Review of the bioenvironmental methods for malaria control with special reference to the use of larvivorous fishes and composite fish culture in central Gujarat, India
Abstract
Mosquito control with the use of insecticides is faced with the challenges of insecticide resistance in disease vectors, community refusal, their high cost, operational difficulties, and environmental concern. In view of this, integrated vector control strategies with the use of larvivorous fishes such as Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) and Gambusia (G. affinis) as biological control agents were used in controlling mosquito breeding in different types of
breeding places such as intradomestic containers, various types of wells, rice-fields, pools, ponds and elsewhere in malaria prone rural areas of central Gujarat. Attempts were also made to demonstrate composite fish culture in
unused abandoned village ponds by culturing Guppy along with the food fishes such as Rohu (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla) and Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala). Income generated from these ponds through sale of fishes was utilized for mosquito control and village development. The technology was later adopted by the villagers themselves and food fish culture was practised in 23 ponds which generated an income of Rs 1,02,50,992 between
1985 and 2008. The number of villages increased from 13 to 23 in 2008 and there was also gradual increase of income from Rs 3,66,245 in 1985-90 to Rs 55,06,127 in 2002-08 block. It is concluded that larvivorous fishes can be useful tool in controlling mosquito breeding in certain situations and their use along with composite fish culture may also generate income to make the programme self-sustainable.
1 Figures
INTRODUCTION
Mosquito control through use of insecticides is beset
with many inherent problems including their high cost,
environmental concerns and more importantly the devel-
opment of resistance in vector mosquitoes, hence alter-
native approaches through integrative methods have been
attempted in the recent past1. Integrated Vector Manage-
ment (IVM) is described as a rational decision making
process for optimal use of resources for vector control
and includes methods based on knowledge of local vec-
tor biology, disease transmission, utilization of range of
interventions often in combination and synergistically as
well as collaboration with health sector and other public
and private sectors by involving local communities and
stakeholders2. This is the technology of controlling ma-
laria and mosquitoes through incorporating all those
methods which are ecologically safe, cost-effective, long-
lasting and suitable to the local conditions.
Due to widespread outbreak of malaria in many of
the villages of Kheda district in central Gujarat, where
commonly used insecticides were showing resistance,
attempts were made to control malaria through non-in-
secticidal methods based on minor engineering proce-
dures, drainage cleaning, environmental improvement,
tree plantations on leveled land, inter-sectoral coordina-
tion, promoting information, education and communica-
tion and community participation. Larvivorous fishes
like Guppy and Gambusia were introduced on large-
scale and expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads were used
in abandoned wells. To generate income and make the
programme self-sustainable, schemes like social forestry
and composite fish culture were also attempted and en-
vironment friendly technologies like improved chulhas
(smokeless stoves) and solar cookers were added to make
this programme towards a holistic rural development
programme along with mosquito control1,3,4. This feasi-
bility-cum-demonstration study was attempted in high
malaria endemic rural areas of Kheda district in central
Gujarat during 1980–1990s and some components of the
strategy such as food fish culture were later adopted by
the villagers and they continued to do work of their own till
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013, pp. 1–12
Review Article
Review of the bioenvironmental methods for malaria control with special
reference to the use of larvivorous fishes and composite fish culture in
central Gujarat, India
Rajni Kant1, S. Haq2, H.C. Srivastava2 & V.P. Sharma3
1Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi; 2National Institute of Malaria Research (Field Unit), Nadiad; 3Centre for Rural Development &
Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
ABSTRACT
Mosquito control with the use of insecticides is faced with the challenges of insecticide resistance in disease
vectors, community refusal, their high cost, operational difficulties, and environmental concern. In view of this,
integrated vector control strategies with the use of larvivorous fishes such as Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) and
Gambusia (G. affinis) as biological control agents were used in controlling mosquito breeding in different types of
breeding places such as intradomestic containers, various types of wells, rice-fields, pools, ponds and elsewhere
in malaria prone rural areas of central Gujarat. Attempts were also made to demonstrate composite fish culture in
unused abandoned village ponds by culturing Guppy along with the food fishes such as Rohu (Labeo rohita),
Catla (Catla catla) and Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala). Income generated from these ponds through sale of fishes
was utilized for mosquito control and village development. The technology was later adopted by the villagers
themselves and food fish culture was practised in 23 ponds which generated an income of ` 1,02,50,992 between
1985 and 2008. The number of villages increased from 13 to 23 in 2008 and there was also gradual increase of
income from ` 3,66,245 in 1985–90 to ` 55,06,127 in 2002–08 block. It is concluded that larvivorous fishes can
be useful tool in controlling mosquito breeding in certain situations and their use along with composite fish
culture may also generate income to make the programme self-sustainable.
Key words Composite fish culture, larvivorous fishes, malaria, mosquito larval control
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
2
2008 when the information was last recorded. The over-
all interventions of non-insecticidal vector control mea-
sures, their impact on mosquitoes and malaria control
and thereafter adoption to other ecotypes with different
epidemiological situations/settings are described below:
KHEDA PROJECT
Bioenvironmental control of malaria
An alternative integrated disease vector control dem-
onstration-cum-feasibility study based on non-insecticidal
methods of mosquito control was started in the rural ar-
eas of Kheda district in central Gujarat in the year 1983
following a serious outbreak of malaria in Village Bamroli
and other adjoining villages causing severe morbidity and
mortality with Annual Parasite Incidence (API) 28 in
Kheda and API-51 in Nadiad, the worst affected taluka.
As the area is known for insecticide resistance it was
thought opportune to start working on the bioenviron-
mental control of malaria by using simple techniques such
as source reduction, minor engineering methods, envi-
ronmental management, health education, community
participation, biological control measures and soliciting
inter-departmental coordination. Emphasis was also given
on income-generating schemes such as social forestry and
food fish culture for rural development and sustaining the
community involvement in mosquito control activities.
