ArticlePDF Available

Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the Folk Communities: An approach to Vegetable Production in Flood Prone Areas

Authors:

Abstract

In Bangladesh, impacts on agriculture from extreme climate are increasingly vulnerable. On the other hand, folk communities are intensely depending on agriculture for their livelihoods. Climate change has already negatively affected the vegetable production by annual recurrent flood in Bangladesh. This study is an assessment of the new vegetable production system that could adopt in a changing climatic condition. With the popular eight vegetable species, the field experiment consisted of four treatments which were conducted in the bags. However, treatment (TD) which consisted of Coriander (Coriander sativum), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), Bitter melon (Momordica charantea), Tomato (Lycopersicon esculeatum), Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) is more beneficial than our other treatments. The average benefit ratio of this treatment is 9.75 followed by 6.52 (TA), 5.45 (TB) and 5.17 (TC). Moreover, the findings of this study might be helpful for the flood affected folk communities produce vegetables for their own consumption and income. Likewise, new experiments with altered technique and vegetable species are recommended to conclusively develop climate change adaptation strategies for flood prone areas.
International Journal of Agronomy and Plant Production. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
Available online at http:// www.ijappjournal.com
ISSN 2051-1914 ©2013 VictorQuest Publications
Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the Folk Communities: An
approach to Vegetable Production in Flood Prone Areas
Muha. Abdullah-Al-Pavel1, Mohammed Abu Sayed Arfin Khan2, Syed Ajijur Rahman3, and Md.
Abdullah-Al-Mamun4*
1- Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, School of Agriculture and Mineral Sciences,
Shahajalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh
2- Department of Disturbance Ecology, University of Bayreuth, D-5440, Bayreuth, Germany
3- Forest & Landscape, University of Copenhagen, Bolowsvej 17, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
4- Department of Folklore, Faculty of Social Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh
*Corresponding Author: Md. Abdullah-Al-Mamun
Abstract
In Bangladesh, impacts on agriculture from extreme climate are increasingly vulnerable.
On the other hand, folk communities are intensely depending on agriculture for their
livelihoods. Climate change has already negatively affected the vegetable production by
annual recurrent flood in Bangladesh. This study is an assessment of the new vegetable
production system that could adopt in a changing climatic condition. With the popular
eight vegetable species, the field experiment consisted of four treatments which were
conducted in the bags. However, treatment (TD) which consisted of Coriander (Coriander
sativum), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), Bitter melon (Momordica charantea), Tomato
(Lycopersicon esculeatum),Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) is more beneficial than our other
treatments. The average benefit ratio of this treatment is 9.75 followed by 6.52 (TA), 5.45
(TB) and 5.17 (TC). Moreover, the findings of this study might be helpful for the flood
affected folk communities produce vegetables for their own consumption and income.
Likewise, new experiments with altered technique and vegetable species are
recommended to conclusively develop climate change adaptation strategies for flood
prone areas.
Keywords: adaptation, climate change, cost benefit, farming system, and local people.
Introduction
Climate change is now a reality across the globe. Bangladesh is the most vulnerable to climate
change now a day. The impact of climate change on agriculture is alarming. In recent year's flooding has
compounded and lasted longer and submerged for far longer than the traditional (Ali, 1996; Chowdhury et
al., 1993; Haque, 1997; Dasgupta et al., 2010). Consequently, climate change can be minimized by the
national adaptation strategy.
Climate of Bangladesh is characterized by high temperature, heavy rainfall, often-excessive humidity
and marked seasonal variations (Rahman and Alam, 2003). Moreover, its climate is influenced by monsoon
and pre-monsoon and post-monsoon circulations. (Agrawala et al., 2003). In recent years, the country has
seen higher than normal temperatures, heavier monsoon rains and an increasing number of tropical
cyclones and storms.
The economy of Bangladesh is mostly based on agriculture, which is particularly vulnerable to
climate change impacts e.g. temperature, rainfall patterns, salinity, droughts, floods (Cline, 2007; Easterling
et al., 2007). For example inundation has a positive impact on production, prolonged floods have a
detrimental impact on yields (Rahman and Alam, 2003). Increase of temperature would have a severe
impact on food production as shortening of the winter season is resulting in a decline in yields (Rahman and
Alam, 2003; Easterling et al., 2007; Huq and Ayers, 2008).
