisfaction with the firm; and second, these expectations are largely rational, albeit with a small adaptive component.
A. Satorra and P. Bentler . . . developed an approach to the asymptotic behavior of covariance structure statistics that rather naturally yields corrections to the goodness-of-fit statistic of the scaling and Satterthwaite types / present these results and . . . illustrate how they improve upon the uncorrected statistics that are now implemented in the field of covariance structure analysis / [show] that the proposed corrections not only encompass the ones advocated by A. Shapiro and M. Browne (1987) in case of elliptical data but do not suffer from the drawback of Browne-Shapiro's corrections of lack of robustness against deviations from the assumption of an elliptical distribution / provides a theory for correcting the standard covariance matrix of the vector of parameter estimates (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
any application of structural equation modeling (SEM) must involve the specification of one or more models to be evaluated / it is critical for researchers using SEM to have a sound working knowledge of procedures and strategies for model specification / provide a detailed presentation of procedures for model specification as well as a discussion of related issues, such as the existence of equivalent models / discuss and offer recommendations regarding strategies for model construction / focus on the general case of conventional linear structural equation models (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A Monte Carlo simulation examined the performance of 4 missing data methods in structural equation models: full information maximum likelihood (FIML), listwise deletion, pairwise deletion, and similar response pattern imputation. The effects of 3 independent variables were examined (factor loading magnitude, sample size, and missing data rate) on 4 outcome measures: convergence failures, parameter estimate bias, parameter estimate efficiency, and model goodness of fit. Results indicated that FIML estimation was superior across all conditions of the design. Under ignorable missing data conditions (missing completely at random and missing at random), FIML estimates were unbiased and more efficient than the other methods. In addition, FIML yielded the lowest proportion of convergence failures and provided near-optimal Type 1 error rates across both simulations.
The article gives alternatives to Campbell and O'Connell's (1967) definitions of addi-tive and multiplicative method effects in multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) data. The alternative definitions can be formulated by means of constraints in the parameters of the correlated uniqueness (CU) model (Marsh, 1989), which is first reviewed. The definitions have 2 major advantages. First, they allow the researcher to test for addi-tive and multiplicative method effects in a straightforward manner by simply testing the appropriate constraints. An illustration of these tests is given. Second, the alterna-tive definitions are closely linked to other currently used models. The article shows that CU models with additive constraints are equivalent to constrained versions of the confirmatory factor analysis model for MTMM data (Althauser, Heberlein, & Scott, 1971; Werts & Linn, 1970). In addition, Coenders and Saris (1998) showed that, for designs with 3 methods, a CU model with multiplicative constraints is equivalent to the direct product model (Browne, 1984). Multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) designs (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) consist of multiple measures of a set of factors (traits) with the same set of measurement pro-cedures (methods). So these designs include t × m measures, that is, the number of methods (m) times the number of traits (t). The differences between methods can be STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING, 7(2), 219–250 Copyright © 2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This research investigates the antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction. We develop a model to link explicitly the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction in a utility-oriented framework. We estimate and test the model against alternative hypotheses from the satisfaction literature. In the process, a unique database is analyzed: a nationally representative survey of 22,300 customers of a variety of major products and services in Sweden in 1989–1990. Several well-known experimental findings of satisfaction research are tested in a field setting of national scope. For example, we find that satisfaction is best specified as a function of perceived quality and “disconfirmation”—the extent to which perceived quality fails to match prepurchase expectations. Surprisingly, expectations do not directly affect satisfaction, as is often suggested in the satisfaction literature. In addition, we find quality which falls short of expectations has a greater impact on satisfaction and repurchase intentions than quality which exceeds expectations. Moreover, we find that disconfirmation is more likely to occur when quality is easy to evaluate. Finally, in terms of systematic variation across firms, we find the elasticity of repurchase intentions with respect to satisfaction to be lower for firms that provide high satisfaction. This implies a long-run reputation effect insulating firms which consistently provide high satisfaction.