Study area
Kheda district (now split into Kheda and Anand dis-
tricts) in central Gujarat in western part of India is situ-
ated between 22° 7′ and 23° 18′ North latitude and 72°
15′ and 73° 37′ East longitude with a total area of 7194
km2. Geographically, the district is plain with some hilly
tract in Balasinor and Kapadvanj talukas. There are two
perennial rivers, viz Mahisagar and Sabarmati in the dis-
trict whereas Rivers Vatrak, Shedi, Meshwo and Mohar
are seasonal. Except occasional showers in winter, the
rainfall is received during June and October (Average
rainfall 600–1200 mm). Average mean temperature of
20°C prevails throughout the year and relative humidity
(RH) of >60% was observed from June to October which
is suitable for sporogony. The district has good canal ir-
rigation and out of 10 talukas, seven are under extensive
irrigation network through Mahi Kadana Irrigation
Scheme. Villages are well-connected by roads with agri-
culture based economy. The main crops are millet, rice,
wheat, cotton, tobacco and ground nut.
Intervention measures
Study on various aspects of bioenvironmental con-
trol of malaria was started in 1983. In the beginning, seven
malaria prone villages with a population of ~26,000 were
selected for the experiments and were designated as com-
plex A. The study was expanded to 14 more villages in
1984 with a total population of ~35,000 termed as com-
plex B, and in 1986, the entire Nadiad taluka covering
100 villages with population of ~3,50,000 was covered
under the bioenvironmental strategy. In 1987–88, other
adjoining taluka Kapadwanj with 161 villages having a
population of ~3,50,000 was also included for the ex-
perimental area. To monitor the impact of intervention
activities few control villages were also selected in ad-
joining talukas. Village Panchayats (Administrative
body) were the nodal points and village heads (Sarpanch)
were the nodal persons for execution of the work and
were briefed about the Malaria Research Centre (MRC),
now renamed as National Institute of Malaria Research
(NIMR) proposed activities in the target villages. Com-
munities agreed to extend the support and even helped in
arranging the tools, manpower and sometimes contrib-
uted money for carrying out the mosquito control (source
reduction) activities. Primary Health Centres (PHCs),
Community Health Centres (CHCs) and Sub-centres were
the focal points for collection of baseline data and Medi-
cal Officers supported the execution of the intervention
work highlighting the crucial role of health systems.
All the villages before starting of the interventions
were surveyed for different anthropometric and
malariametric parameters such as population and map-
ping of the village, number of houses, family size, pres-
ence of mosquito breeding places such as ponds, pools,
wells, rivers, canals, rice-fields, seepage water collec-
tion, intradomestic containers, etc and pasting of cards
on every house with some basic information giving name
of the head of the family and family size. For fever sur-
vey, surveillance workers from the same villages were
appointed and imparted training to handle malaria cases.
Door-to-door surveillance was done every week, slides
were prepared from the fever cases, sent to the labora-
tory for examination and radical treatment was ensured
within 48 h. Mosquito collections were made on weekly
basis and vector and adult mosquito densities were noted
on pre-structured proformae. Similarly, intradomestic and
well surveys were done weekly and larval densities were
recorded. Immatures were collected and brought to the
laboratory for rearing and adult emergence for species-
identification and to find out the species-specific breed-
ing sources.
For the control of mosquito breeding, intervention
measures were applied, and every week teams of 4–5
daily wage workers with a supervisory staff were deputed
3
Kant et al: Bioenvironmental control of malaria in Kheda, Gujarat, India
in each village and larval control activities were carried
out. Major intervention activities performed were the
source reduction, i.e. elimination of temporary ditches,
pools, and open breeding places, repairing of leakages to
prevent waterlogging, cleaning of margins of the ponds,
removal of debris, vegetation, and undesired items with
the help of larval nets and introduction of larvivorous
fishes such as Guppy (Poecilia reticulata), Gambusia (G.
affinis) and Aplocheilus (A. panchax). Later, mainly
Guppy fishes were introduced on large-scale as they were
available in abundance. Domestic breeding was controlled
through changing of water in containers such as mud pots,
cisterns, drums, barrels, etc every week and fishes were
introduced in tanks such as overhead tanks (OHTs), un-
der ground tanks (UGTs), inside tanks (ISTs) and other
large cemented tanks. To create awareness among the
villagers, health camps, live demonstrations, door-to-door
visits, video shows and group meetings were arranged
and even the villagers and their heads were allowed to
visit to the MRC laboratories to get the basic knowledge.
Breeding in wells was controlled through the application
of EPS beads (@ of 500 g to 1 kg/m2) in unused wells
and introduction of larvivorous fishes in the used wells.
Entomological investigations also included the study of
anopheline fauna, outdoor resting behaviour of
anophelines, species-specific breeding sources and all
night mosquito collections to understand the biting
rhythms and feeding behaviour of the anophelines.
On the request from the state authorities sometimes
mass blood surveys and outbreak investigations were also
carried out in other areas as and when there was an un-
usual high incidence of malaria. Fish fauna of the study
area was studied and two surveys were undertaken in the
year 1985–86 and in 1991 to know the types of fishes
present in the study area, their choice for the habitats and
to check their larvivorous potential in laboratory and
under field conditions. For mass culture of Guppies, vil-
lage hatcheries (multiplication ponds) were encouraged.
Among the income generating schemes food fish culture
and social forestry schemes were also promoted. Inter-
departmental coordination was maintained to develop
linkages with other departments such as Department of
Fisheries, Public Works Department (PWD), Irrigation
Department, Forest Department, etc which helped in
mosquito control activities. In other collateral activities,
smokeless chulhas and solar cookers were also demon-
strated and massive tree plantation work was taken up in
the study villages with the help of Gujarat Energy De-
velopment Agency (GEDA), Vadodara and National
Wasteland Development Board, New Delhi for over all
rural development along with malaria control.