Adaptation is adjusted in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected
climatic impacts and take advantage that their climatic environment provides (Burton, 1997; Burton, 1992;
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
746
IPCC, 2001). Advanced adaptation strategies may have the potential to cope adverse impacts, as well as to
create new opportunities posed by climate change. This study is an assessment of some vegetable
production in flood prone areas that local people could adopt in a changing climatic condition.
Materials and Methods
The experiment was carried out in the nursery of Shahjalal University of Science and Technology,
Sylhet, Bangladesh. For this study, the potential vegetables i.e., Chinese amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor),
Tomato (Lycoperscion esculeatum), Bitter melon (Momordica charantea), Cowpea (Vigna sinensis),
Coriander (Coriander sativum), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), Kangkong (Ipomoea reptans),Indian spinach
(Basella alba) was selected through market surveys. Because, the selected vegetables are preferred by the
farmers and consumers as a low cost daily food items.
Considering adaptation strategies for the poor farmers, low cost materials i.e., synthetic bag, aquatic
weeds, cow dung as an organic compost manure, PVC (Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC) pipe
(3 inch), agriculture top soil, small pieces of bricks (about 20-40 mm is the size) ( Figure-2), bamboo were
used on which vegetables seedling can be grown. Most of these planting materials are domestically
available in the affected area. The experimental treatment is specially designed for flood lands that farmers
could adapt in climate change perspective.
Top soil from agricultural fields and cow dung with a ratio of 2:1 were used respectively in the potting
media in a bag which is 45x15 cm in size. Basically, soil and cow dung were collected 3-4 weeks before
filling the bag for reducing their moisture conditions. Soil and cow dung were also air-dried for a few days.
And then, agricultural top soil and cow dung were mixed to prepare potting media for bag treatment (Figure
1). After that, a PVC pipe placed in the middle within a bag, then mixed soil put around the PVC pipe
very carefully without falling the soil inside the PVC pipe until the bag completely filled up. Thereafter, pieces
of brick were placed inside the PVC pipe that extra water easily could drain from the soil through the bricks in
a heavy rainfall condition (Figure-2). After placing the soil and bricks the PVC pipe pulled up from the bag.
Moreover, six holes were created in three layers, with the outside of the bag.
A randomized complete block design with five replicates group was adopted for this study. Each
species were subjected to four different treatments (TA, TB, TC and TD) of field experiment. There were 20
synthetic bags involving four treatments and eight species combinations. Indian spinach, Kangkong, Chinese
amaranth, Coriander was cultured on the first layer of the bag for better yield production in a limited space.
Bitter melon, Tomato, Cowpea and Pumpkin were cultivated in second layers of two opposite directions
with different positions in different treatments of the bag. The experiment has the following treatments- TA:
Indian spinach + Bitter melon+ Tomato + Cowpea + Pumpkin +Bag; TB: Kangkong + Tomato + Cowpea+
Pumpkin + Bitter melon + Bag; TC: Chinese amaranath+ Cowpea + Pumpkin + Bitter melon + Tomato +Bag;
TD: Coriander + Pumpkin + Bitter melon + Tomato +Cowpea+ Bag.
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is used for the economic viability of this developed farming technique. And the
benefit - cost ratio is calculated by total benefit divided total cost. In addition, Net benefit (NB) is calculated
by the total benefit (benefit) minus total cost (TC). Basically, each value represents the seasonal expenditure
and revenue except bag cost over a rotation length of 6 months. Unit price (/Kg) was collected through
market survey by random sampling over one week of each replicate treatment yield production variable.
Results and Discussion
Modification of adaptation strategy
Bag technique is developed in the folk communities in flood prone areas of Bangladesh. Different
type’s vegetables were cultivated in three layers in the holes of the bags at the same rotation period. Seeds
were sown within holes in three level layers of bags for cultivation of eight selected vegetable crops (Figure-
3, Figure-4, Figure-5). Furthermore, the bags could be fenced by the bamboo sticks to protect from domestic
cattle. In a dry condition, daily approximately 12-13 liter of irrigation water is required on the bag. Then very
little watering is required after one week of the seed sowing. And, every weeks weeding is required with the
pesticide application.