In structural equation modeling the statistician needs assumptions inorder (1) to guarantee that the estimates are consistent for the parameters of interest, and (2) to evaluate precision of the estimates and significance level of test statistics. With respect to purpose (1), the typical type of analyses (ML and WLS) are robust against violation of distributional assumptions; i.e., estimates remain consistent or any type of WLS analysis and distribution of z. (It should be noted, however, that (1) is sensitive to structural misspecification.) A typical assumption used for purpose (2), is the assumption that the vector z of observable follows a multivariate normal distribution.In relation to purpose (2), distributional misspecification may have consequences for efficiency, as well as power of test statistics (see Satorra, 1989a); that is, some estimation methods may bemore precise than others for a given specific distribution of z. For instance, ADF-WLS is asymptotically optimal under a variety of distributions of z, while the asymptotic optimality of NT-WLS may be lost when the data is non-normalViolation of a distributional assumption may have consequences for purpose (2). However, recent theory, such as the one described in Sections 7 and 8, showes that asymptotic variances of estimates and asympttic null distributions of test statistics derived under the normality assumption may be correct even when z is non-normal provided certain model conditions hold (the conditions of Theorem 1). That is, in a specific application with z non-normally distributed, the assumption that z is normal play the role of a working device that facilitates calculation of the correct distribution of statistics of interest. This corresponds to what in Section 7 and 8 has been called asymptotic robustness.For most of the models considered in practice, replacing the assyumption uncorrelation for the assumption of independence implised reaching the properties of asymptotic robustness; in that case, in order to evaluate the asymptotic behavior of statistics of interest, a NT form for produces correct results even for non-normal data. This robustness result applies regardless of the type of fitting criterion used.Distinction between uncorrelation and independence becomes crucial when dealing with the asymptotic robustness issue. Statistical independence among variables of the model guarantee that the distribution of statistics of interest are asymptotically distribution-free of the non-normal variables; thus a NT form for applies. As an example of where such distinction is apparent, consider a simple regression model with a heteroskedastic disturbance term. Here the disturbance term is uncorrelated with the regressor, but the variance varies with the value of the regressor. For a study showing that ADF-WLS protects against heteroskedasticity of erros, while ML wil generally fail, see Mooijaart and Satorra (1987).In regresion analysis the usual method for detecting heteroskedasticity is by looking at residual plots. Presumably, alsi in structural equation modeling, the need to distinguish between uncorrelation and independence will force the researcher to go back to the row data in order to do a similar type of residuals inspection.In concluding, an importance consideration is to compute sampling variability for estimates and test statistics using appropriate formulae, without requiring that the estimation procedure be the best in some sense. We have seen that such computations can be carried out correctly using the wrong assumptions with respect to the distribution of the vector of observable variables, provided some additional model conditions hold. Roughly speaking, such additional model conditions amount to strengthen the usual assumption of uncorrelation among some random constituents of the model to the assumption of stochastic independecen.
Two programs will be described: PRELIS and LISREL 7. PRELIS is a program for multivariate data screening and data summarization and a preprocessor for LISREL. LISREL 7 is an extension of LISREL 6. Among the new features of LISREL 7 is its ability to produce correct asymptotic chisquare goodness-of-fit measures and standard errors of parameter estimates under non-normality and when some or all of the variables are ordinal. This article reviews some of the new features in these programs and discusses in particular the problems associated with the analysis of ordinal variables. The programs can communicate with each other through files written by one program and read by another. For example, a correlation matrix produced by PRELIS can be read by LISREL. Each program has its own functionality, and the reason why it is two programs rather than one, is that it is often a good idea to stop and look at the results from one program before proceeding to run another. The programs provide the tools for checking the assumptions on which the analyses are based. Thus, PRELIS checks assumptions about the data on the observed variables and LISREL checks the reasonableness of the hypothesized relationships in the model.
A structural equation model is proposed with a generalized measurement part, allowing for dichotomous and ordered categorical variables (indicators) in addition to continuous ones. A computationally feasible three-stage estimator is proposed for any combination of observed variable types. This approach provides large-sample chi-square tests of fit and standard errors of estimates for situations not previously covered. Two multiple-indicator modeling examples are given. One is a simultaneous analysis of two groups with a structural equation model underlying skewed Likert variables. The second is a longitudinal model with a structural model for multivariate probit regressions.
The paper discusses some general aspects of two estimation methods, which are designed for analysis of interrelationships between indirectly and directly observable variables. The paper's main object is to summarize in broad terms what appears to be known about tthe asymptotic properties of maximum likelihood and partial least squares estimators. The author would be pleased if, as a side-effect, interest is stirred up in the analysis of estimators under non-textbook assumptions.
A framework is presented which integrates economic and psychological perspectives in order to compare customer satisfaction across individuals and product categories. The framework lays the foundation for the development of a national index for customer satisfaction that is now in place in Sweden. An important property of any such index is that it allows for comparisons across customers, firms, and industries. A number of propositions are forwarded regarding potentially systematic differences in satisfaction across people and products.