Fish collection and transportation
Fishes were collected from ponds, stocked in large
cemented tanks and hatcheries; and transported to de-
sired destination in the following manner: (i) through jeep
and trailor with galvanized container and plastic liner for
short distance transportation in local areas; (ii) fishes were
collected by fine mesh seine nets of sizes 2×5 m, 2×10 m
or nylon nets or through hapas (1×1.5×1.5 m) or bamboo
nets depending upon the size of the water habitats; (iii)
plastic containers such as plastic buckets (200–250 L)
were also used or plastic sieve of different sizes were
utilized as and when required; (iv) for long distance trans-
portation oxygen cylinders were also used and oxygen
was filled in polythene bags; and (v) polythene bags of
different sizes were filled with oxygen, tied at the top
and kept in tins properly for transportation. Numbers of
fishes were kept to around 250 fishes/per bag to avoid
overcrowding and to prevent them from suffocation5.
Impact of interventions on mosquitoes and malaria
control
Intervention activities in the entire taluka were in full
swing from 1983 to 1989. During the reported period a
total of 4,32,775 breeding places were eliminated and to
prevent mosquito breeding at the door steps a total of
2730 soakage pits were constructed with the technical
support from B.V. Polytechnic, V.V. Nagar, Gujarat at
very cheap cost of ` 35–60. Temporary breeding places
were emptied out through pumps and low depression land
and large ditches were filled by the earth work through
Shramdans by the community. A total of 31,375 tractor
trolley loads were used to fill these ditches. Sometimes,
this activity was supported by voluntary agencies such
as Nehru Yuvak Kendra, Youth Clubs, Mahila Mandal
(women groups), school children, National Service
Scheme (NSS) and National Cadet Corps (NCC) cadets,
etc and thereafter plantation was done on the leveled land.
To prevent mosquito breeding in unused wells EPS beads
were applied in 889 wells. These beads form a mechani-
cal layer on the water surface and prevent mosquitoes to
lay their eggs and those already present died due to suf-
focation. This was a cheap and long-lasting solution, as
very rarely EPS beads required re-application, when there
was disturbance in the layer. These beads were also ap-
plied on the slurry (outer open circumference) of the
Gobar gas plants at some places6.
To create awareness among the community and en-
hance their knowledge on vector-borne diseases a total
of 172 health camps were arranged and live demonstra-
tions of the malaria parasites, mosquitoes, their larval
stages, larvivorous fishes, etc were made. Besides, 1739
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
4
group meetings were also organized for science dissemi-
nation. School children were also involved in mosqui-
toes control, and many of the health camps were arranged
in schools only. Video shows on mosquitoes and malaria
control activities were regular part of the control inter-
ventions and a total of 160 video shows were held and
documentaries on methods of malaria control were
shown. In health education campaigns, posters for exhi-
bitions with the help from Indian Space Research Orga-
nization (ISRO), Ahmedabad were made and many ex-
hibitions were arranged on special occasions. Pamphlets,
brochures, slogans etc were also prepared and used as
and when required. Many of the programmes were tele-
cast on Doordarshan (TV), Ahmedabad and media cov-
erage was done in local newspapers. Villages also do-
nated >5 lakh rupees towards mosquito control activities.
On marshy, seepage, waste and leveled area after earth
work a massive tree plantation work was undertaken and
trees like Eucalyptus (E. hybrid), Babul (Acacia nilotica
indica), Gulmohar (Delonix regia), Kashid (Cassia
siamea), Peltroform (Peltophorum pterocarpum), Neem
(Azadirachta indica), etc. were planted. A total of
8,13,222 trees were planted in the entire Nadiad taluka.
In addition 24,156 trees in Kapadvanj and 1,93,088 trees
in other talukas of Kheda and Panchmahals districts were
also planted. Village nurseries were also promoted to
minimize transportation as well as to generate income
from the saplings raised7. Fish production in abandoned,
and unutilized village ponds was also demonstrated as
an income generating scheme and other developmental
activities such as smokeless chulhas and solar cookers
were also included in the mosquito control activities to
solicit people cooperation and sustain their interest to-
wards holistic way of rural development by controlling
mosquitoes. Voluntary donations and sale of fishes was
held by Panchayats (village administrative body) and this
money was invested in repairing drainage, making play-
grounds and promotion of vector control activities
(Table 1). Results of the entomological findings such as
anopheline fauna, species-specific breeding sources, bit-
ing rhythms, seasonal prevalence, etc have already been
reported earlier8–14.
Impact of control interventions was visible by de-
cline in number of malaria positive cases from the base
period. API/SPR which was >20 in 1981–82 came down
sharply and spleen rate also declined (Fig. 1). Mosquito
population also reduced considerably and low mosquito
and vector densities were recorded in study areas in com-
parison to control1. Intra-domestic positivity was found
below 5 in all the experimental villages in comparison to
control villages15 where it was >24. Mosquito breeding
in wells was also kept under control and only 6.9% wells
were found positive in study areas in comparison to con-
trol areas where 29.3% wells were found positive16. In-
tervention and source reduction activities carried out dur-
ing the period are depicted in Table 1. There was also a
wide awareness among the local population which was
evident while doing the knowledge, attitude, behaviour
and practice (KABP) study.
Role of fishes in malaria control
Fish fauna of the study area
To find out the role of fishes in malaria control, fish
fauna of Nadiad taluka was studied and survey of ponds,
rivers, canals, pools, seepage water, etc was carried out
to collect the fishes. Fishes were captured as described
Table 1. A profile of Kheda project: Highlights of the
activities (1984–88)
Source reduction
Breeding places eliminated 4,32,775
Soakage pits constructed 2730
Earth work done (Tractor trolley loads) 31,375
Wells treated with EPS beads 889
Health education and community participation
Health camps organized 172
Group meetings held 1739
Video shows arranged 160
Money spent by the villagers (in `) 5,87,353
Voluntary labour camps (Shramdans)36
Biological control
Larvivorus fish introduced (in million) 88
Fish hatcheries established 98
Other activities
Trees planted 10,54,964
Sapling raised in nurseries 11,41,500
Improved chulhas 5224
Solar cookers demonstrations 127
Fish production (in `) 3,77,860
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
SPR
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
API
1980 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
IDVC period
API SPR
Year
Fig. 1: Impact of control interventions on malaria in Nadiad.