Harvesting of vegetable and crop rotation
One of the important features of bag treatment is that it shortens crop’s life cycle on average two to
three crop cycles are can be managed over one year as well as suitable for summer seasonal (Kharif) and
winter seasonal (Rabi) crops. Vegetables can be harvested one or two times per week during the high price
period that’s why, considering the high economic value. Generally Indian spinach, Kangkong, Chinese
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
747
amaranth, Coriander was collected after 15 days from the seed sowing as they have grown vigorously. And
within 15 days Kangkong rises approximately 12 inches, and Indian spinah 10 inch, and Coriander of 8
inches. Other vegetables i.e., Pumpkin, Tomato, Bitter melon and Cowpea are collected on normal cropping
duration. The bag treatment can be practiced for kharif (summer crops) and Rabi (winter crops). Vegetables
were harvested one or two times a week or when there is particularly high market demand (Figure-6). Two or
more rotations were considered in one session for some species like Coriander, Kangkong, Indian spinach.
Cost benefit analysis
Cost benefit analysis of the experiment was conducted and the net benefit was determined as 74.03
US$
1
(Figure-7). However, if the farmers do not destroy the synthetic bag until decompose and keep it for the
next year application, it would gain benefit initially of 73.06 US$
2
. Moreover, if the farmer contributes own
labor in this farming system, it would save 4.01$. Consequently, the net benefit will be 69.22 US$
3
. In
addition, TD (9.75) is more beneficial among the four treatments. Because of the average benefit cost ratio
of this treatment is 9.75 followed by TA(6.52), TB(5.45) and TC (5.17) (Figure-8). The lowest benefit cost ratio
was found in the treatment TC(5.17) (Table 1).
Discussions
Adaptation strategy would fit best for the folk communities in respect of developing climate change
adaptation strategy with financially suitable crops in the flood prone areas of Bangladesh. The most
important aspect of interim results is developing climate change adaptation strategy for production of
common vegetables in farming system as well as their financial suitability. In our study we found that
developed adaptation strategy and financial suitability of farming system to produce vegetables for their own
consumption and income might be helpful for the flood affected folk people. Similar finding is reported, where
developing an adaptation strategy involved rural community actions such as mini-nurseries which is highly
preferred, as the practice provided substantial income over the year (Baas and Ramasamy, 2008).
Moreover, Homestead gardening is helping farmers reduce their daily expenditures for vegetables and, at
the same time, earned a small amount of cash income. Also, it is observed that most of the work is done by
the women and children, except land preparation and marketing, which has created employment
opportunities for women as well as empowerment which give them a sense of financial satisfaction.
However, they were consuming fresh and nutritious vegetables on a daily basis (Haq et al., 2004).
Furthermore, our finding is strongly supported, where an alternative development approach
prioritized for the endogenous community development based on local concepts on resources, accepting
the exogenous development concept on solutions (Haq et al., 2002). In some cases, as a part of native
community based adaptation to climate change, a number of international NGOs are working with local
communities in some areas to develop ways that farmers can grow food on flooded land, using community
prioritized natural resource management options and technologies (Rahman, 2009). For example, the
innovative technology of floating gardens, which villagers have taken up in many other waterlogged and
flooded areas in the Gaibandha District of Bangladesh (Ahmad, 2010).
Also, this study to poverty alleviation, there are several agricultural, social , economic, ecological
and environmental benefit associated with baira (a flat form of floating garden from water hyacinth) practice
(BCAS, 2006). Some of these are listed as cultivation on Baira platforms facilities employments in the flood
prone areas in rainy season. Moreover, It increases quality food production, which positively influences
the health of the local communities. Furthermore, It provide additional cropping and seedling raising
areas in the flood prone areas especially during rainy season when the cultivation land is scarce. Prime
nutrient elements of plants, namely, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, are available in water
hyacinth (Aktar et al., 1997). When the water recedes from the beels, baira platforms are used as organic
fertilizer. Baira thus cuts down chemical fertilizer expenses considerably. Baira cultivation could help to
continue farming in unusually long post monsoon period. In this way baira enhances eco-friendly
agriculture practice in the following winter to cultivate winter crops.
1
01 US$ = 83.1910 BDT as of 28th April, 2012
2
Ibid
3
Ibid
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
748
Table 1: Cost Benefits Analysis of the bag experiment
Note: R= Replicate, la=Labour, C=Cowdung, P=Pesticide, T=Transports,* Indian spinach =P; Chinese amaranth =S; Cowpea =B;Tomato=T; Bitter melon =K;
Pumpkin =L; Coriander =D; Kangkong =G; An allowance for the unpaid labour of the experimental treatment estimated at the present wage rate (wage rate/ day;
male Tk.200) and every day one labour has prepared 10 bags. Source: Analysis of experimental data 2011.