Many individual companies and some industries monitor customer satisfaction on a continual basis, but Sweden is the first country to do so on a national level. The annual Customer Satisfaction Barometer (CSB) measures customer satisfaction in more than 30 industries and for more than 100 corporations. The new index is intended to be complementary to productivity measures. Whereas productivity basically reflects quantity of output, CSB measures quality of output (as experienced by the buyer). The author reports the results of a large-scale Swedish effort to measure quality of the total consumption process as customer satisfaction. The significance of customer satisfaction and its place within the overall strategy of the firm are discussed. An implication from examining the relationship between market share and customer satisfaction by a location model is that satisfaction should be lower in industries where supply is homogeneous and demand heterogeneous. Satisfaction should be higher when the heterogeneity/homogeneity of demand is matched by the supply. Empirical support is found for that proposition in monopolies as well as in competitive market structures. Likewise, industries in general are found to have a high level of customer satisfaction if they are highly dependent on satisfaction for repeat business. The opposite is found for industries in which companies have more captive markets. For Sweden, the 1991 results show a slight increase in CSB, which should have a positive effect on the general economic climate.
A general latent variable model is given which includes the specification of a missing data mechanism. This framework allows for an elucidating discussion of existing general multivariate theory bearing on maximum likelihood estimation with missing data. Here, missing completely at random is not a prerequisite for unbiased estimation in large samples, as when using the traditional listwise or pairwise present data approaches. The theory is connected with old and new results in the area of selection and factorial invariance. It is pointed out that in many applications, maximum likelihood estimation with missing data may be carried out by existing structural equation modeling software, such as LISREL and LISCOMP. Several sets of artifical data are generated within the general model framework. The proposed estimator is compared to the two traditional ones and found superior.
Structural equation models are widely used in economic, social and behavioral studies to analyze linear interrelationships among variables, some of which may be unobservable or subject to measurement error. Alternative estimation methods that exploit different distributional assumptions are now available. The present paper deals with issues of asymptotic statistical inferences, such as the evaluation of standard errors of estimates and chi--square goodness--of--fit statistics, in the general context of mean and covariance structures. The emphasis is on drawing correct statistical inferences regardless of the distribution of the data and the method of estimation employed. A (distribution--free) consistent estimate of , the matrix of asymptotic variances of the vector of sample second--order moments, will be used to compute robust standard errors and a robust chi--square goodness--of--fit squares. Simple modifications of the usual estimate of will also permit correct inferences in the case of multi-- stage complex samples. We will also discuss the conditions under which, regardless of the distribution of the data, one can rely on the usual (non--robust) inferential statistics. Finally, a multivariate regression model with errors--in--variables will be used to illustrate, by means of simulated data, various theoretical aspects of the paper.
Methods for obtaining tests of fit of structural models for covariance matrices and estimator standard errors which are asymptotically distribution free are derived. Modifications to standard normal theory tests and standard errors which make them applicable to the wider class of elliptical distributions are provided. A random sampling experiment to investigate some of the proposed methods is described.
Companies that want to improve their service quality should take a cue from manufacturing and focus on their own kind of scrap heap: customers who won't come back. Because that scrap heap can be every bit as costly as broken parts and misfit components, service company managers should strive to reduce it. They should aim for "zero defections"--keeping every customer they can profitably serve. As companies reduce customer defection rates, amazing things happen to their financials. Although the magnitude of the change varies by company and industry, the pattern holds: profits rise sharply. Reducing the defection rate just 5% generates 85% more profits in one bank's branch system, 50% more in an insurance brokerage, and 30% more in an auto-service chain. And when MBNA America, a Delaware-based credit card company, cut its 10% defection rate in half, profits rose a whopping 125%. But defection rates are not just a measure of service quality; they are also a guide for achieving it. By listening to the reasons why customers defect, managers learn exactly where the company is falling short and where to direct their resources. Staples, the stationery supplies retailer, uses feedback from customers to pinpoint products that are priced too high. That way, the company avoids expensive broad-brush promotions that pitch everything to everyone. Like any important change, managing for zero defections requires training and reinforcement. Great-West Life Assurance Company pays a 50% premium to group health-insurance brokers that hit customer-retention targets, and MBNA America gives bonuses to departments that hit theirs.