5
Kant et al: Bioenvironmental control of malaria in Kheda, Gujarat, India
earlier17,18, counted and identified as per standard meth-
ods. Fish fauna survey carried out in experimental vil-
lages of Nadiad taluka during 1986–87 revealed 27 types
of fishes19. A repeat survey was done in the year 1991 to
see the change, if any in fishes present in the aquatic eco-
system of the study area and deleterious effect, if any of
the large scale introduction of Guppy fishes in various
habitats to control mosquito breeding. A total of 35 spe-
cies were collected from the study area, 21 fishes were
common in both the surveys, whereas 9 more species
were found in the repeat survey of 199117. However, 5
species could not be recorded in second survey due to
their scanty population and one species of the previous
survey also recorded second time was identified to spe-
cies level (Channa sp as Channa striatus). Most of the
fishes were present in perennial ponds, canals, seepage
water collections, etc. Among the predatory (weed) fishes
Wallago, Chela, Notopterus and Mystus were abundant
(Table 2). Fish species like Chela was predominant in
shallow muddy water and found to devour the Guppy
population in most instances in case of low water
level17,19.
Screening for larvivoracity and use in vector
control
Fishes collected were exposed to laboratory and out-
door test in the field conditions for their larvivorous po-
tential. Out of 27 fishes collected during first survey, 14
fishes were found larvivorous but P. reticulata (Guppy)
was found abundant, highly efficient and fulfilling the
requirements of a good larvivorous fish, hence, chosen
for large-scale use in the control programme (Details are
Table 2. Fish fauna of Kheda district
S.No. Species Habitats
Ponds Pools Drains Seepage water Canal River
1. Ambassis nama ++++ +-
2. Aplocheilus lineatus ++++ ++
3. Aplocheilus panchax -+++ ++
4. Catla catla ++-+ --
5. Channa punctatus ++++ ++
6. Channa striatus - +-+++
7. Chela bacaila ++++ ++
8. Chela species + + - - - -
9. Cirrhina latia +--- --
10. Cirrhinus mrigala - -++ --
11. Cirrhinus reba +-- - ++
12. Colisa fasciata ++++ --
13. Esomus danricus ++++ --
14. Glossogobius species + + + + + +
15. Heteropneustes fossilis - ++ + ++
16. Labeo calbasu +--+ --
17. Labeo rohita - +- + --
18. Lepidocephalichthys guntea - -+ - --
19. Mastocembelus armatus ++++ +-
20. Mastocembelus pancalus +-- - +-
21. Mystus punctatus +-- - +-
22. Mystus seenghala +-++ --
23. Mystus vittatus - -++ ++
24. Notopterus notopterus ++++ --
25. Ompok bimaculatus +-- - --
26. Poecilia reticulata +++ - ++
27. Puntius sarana ++++ ++
28. Puntius stigma - +- - --
29. Puntius sophore ++- - --
30. Puntius ticto ++++ ++
31. Puntius species + + + + + +
32. Rasbora daniconius ++++ ++
33. Trichogaster fasciata ++++ ++
34. Wallago attu ++++ --
35. Xenentodon cancila +--- ++
(+) denotes presence; (-) denotes absence.
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
6
given in Box). Impact of cleaning the margins of the ponds
showed that it had considerable impact on the larval den-
sity as the fishes were able to reach up to the margins
after de-weeding and cleaning. Hence, it was made man-
datory to clean the margins of the ponds and pools and
removing the grass on the margins to enhance the effi-
cacy of the fishes19.
Establishment/maintenance of fish hatcheries—Culture,
rearing, transportation and supply to other agencies
In experimental villages for mass production of Gup-
pies and their supply to other areas/agencies, village
hatcheries were promoted and established near a water
source such as wells, tube wells, small ponds, etc. Around
100 hatcheries were maintained/established in experimen-
tal villages and guppies were reared and collected from
these sites at regular interval and transported to other ar-
eas. Before establishing the monoculture of guppies, weed
fishes were removed from the water source and their pres-
ence and water level was regularly checked. Sometimes
fish food or zooplanktons were also added in the habi-
tats.
Establishment of larvivorus fish network for urban areas
Due to emerging threat of malaria and dengue in ur-
ban areas Malaria Research Centre (Field Unit), Nadiad
in collaboration with Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation
took up demonstration project on the management of
malaria and dengue vectors in Ahmedabad City during
1999–2000. The most common breeding sites found in
the city were cement tanks, ground level tanks, fountains,
elevator chambers (lift wells), wells, mill hydrant tanks,
cattle troughs and ponds. A larvivorous fish net work
was established as a model for urban areas and Guppy
fishes were reared and distributed in whole of the mu-
nicipal limit and there was a sharp decline in malaria cases
after the introduction of fishes5.
Edible fishes (composite fish culture) linked with control
of malaria
Each village in the study area (Nadiad taluka) had at
least one permanent pond and some seasonal ponds. These
ponds were supporting moderate to heavy mosquito
breeding and its control was a major concern for the
project. Breeding of mosquitoes was mainly confined at
the shallow margins of the ponds and in hoof prints, left
over pools due to reduction of water at the periphery.
Even some ponds were found infested with the water
hyacinth (Eichhornia cressipes) and these were also sup-
porting mosquito breeding. A survey was carried out to
know the mosquito species composition of such ponds
and efforts were made to remove the water hyacinth and
control the breeding20,21.