Expenditure (Tk.)
Treat.
R
La
Seed
Bag
C.
Pest.
T
Total
Cost
Production*(Kg)
*Unite Price/(Tk)
Benefit
**Net
Benefit
BCR***
TA1
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=2.0;K=1.0;T=1.5;B=1.0;L=4.5
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
320.52
268.32
6.14
TA2
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=2.5;K=1.0;T=1.5;B=1.0;L=4.0
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
321.70
269.5
6.16
TA3
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=2.0;K=1.0;T=1.0;B=1.5;L=5.0
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
318.13
265.93
6.09
TA4
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=2.5;K=1.0;T=1.5;B=1.5;L=5.5
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
379.20
327
7.26
TA
TA5
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=1.5;K=1.0;T=1.5;B=1.5;L=6.0
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
362.41
310.21
6.94
Ave.
20
14.70
4
10
0.50
3
52.20
P=2.5;K=1.0;T=1.5;B=1.3;L=5.0
P=31.22;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86
340.39
288.19
6.52
TB1
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =1.5;T=1.0;B=1.0;L=6.0;K=1.5
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
322.87
268.07
5.89
TB2
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =2.5;T=1.0;B=1.5;L=5.0;K=1.0
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
310.65
255.85
5.67
TB3
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =2.5;T=1.0;B=1.0;L=4.5;K=1.5
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
298.15
243.35
5.44
TB4
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =2.0;T=1.0;B=1.0;L=4.5;K=1.0
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
272.72
217.92
4.98
TB
TB5
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =2.0;T=1.0;B=1.0;L=4.5;K=1.5
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
288.87
234.07
5.27
Ave.
20
17.30
4
10
0.50
3
54.80
G =2.1;T=1.0;B=1.1;L=4.9;K=1.3
G=18.57;T=45;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29
298.65
243.85
5.45
TC1
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=2.0;B=1.0;L=3.5;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
258.72
208.02
5.10
TC2
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=1.5;B=1.0;L=4.0;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
260.15
209.45
5.13
TC3
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=1.5;B=1.5;L=4.5;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
274.36
223.66
5.41
TC4
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=2.0;B=1.0;L=3.0;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
287.58
236.88
5.67
TC
TC5
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=2.0;B=1.0;L=3.5;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
244.29
193.59
4.82
Ave.
20
13.20
4
10
0.50
3
50.70
S=1.8;B=1.1;L=3.7;K=1.0;T=1.0
S=26.00;B=28.42;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45
262.13
211.43
5.17
TD1
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=1.5;L=1.0;K=3.0;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
440.23
385.93
8.11
TD2
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=1.5;L=4.0;K=1.0;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
526.81
472.51
9.70
TD3
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=2.5;L=4.5;K=1.0;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
622.95
568.65
11.47
TD5
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=2.0;L=3.0;K=1.0;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
513.73
459.43
9.46
TD
TD5
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=2.5;L=3.0;K=1.0;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
594.09
539.79
10.94
Ave.
20
16.80
4
10
0.50
3
54.30
D=2.0;L=3.1;K=1.4;T=1.0;B=1.0
D=160.72;L=28.86;K=32.29;T=45;B=28.42
529.53
475.23
9.75
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
749
Figure-1: Air-dried of potting media
Figure-2: Water filter and support bag
Figure-3:Cultivation on the 1st layer
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
750
Figure-4: Cultivation in 1st and 2nd layer
Figure-5: Creeping vegetable and gather bag
Figure-6: Crop harvesting (Photo credit: Author).
Figure-7: Net benefit of the bag experimental project (US$).
Source: Analysis of experimental data 2011.
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
751
Figure-8: Cost benefit ratio (BCR) of the bag experiment project.
Source: Analysis of experimental data 2011.
Besides, our research finding is considered by others researcher that adaptation methods are those
strategies that enable the folk community to cope with the impacts of the climate in the local areas (Nyong et
al., 2007; Ayers and Dodman, 2009). Because the poor are considered the most vulnerable to climate
change impacts, it is often believed that financial capital is the most important indicator of adaptive capacity.
Others research is even showing that community based adaptation takes the approach of adapting as
development (Paul and Routray, 2010; Kates, 2000). Responding to the concept that adaptation is local, it
addresses the locally and contextually specified nature of climate change vulnerability because it takes
place at local levels where people encounter impacts. Consequently, this study confirms the findings of
regarding agricultural cropping patterns and related strategies (Rasid and Mallik, 1995). Indeed, our study
area still prefer their developed climate change adaptation strategy for production of common vegetables in
farming system because it has been developed for their integrated folk community based system and in the
short term it gives relatively stable net cash flow each year.
Conclusion
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated and low lying countries in the world. The wetland
areas of Bangladesh will face more flooding, water logging for a longer duration. Since early signs of climate
change are already observed and may become more prominent over time, it is time to develop and
implement adaptation strategies for the local communities. Otherwise it may be too late to avoid disasters.
Based on our experiment, this paper discussed climate change adaptation strategy for vegetable
production in flood prone areas of Bangladesh while suggesting a new farming system which could provide
high agricultural yields thereby helps flood affected folk people. The cost-benefit analysis of the experiment
reveals that adoption is financially suitable.
Contribution by authors
‘MAAP’ and ‘MASAK’ have conducted experiments and collected data from past year's
applications with the conceptual development of ‘MAAM’. Following that, ‘MAAP’ prepared primary
manuscript and entered these into the computer, and captured photograph of experiments by the supervision
of ‘MASAK’. Subsequently, ‘SAR’ undertook preliminary analysis of the data and drafted sections 1 and 2 of
the article. In fine, ‘MAAM’ completed an analysis of the data, and produced a final draft article.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to the Department of Forestry and Environment Science, Shahjalal
University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh who supported this research. Many thanks are also
extended to the farmers at the study site where field experiment was conducted.
Conflicts of interest
No conflicts of interest
References
Agrawala S, Ota T, Ahmed AU, Smith J, van Aalst M, 2005. Development and climate change in
Bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding and the Sundarbans. Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), Paris, France, p 34. Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/55/21055658.pdf.
Ali A, 1996. Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and
storm surges. J Water Air Soil Pollut. 92:171–179. Available at:
http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/10003IIED.pdf.
Ayers J, Dodman D, 2009. Climate change adaptation and development: the state of the debate. Progress in
Development Studies accepted 2009.
Baas S, Ramasamy S, 2008. Community based adaptation in action: a case study from Bangladesh, FAO
Environment and natural resource service series, No. 14 – FAO, Rome, Italy, 64pp.
BCAS (Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies), 2006. Bangladesh wetland ecosystem- information
and knowledge base. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Intl. J. Agron. Plant. Prod. Vol., 4 (4), 745-752, 2013
752
Burton I, 1992. Adaptation and thrive. Canadian climate centre unpublished manuscript. Downsview,
Ontario, Canada.
Burton I, 1997. Vulnerability and adaptive response in the context of climate and climate change. Climatic
Change, 36:185-196.
Chowdhury AMR, Bhuyia AU, Choudhury AY, Sen R, 1993. The Bangladesh cyclone of 1991: why so many
people died. Disasters, 17(4):291–304.
Cline WR, 2007. Global warming and agriculture, impact estimates by country. Centre for Global
Development and the Peterson Institute for International Economics, Washington DC, USA.
Dasgupta S, Huq M, Khan ZH, Masud MS, Ahmed M, Mukherjee N, Pandey K, 2010. Climate proofing
infrastructure in Bangladesh: the incremental cost of limiting future inland monsoon flood damage
(Washington, DC: World Bank, November, Policy Research Working Paper 5469).
Easterling WE, Aggarwal PK, Batima P, Brander KM, Erda L, Howden SM, Kirilenko A, Morton J, Soussana
JF, Schmidhuber J, Tubiello FN, 2007. Food, fiber and forest products. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF,
Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ and Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and
vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 273-313.
Haq AHMR, Asaduzzaman M, Ghosal TK, 2002. Soil-less agriculture in Bangladesh. A Grameen
Trust, Bangladesh publication under the component of research for poverty alleviation. Grameen
Bank Bhaban, Dhaka, Bangladesh, p 111.
Haq Rezaul AHM, Ghosal TK, Pritam G, 2004. Cultivating wetland in Bangladesh. LEISA Magazine,
Published by ILEIA, Netherlands, Vol: 20, No. 04,18-20. http:// www.leisa.info.