On experimental basis to exploit these ponds, com-
posite fish culture, i.e. mass culture of Guppies along
with production of edible fishes was attempted to gener-
ate income side-by-side controlling the mosquito breed-
ing. For this purpose in 1985, 8 village ponds were taken
from the village Panchayats for food fish culture and af-
ter removal of weed (predatory) fishes such as Wallago,
Channa, Notopterus, Mystus and others, these ponds were
stocked with the finger lings of Indian major carps Labeo
rohita (Rohu), Cirrhinus mrigala (Mrigal) and Catla catla
(Catla) as they, occupy column bottom, and surface part
of the water respectively and being their different eco-
logical niche there was no competition among them while
rearing. However, four ponds had to be abandoned due
to large scale poaching and drying due to water scarcity
and their fish stock was transferred to remaining
ponds. Thereafter in 1986, six ponds were taken and
fishes like Hypothalmichthys molitrix (silver carp),
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) and Cyprinus
carpio (common carp) were introduced. A total income
of ` 2,37,840 @ ` 9091/ha/yr with production of 1099
kg/ha/yr was generated through the auction of fishes from
these ponds. The income generated was utilized for mos-
quito control activities such as construction of drainage,
play ground and other developmental activities22.
Community involvement in food fish culture as an income
generating source for sustainable malaria control
Composite fish culture along with the production of
Guppies in some selected ponds of Kheda district, Gujarat
generated income for the village Panchayats along with
the production of guppies for mosquito control and the
income generated was utilized for mosquito control and
Requirement for an efficient larvivorous fish
●Top (surface) feeder, prolific breeder and small in
size, so that they can negotiate for food in shallow
water
●Able to breed profusely in confined water
●Able to withstand transport and handling
●Difficult to catch and able to escape their natural
enemies
●Worthless or insignificant as food for the human
population
●Should not disturb the aquatic ecosystem
●Must be able to withstand temperature variation and
reasonable amount of pollution in water
7
Kant et al: Bioenvironmental control of malaria in Kheda, Gujarat, India
other developmental activities of the villages. This cre-
ated great curiosity, interest and awareness among the
villagers as in most villages, ponds were either lying
abandoned or not properly utilized. This led to starting
of edible fish culture by villagers themselves. Interven-
tion activities were continued from 1983 to 1989 and in
1990 control activities were withdrawn, but villagers con-
tinued to do some sort of activities of their own as they
were so impressed and motivated by the fish culture ac-
tivities that they started doing the fish culture of their
own. A record of money earned through the auction of
fishes from the village ponds was collected from the vil-
lage Panchayats for the period between 1985 and 2008
and data of 5 yr was pooled and depicted in 5 yr blocks
for brevity. During 1985 to 2008, in 23 villages food fish
culture activities were undertaken. The number of vil-
lages increased from 13 in 1985 to 23 in 2008 that gener-
ated an income of ` 10,250,992 from the fish auction.
Transportation of fishes in containers with oxygen. Collection of edible fishes.
Transportation of larvivorous fishes in jeep with trailor.
Collection of fishes from ponds.
Larvivorous fish P. reticulata in polythene bags for introduction.
Collection of larvivorous fishes from village ponds.
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
8
There was gradual increase of income from fish auction
from ` 366,245 in 1985–90 to ` 5,506,127 in 2002–08
block (Table 3). The money generated was utilized for
developmental and mosquito control activities. This
showed the impact of Kheda project on enhancement of
knowledge, attitude, behaviour and practices (KABP) of
malaria control in rural areas and long-lasting impact of
bioenvironmental malaria control strategies which can
be replicated in some situations at other places and may
help in reducing the over dependence on insecticide-based
vector control operations.
Dispersal and colonization
Dispersal of Guppy and Gambusia and their coloni-
zation in new habitats has been studied extensively in
the past17, 23 and it was found that both the fishes were
unable to establish and colonize in new habitats due to
the presence of large amount of predatory fishes and lack
of regular monitoring. This also reconfirms the fact that
these fishes are unable to colonize of their own and need
regular supervision if they have to be used in long-term
mosquito control programmes. However, it was also es-
tablished that these do not pose any serious ecological
hazard and danger to other fishes of the ecosystem as
there was no major change in the fish fauna after their
long-term use.
Studies on a local larvivorous fish Aphanius dispar
Aphanius dispar an indigenous delicate larvivorous
fish abundantly found in the coastal areas of Gujarat
mainly in Kutch was collected and tested in laboratory
and under field conditions for mosquito larvivorous po-
tential and showed promising results24. Large-scale field
trials of A. dispar were carried out in Rapar taluka of
Kutch district in agricultural field of 4 PHCs during 2005
and 2007. The fishes were released in 19 villages in man
made earthen and cemented farm ponds, wells and other
permanent water bodies. Significant reduction in the
breeding of malaria vectors, An. culicifacies and An.
stephensi was noticed in comparison to control. The fish
was found useful in the control of malaria in view of the
habit of rainwater harvesting by the inhabitants in north
Gujarat (NIMR unpublished data).
Scaling-up use of larvivorous fishes and man power
development
In view of the increasing role of fishes in vector-borne
disease control and training requirements of the person-
Table 3. Income generated from village ponds used for composite fish culture from 1985–2008
Villages/Yr 1985–90 1991–95 1996–2001 2002–08 Total
1. Davda 0 51500 87000 175827 314327
2. Dantali 0 0 68751 119106 187857
3. Dumaral 42076 44650 235000 29607 351333
4. Tundel 0 0 0 42000 42000
5. Mitral 29025 37003 169100 134000 369128
6. Keriavi 18100 51246 47338 164303 280987
7. Dahegam 0 9000 17500 98769 125269
8. Vaso 15606 168707 798100 1699960 2682373
9. Mohrel 0 0 40600 61000 101600
10. Dabhan 0 0 0 198419 198419
11. Salun 2000 78205 261889 371827 713921
12. Kanjoda 48428 65675 104752 166907 385762
13. Mangharoli 0 10000 36574 21000 67574
14. Narsanda 1095 167277 282543 242801 693716
15. Akhdol 4102 9152 36405 29144 78803
16. Pij 0 0 0 810306 810306
17. Bamroli 28982 42227 67500 77352 216061
18. Surasamal 60450 94000 129501 145358 429309
19. Mahisa 0 0 0 11335 11335
20. Uttarsanda 39979 211631 644755 482162 1378527
21. Chalali 0 0 2000 16833 18833
22. Alina 76402 82037 227002 342804 728245
23. Kanjari 0 0 0 65307 65307
Total 366245 1122310 3256310 5506127 10250992
No. of villages 13 16 18 23 23
Figures are in Rupees (`).