Haque CE, 1997. Atmospheric hazards preparedness in Bangladesh: a study of warning, adjustments a
recovery from the April 1991 cyclone. Nat Hazards, 16:181–202, http://ekh.unep.org/?q=node/2208.
Huq MM, 2000. Government institutions and underdevelopment: a study of the tribal people of Chittagong hill
tracts, Bangladesh. Dhaka University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Huq S, Ayers J, 2008. Climate change impacts and responses in Bangladesh–note. Brussels, Belgium:
European Parliament, DG Internal Policies, Policy Department Economy and Science (January);
Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/committees/studies/download.do?file=19195
IPCC, 2001. Climate change 2001: The scientific basis. In: Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M,
Linden PJ van der, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson CA (eds) Contribution of working group I to the third
assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p 881.
IPCC, 2007. Summary for policy makers. In: Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer LA (eds)
Climate change 2007: mitigation. Contribution of working group III to the fourth assessment report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Kates RW, 2000. Cautionary tales: adaptation and the global poor. Climatic Change, 45: 5-17.
Nyong A, Adesina F, Osman EB, 2007. The value of indigenous knowledge in climate change
mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitigation Adaptation Springer, Strategy
Global Change, 12:787–797.
Paul SK, Routray JK, 2010. Flood proneness and coping strategies: the experiences of two villages
in Bangladesh. Overseas Development Institute, Published by Blackwell Publishing, Disasters,
Oxford, UK and Malden, USA 2010, 34(2): 489−508.
Rahman AA, Alam M, 2003. Mainstreaming adaptation to climate change in least developed countries.
Working paper 2: Bangladesh country case study, London: International Institute for Environment and
Development (IIED).
Rahman KMM, 2009. River erosion and flooding in northern Bangladesh. In: Ensor J, Berger R (eds)
Understanding climate change adaptation: lessons from community - based approaches. Sterling. VA:
Stylus Publishing.
Rashid H, Mallik A, 1995. Flood adaptations in Bangladesh: Is the compartmentalization scheme
compatible with indigenous adjustments of rice cropping to flood regimes? Applied Geography, Vol.
15, No. 1, p 3-17.
... Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries for climate change and climatic variability (Pouliotte et al. 2009;Pavel et al. 2013;Islam et al. 2014). In the Climate Risk Index, Bangladesh is in the sixth position and has already experienced different extreme climate-related events . ...
... Due to lack of food, extreme poverty, inadequate income, illiteracy, and a high concentration of laborers, Bangladesh's flood-prone areas are among the worst in various disaster zones (Pavel et al. 2013). Studies conducted in the flood-hit regions of Bangladesh have revealed that floating garden, changes in farming practices, income diversification, alternative livelihoods, loan borrowing, and disposable asset sales are significant and widely practiced strategies. ...
... Among the adaptive strategies, crop diversity, duck rearing, floating gardens, wave protection walls, cage aquaculture, canal re-excavation, and dam construction were widely used. They are entirely dependent on agriculture, which is extremely vulnerable to climate change (Pavel et al. 2013. However, vulnerable households or farmers are trying to protect their income through alternative livelihoods such as poultry and cottage industries (Anik and Khan 2012). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Climate change is a big challenge now. Currently, researchers, academics, and policymakers focus on coping with and dealing with the adverse effects of climate change. However, due to climate change impacts, it is impossible to determine the number of coping strategies, primarily when the appropriate coping and adaptation strategies depend on the socioeconomic and cultural context of vulnerable communities facing climate change-related extreme events. Therefore, we cannot deny the current debate between coping strategies and climate change adaptation. In this case, the chapter addresses existing definitions, discussions, and pieces of evidence on coping strategies and adaptations for dealing with the adverse impacts of climate change. It also discusses with examples how the various relationships between climate change-related events and coping strategies or adaptations are different. Researchers present theoretical backgrounds in understanding the nexus between climate change and coping strategies and adaptation contextually. The chapter also includes some discussions of the above linkage in Bangladesh’s context. Finally, various empirical studies provide thoughts that the connection between climate change, tackling strategies, and adaptation varies in terms of the severity and types of climate change-related events in which socioeconomic, sociodemographic, and cultural aspects mediate the relationship.
... In recent years, flooding in Bangladesh has lasted longer than previous events [1][2][3][4]. Advanced adaptation strategies may be needed to cope with adverse impacts, as well as to create new opportunities posed by climate change [5]. Floating bed cultivation has proved to be a successful means of agricultural crop production in wetland areas of India, Burma (Myanmar) and Bangladesh [6]. ...
... Bangladesh is a low-lying country. The wetland areas of Bangladesh face more flooding/water logging for a longer duration than other countries [5]. Floating gardening is a form of hydroponics. ...
... The floating garden may help to alleviate poverty by increasing food security and economic safety. This can cope with climate change in an economically viable way [5] and ensure sustained use of wetland resources in the haor. Several local and international NGOs have introduced floating gardens in the north eastern wetlands of Bangladesh. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper offers an economic evaluation of the floating garden as a means of adapting to climate change in Bangladesh. The study showed that the monthly income of some farmers using such gardens increased from US12.02toUS12.02 to US48.08. These folk farmers lacked alternative work especially during the monsoon period. The floating garden uses available natural resources, adjusts to wet conditions and helps the flood-prone people to earn a living, and can be an adaptive response to frequent disaster events in Bangladesh.
... It is a locally tailored innovation that could become more relevant for adapting to climate change when floods occur at higher frequencies and create waterlogging conditions. Floating agriculture, as a potential agricultural production technique for climate change adaptation and sustainable community development, uses locally available aquatic plants to create a platform floating on a waterbody to grow vegetables and seedlings during periods of waterlogging (Chowdhury and Moore, 2017;Pavel et al., 2013). Platform residue is then used as an organic fertilizer for winter crops (Pavel et al., 2013). ...
... Floating agriculture, as a potential agricultural production technique for climate change adaptation and sustainable community development, uses locally available aquatic plants to create a platform floating on a waterbody to grow vegetables and seedlings during periods of waterlogging (Chowdhury and Moore, 2017;Pavel et al., 2013). Platform residue is then used as an organic fertilizer for winter crops (Pavel et al., 2013). In addition to the use of floating agriculture in Bangladesh's southern regions, it has also been introduced and promoted in other flood-prone region of Hoar, in northeastern part of Bangladesh, over the last decade (Chowdhury and Moore, 2017). ...
Article
Although floating farming, a climate-smart practice, is a response to climate change challenges facing agriculture in wetland areas, the adoption of floating agriculture in Bangladesh wetland areas (also known as Haor) is slow. The purpose of our study was to identify the factors that motivate and barriers that inhibit the adoption of floating agriculture in the Haor region in Bangladesh's Kishoreganj district. To achieve our purpose, we used Roger's five-stage innovation-decision theory. We collected data from a sample of 120 Haor rural farmers using a quantitative questionnaire answered via a personal interview. We used a binary logistic regression to identify the factors that predict farmers' motivational actions in adopting floating agriculture. In addition, we rank ordered the data to identify the obstacles that prohibit farmers from implementing floating agriculture. The results demonstrate that education, training related to floating agriculture, credit received, communication behavior, trialability and observability, and complexity in practicing floating agriculture motivate farmers to adopt floating agriculture. The results also show that climatic factors (e.g., high waves and excessive rainfall, aquatic plant scarcity) and non-climatic factors (e.g., inadequate demonstration plots, conflict, and political power abuse) inhibit adoption of floating agriculture. Our study provides suggestions for increasing farmers' adoption of floating agriculture in wetland areas.
... About TK 24,000 gross benefit was observed from the study of Hossain (2014) in which TK 10,000 was spent for making 10 floating beds for vegetable cultivation while TK 34,000 was the total income. The findings of Irfanullah et al. (2011) and Pavel et al. (2013) also supported the above cost benefit analysis of floating cultivation in different areas of Bangladesh. Greater economic opportunities and demand of floating cultivation encourage farmers to transform this traditional floating agricultural practice leads to commercially viable agro business. ...
... Vegetable farming techniques in the floating system are currently a sustainable agricultural technology for the people of low or flooded areas of Bangladesh. Floating gardening has been much discussed as a climate change adaptation (Irfanullah, 2013a) option, which can adapt with climate change in an economically viable way (Pavel et al., 2013). Haq et al. (2004) explored that it is a great opportunity to create employment opportunities for men as well as women empowerment because most of the work is done by the young men and women, which gives them a sense of economic satisfaction. ...