9
Kant et al: Bioenvironmental control of malaria in Kheda, Gujarat, India
nel involved in antimalaria programme, scaling-up the use
of Aphanius or other larvivorous fishes in District Kutch
and the State of Gujarat has been carried out. Attempts
were also carried out through field demonstrations and
training of field staff to strengthen the capacity in
larvivorous fish activities as part of overall vector control
operations. The long-term objective of the scaling-up use
of larvivorous fishes is to reduce the reliance on insecti-
cides and promotion of appropriate and environmental
friendly vector control methods and strengthening capaci-
ties of personnel involved with vector-borne disease con-
trol programme to achieve sustainable vector control based
on the principles of integrated vector management (IVM).
Non-insecticidal and fish-based mosquito control inter-
ventions at other places
With the landmark discovery of Sir Ronald Ross in
1897 while working in Secunderabad, India in establish-
ing the role of Anopheles mosquitoes in transmission of
malaria, the mosquito control operations were initiated
with emphasis on the environmental and engineering
methods of mosquito larval control. There were several
examples of successful malaria control such as malaria
control in Bombay25, antimalaria operations in irrigated
areas by Clyde during Sarda Canal construction26, ma-
laria control in Irwin Canal project27 and Cauvery-Mettur
project28. Other examples include control of rural ma-
laria transmitted by An. fluviatilis by de-weeding29, grow-
ing shade loving plants over tea garden drains to control
An. minimus30, etc.
Fishes have been utilized for mosquito control from
time-to-time. Around 315 fish species under 7 genera are
larvivorous in nature. Exotic fishes like Poecilia
(Lebistes) reticulata (Peters 1859), a native fish of South
America and commonly known as Guppy was introduced
in 1908 and Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853;
common name Top Minnow), a native of Texas and
widely distributed in the world was imported from Italy
and introduced in India in 192818. Since 1937, fishes have
been employed for the control of mosquito larvae and in
urban malaria programme31,32 but with the advent of DDT
in 1940s and its large scale use in national malaria con-
trol programme along with other potent insecticides
brought spectacular success and malaria was almost near
eradication and non-insecticidal approaches were alto-
gether forgotten. But euphoria of success short lived and
malaria resurged back with vengeance and reached a peak
in 1976 with 6.4 million cases and many deaths33. In view
of the same, alternative approaches were revived to mini-
mize dependence on insecticides and Kheda project dem-
onstrated that controlling malaria through integrated ap-
proaches is not only feasible but also cost-effective and
environmental friendly1,3,4,34. It also brings out semi-
permanent to permanent changes and create awareness
among the communities. Kheda project became a role
model and was replicated in different eco-epidemiologi-
cal settings and produced satisfactory malaria control and
reduced mosquito nuisance35. Though fishes have been
used on experimental basis during 1970–80s and found
useful in control of mosquito breeding in different habi-
tats like wells, pits and tanks (Table 4) but their large-
scale use gained momentum during demonstration of
Kheda project and based on the successful demonstra-
tion on the utility and use of larvivorous fishes in mos-
quito control in Kheda, Gujarat the fishes were attempted
in different eco-epidemiological zones of the country such
as BHEL Industrial set-up at Hardwar36, tribal dominated
rural areas of Jabalpur37 and Shankargarh38, urban areas
of Chennai39, Ahmedabad5 and Goa40 and rural irrigated
areas of Shahjahanpur41-43, Rourkela44, Haldwani45 and
others46–53.
Many of the components of the Kheda project were
also included in the National Malaria Control Programme
and even in Global Malaria Control Programme. The im-
pact of integrated and bioenvironmental approaches to
malaria and mosquito control with focus on the use of
fishes have been attempted at various places and have
shown promising results31, 54-56. Utility of larvivorus
fishes in mosquito control programme is a known phe-
nomenon and has been used at various places. Ghosh et
al57, 58 demonstrated the control of mosquitoes and ma-
laria in Karnataka by the use of fish P. reticulata. He
also reported that Poecilia was effective in closed-eco-
system such as wells, while Gambusia in open ecosys-
tem like ponds and streams59. Menon & Rajagopalan60
introduced G. affinis and Aplocheilus blockii in wells of
Pondicherry and found that the later showed high toler-
ance for salinity and pH. Larvivorous fish network was
developed to control urban malaria in Ahmedabad and
there was a sharp decline in intradomestic positivity by
the introduction of fishes5.
In some other studies on fishes, Jayasree & Panicker61
demonstrated that larvivorous potential of some indig-
enous fishes Ophiocephalus striatus and Macropodus
cupanus showed high efficacy against mansonoides lar-
vae in Sherthallai region of Kerala. Phytophagous fishes,
viz. Ctenopharyngodon idella and Ospronemus gouramy
were also used to control mansonoides mosquitoes by
checking the growth of aquatic weeds, which support
mosquito breeding62,63. Larvivorous potential of some
cypriniformes fishes and grass carp and major carp was
evaluated and composite fish culture was also attempted
J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
10
in ponds of rural areas of Pondicherry64. The cost benefit
analysis of fish culture strategy towards control of
mansoniodes in Kerala showed usefulness of fishes in
vector control65. Edible fish Oreochromis niloticust (for-
merly Tilapia nilotica) has been used in Kenya to con-
trol mosquito immatures and 94% reduction was observed
in An. gambiae and An. funestus, while smaller in size
and later larger fishes were harvested as a source of in-
come66. Fishes were also used in the control of mosquito
immatures in Tanzania67 and the Gambia as well68. It
has been shown that mass culture of edible fishes along
with the larvivorous fish as an income generating source
is an innovative concept and may be useful alternative to
insecticide dependant vector control programmes.
Integrated vector management based on the use of
larvivorous fishes is an environment friendly, effective,
acceptable and self sustainable concept as fish offer ad-
vantage of self replicating and do not require repeat ap-
plication, and their composite culture along with food
fishes may also generate the income and make the mos-
Table 4. Larvivorous fishes used for the control of mosquito breeding in India
Place/Area Fish species Habitats Reference
Calcutta Guppy Surface drains Hati & Saha53
(now Kolkata)
Ghaziabad P. reticulata (Guppy) Wells Ansari et al52
Goa A. blockii OHTs and other Kumar et al 40
containers
Gujarat P. reticulata Wells, Ponds, Kant et al16
(Rural areas) A. panchax Rice fields, Domestic Gupta et al15
G. affinis containers and Sharma et al1
Aphanius dispar Cement tanks Haq & Yadav24
Ahmedabad City Guppy Tanks, Fountains, Haq et al 5
Gambusia Wells, Hydrants and Ponds
(Urban areas)
Haldwani G. affinis Tanks and Pokhars (Ditches) Malhotra & Sharma45
Hardwar Guppy Ponds, Dua & Sharma36
Gambusia Drains and UGTs
(BHEL Industrial Complex)
Hyderabad G. affinis Wells Sitaraman et al50
Jabalpur Guppy Wells Singh et al37
Rasbora daniconius
Karnataka P. reticulata Wells, Ponds and Ghosh et al59
(Silk industry area) G. affinis Streams
(Kolar Gold Fields)
Madras Gambusia OHTs and Wells Chandrahas &
(now Chennai) City Venkataramnaiah39
Pondicherry G. affinis Wells Menon & Rajagopalan60
(now Puducherry) A. blockii
G. affinis Casuarina pits Rao et al49
Pune G. affinis Field tanks Dixit et al47
Rourkela Danio rerio Rice-fields Yadav & Das44
Oryzias melastigma
Shankargarh Colisa fasciata Wells Tiwari38
(Allahabad)
Shahjahanpur G. affinis Ponds, Pools, Das & Prasad41
OHTs and Rice-fields Prasad et al 42,43
OHTs—Over head tanks; UGTs—Under ground tanks; A— Aplocheilus; G— Gambusia; P— Poecilia.
11
Kant et al: Bioenvironmental control of malaria in Kheda, Gujarat, India
quito control programme self sustainable, however, they
may not be applicable in all situations, hence, should be
used wherever feasible and may prove effective in bring-
ing the mosquito population down to a significant level
which will ultimately help in reducing the disease bur-
den to a significant level and insecticides may be kept
for the firefighting situations.
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J Vector Borne Dis 50, March 2013
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Correspondence to: Dr Rajni Kant, Scientist ‘D’, Indian Council of Medical Research, Ramalingaswami Bhawan, Ansari Nagar,
New Delhi–110 029, India.
E-mail: rajnikant.srivastava@gmail.com; kantr2001@yahoo.co.in
Received: 7 December 2012 Accepted in revised form: 22 January 2013
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- ReferencesReferences69
- At present, biological control of vectors and continuous monitoring of the three systems studied are recommended . The options for controlling mosquitoes in these aquatic systems include maintaining ecological integrity, so that natural predators control mosquito populations, the introduction of larvivorous fish [26, 27] or other natural predators [28][29][30][31] and testing of target-specific bio- pesticides [32, 33]. At the same time, the general public should be encouraged to use mosquito nets and medical practitioners should be provided with facilities for screening immigrants coming from destinations where malaria is suspected to exist.
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Background In 2015 alone there were an estimated 214 million new cases of malaria across the globe and 438,000 deaths were reported. Although indigenous malaria has not been reported in Sri Lanka since 2012, to date 247 imported cases of malaria have been identified. Knowledge of the locations, behaviour and vectorial capacity of potential malarial vectors is therefore needed to prevent future outbreaks. Attention is now being focused on some previously ignored habitats. Methods Active and abandoned granite and clay quarry pits, located in wet and intermediate zones, and agro wells located in the dry zone of Sri Lanka were mapped and sampled for 1 year, as potential mosquito breeding sites. Species composition and spatio-temporal variation in both malarial and other mosquito larvae were recorded. Results A total of 18 species of mosquito larvae were identified. Other than Anopheles culicifacies, the primary malaria vector, five species of potential malaria vectors (Anopheles vagus, Anopheles varuna, Anopheles nigerrimus, Anopheles peditaeniatus and Anopheles barbirostris) were found in all three aquatic systems. Additionally, Anopheles annularis was found in granite quarries and Anopheles subpictus and Anopheles pallidus in both types of quarry, but only during the initial sampling. Apart from potential malaria vectors, mosquito larvae such as Anopheles jamesii, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Culex infula and Culex malayi were found in all three habitats at least once during the sampling period. Apart from potential malaria vectors and other mosquito larvae common to all three aquatic systems, Culex gelidus, Culex mimulus and Culex pseudo vishnui were detected in agro wells. Culex gelidus was also detected in granite quarry pits. Culex mimulus, Culex lutzia and Culex fuscocephala were detected in clay quarry pits. Accordingly, a total of 14, 13 and 15 mosquito species were identified in agro wells, granite and clay quarry pits, respectively. Conclusions Although zero occurrence of indigenous malaria has been achieved in Sri Lanka, the current study emphasizes the potential for future epidemics. The presence of native flora and fauna in abandoned granite and clay quarry pits and the need to extract drinking water from agro wells demand bio-sensitive control methods in these three aquatic systems.- Another approach is the use of larvivorous fishes (e.g. Gambusia affinis) in the water-logging areas and flower pots which can eliminate larvae of mosquitoes (Kant et al. 2013). Lately, the use of microbes to control vector population gained interest and certain genus of bacteria named Asaia has been explored for its ability to colonize the gut and reproductive tract of mosquitoes and also to get transmitted vertically to its progeny (Favia et al. 2008).
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: This review converses the Zika virus which has attained global concern due to its rapid pandemic potential and impact on humans. Though Zika virus was first isolated in 1947, till the recent large scale outbreak which occurred in Micronesia, in 2007, the virus was put into the innocuous pathogen category. It belongs to the genus Flavivirus and is a representative of the Spondweni virus group. The World Health Organization on February 1, 2016, declared it as a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern”. The African strains form three sub-clades. It is hypothesized based on phylogenetic analysis using both the complete ORF from the polyprotein gene and the transparent cache switching network that following its emergence in Uganda Zika virus might have spread to East Africa and Asia. The Asian lineage also emerged from an African strain and might have moved towards Micronesia and eventually reached the Americas. Likewise, the outbreak in Micronesia originated in Southeast Asia. Prevention and control are mainly aimed at the vector population (mosquitoes) with Aedes aegypti being the main species among at least 20 other species. Surveys in Africa and Asia indicated seropositivity in various animal species like Urangutans, Rhesus monkey, Zebra, Elephants, Water buffaloes and rodents. However, so far its natural reservoir is unknown. There is an urgent need to understand why Zika virus has shifted from being a virus that caused mild illness to one associated with suspected microcephaly as well as possibly Guillain-Barré syndrome. Unfortunately, an effective vaccine is not available yet.- Larvivorous fishes (i.e., those that feed upon larvae) are commonly used in such pots (Figure 2). This practice is common in India as an important component of a biological control strategy to reduce vector population and malaria transmission212223. The use of larvivorous fish in intradomestic pots for mosquito control has proven to be an intelligent solution.
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Dengue is considered to be the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world. The Aedes aegypti mosquito, its vector, is highly anthropophilic and is very well adapted to urban environments. Although several vaccine candidates are in advanced stages of development no licensed dengue vaccine is yet available. As a result, controlling the spread of dengue still requires that mosquitoes be targeted directly. We review the current methods of dengue vector control focusing on recent technical advances. We first examine the history of Brazil's National Dengue Control Plan in effect since 2002, and we describe its establishment and operation. With the persistent recurrence of dengue epidemics, current strategies should be reassessed to bring to the forefront a discussion of the possible implementation of new technologies in Brazil's mosquito control program.- Larvivorous fishes (i.e., those that feed upon larvae) are commonly used in such pots (Figure 2). This practice is common in India as an important component of a biological control strategy to reduce vector population and malaria transmission212223. The use of larvivorous fish in intradomestic pots for mosquito control has proven to be an intelligent solution.
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Dengue is considered to be the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world. The Aedes aegypti mosquito, its vector, is highly anthropophilic and is very well adapted to urban environments. Although several vaccine candidates are in advanced stages of development no licensed dengue vaccine is yet available. As a result, controlling the spread of dengue still requires that mosquitoes be targeted directly. We review the current methods of dengue vector control focusing on recent technical advances. We first examine the history of Brazil's National Dengue Control Plan in effect since 2002, and we describe its establishment and operation. With the persistent recurrence of dengue epidemics, current strategies should be reassessed to bring to the forefront a discussion of the possible implementation of new technologies in Brazil's mosquito control program.- Later in 1970, an extensive release programme was carried out in Iran, which demonstrated the important roles of G. affinis in malaria eradication [66]. The introduction of these larvivorous fish has been reported to be effective in controlling local malaria by recent studies as well, especially in Asia and Africa676869. A major objection to the introduction of larvivorous fish has been their direct impact on native fish species through predation or their indirect impact through competition [a4,12(−)].
[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Despite continuous efforts and recent rapid expansion in the financing and implementation of malaria control interventions, malaria still remains one of the most devastating global health issues. Even in countries that have been successful in reducing the incidence of malaria, malaria control is becoming more challenging because of the changing epidemiology of malaria and waning community participation in control interventions. In order to improve the effectiveness of interventions and to promote community understanding of the necessity of continued control efforts, there is an urgent need to develop new methodologies that examine the mechanisms by which community-based malaria interventions could reduce local malaria incidence. This study demonstrated how the impact of community-based malaria control interventions on malaria incidence can be examined in complex systems by qualitative analysis combined with an extensive review of literature. First, sign digraphs were developed through loop analysis to analyse seven interventions: source reduction, insecticide/larvicide use, biological control, treatment with anti-malarials, insecticide-treated mosquito net/long-lasting insecticidal net, non-chemical personal protection measures, and educational intervention. Then, for each intervention, the sign digraphs and literature review were combined to analyse a variety of pathways through which the intervention can influence local malaria incidence as well as interactions between variables involved in the system. Through loop analysis it is possible to see whether increases in one variable qualitatively increases or decreases other variables or leaves them unchanged and the net effect of multiple, interacting variables. Qualitative analysis, specifically loop analysis, can be a useful tool to examine the impact of community-based malaria control interventions. Without relying on numerical data, the analysis was able to describe pathways through which each intervention could influence malaria incidence on the basis of the qualitative patterns of the interactions between variables in complex systems. This methodology is generalizable to various disease control interventions at different levels, and can be utilized by a variety of stakeholders such as researchers, community leaders and policy makers to better plan and evaluate their community-based disease control interventions.- [Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Zika virus is an arthropod-borne flavivirus, related to other flaviviruses such as dengue virus, yellow fever virus, and West Nile virus. Though Zika virus was first isolated in 1947, virus remained in relative obscurity for nearly 70 years. The epidemiology of Zika virus changed since 2007 when an outbreak occurred on Yap Island of the Federated States of Micronesia. Then, Zika virus was introduced into Brazil from the Pacific Islands and spread rapidly throughout the Americas. Zika virus has infected over a million people in the countries of South and Central America. Zika virus infection generally leads to self limiting mild, febrile illness. However, many of the recent outbreaks were linked to upsurge in cases of Guillan Barré syndrome and a rise in infants born with microcephaly. Because of these complications and rapid spread of the Zika virus infections, the world health organization declared Zika fever as a public health emergency of international concern. This review describes the current understanding about the transmission, pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis of Zika virus infection.
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