Article
Full-text available
Agriculture is the driving force of the economy of Bangladesh where two third of the arable land is inundated in monsoon due to low lying of geographical position and adverse effect of climate. A part of these monsoon wetlands are used for floating cultivation by the local farmers for their livelihood which is commonly known as "Vasoman Chash", a method of hydroponics. This century aged traditional agricultural method is being practiced in haor regions of Bangladesh. Matured water hyacinth is the most important component for making raft or bed for floating cultivation. Paddy straw, Son ghash (Imperata cylindrica), Noll ghash (Hamerthria protensa), Topapana (Pista stratiotes), ash twigs and desiccated coconut fibers are also used for making bed. The water hyacinth is collected from nearby wetlands and prepared bed and finally allowed 15 to 20 days for decomposition before cultivation. A ball /guti/tema is prepared by soft rotten Durali or Salvinia, where seeds are inserted for germination and finally covered with rotten water hyacinth and allowed for seedlings. After 5-6 days when seedlings attained 5-6 inches long, are transferred to the floating bed. Bamboos are usually used as anchorage to keep beds fixed in a place during the monsoon and then bed is ready for growing of various kinds of vegetables. This indigenous floating bed cultivation technology can mitigate food insecurity, poverty and adverse effects of global warming.
... Due to these changes, some parts of the country remain waterlogged for a prolonged period. To overcome this problem, farmers in these areas are adopting alternative cultivation techniques (Sen and Zaid, 2010;Pavel et al., 2013;Hoque et al., 2016;Chowdhury and Moore, 2017;Islam et al., 2019;Kabir et al., 2019;Kabir et al., 2020). Floating gardening is one of the techniques where plants are grown on a bio-land or floating bed of water hyacinth, algae or plant residues (Winterborne, 2005;Saha, 2010;Alam and Chowdhury, 2018;Islam et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
Floating gardening acts as a fruitful climate-change adaptation strategy in different wetland areas of Bangladesh. The study accomplished to examine the profitability of floating gardening in Gopalgonj district of Bangladesh in 2018. A total of 100 floating gardeners were interviewed to achieve the objectives. Descriptive statistics and Cobb-Douglas production function were used to investigate the factors influencing yield of floating gardening. The findings reveal that, small and marginal farmers were more involved in floating gardening. Around sixty-five percent of the production costs was contributed by human labour. Floating gardeners of the study area earned a net return of BDT 457,901 per hectare per year. Human labour, fertilizers and support materials significantly affected the yield. More training and improved marketing system could further enhance the profitability.
Chapter
Full-text available
W.E.Easterling, P.K. Aggarwal, P. Batima, K.M. Brander, L. Erda, S.M. Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J.-F. Soussana, J. Schmidhuber and F.N. Tubiello, 2007: Food, fibre and forest products. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden,C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 273-313.
Article
Full-text available
T he village Chandra is situated in the southwest part of Bangladesh on the banks of the river Kabodak, which flows from Jessore to the Bay of Bengal. In the past, the 1500 villagers depended on the river for agriculture, aquaculture, transport and other daily activities. At least 300 villagers had land on the bank of the river and when the river flooded its banks, silt carried by the water was deposited on the land, making it fertile and providing the farmers with good crops. Most of the villagers farmed their land and maintained their livelihoods in happiness. The village was also famous throughout Bangladesh for its mango, jackfruit and dates. In course of time, however, the river became a curse instead of a blessing. In early 1960s, the then East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority engaged in the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) to convert the seasonally flooded coastal wetlands into reclaimed land for permanent agricultural production under the Green Revolution Programme, as well as to protect human settlements from the floods. This large-scale engineering intervention ignored the agro-ecological system of the south-west region and disrupted the ecologically complex and highly productive coastal wetland ecosystem. The reclaimed land is now isolated from the river and does not receive any silt to improve its fertility. The silt load is instead deposited in the river, blocking the drainage of the area and leading to permanent water logging. This situation makes both agriculture and aquaculture activities impossible. Social demoralization, diseases, unemployment and migration have increased in the village. The Water Development Board of the Government has not been able to reduce the waterlogging, which takes over an additional 4000 hectares per year. The view of experts and local people is that there is no other way out, but to live with water.
Article
Full-text available
Two-thirds of Bangladesh is less than 5 meters above sea level, making it one of the most flood prone countries in the world. Severe flooding during a monsoon causes significant damage to crops and property, with severe adverse impacts on rural livelihoods. Future climate change seems likely to increase the destructive power of monsoon floods. This paper examines the potential cost of offsetting increased flooding risk from climate change, based on simulations from a climate model of extreme floods out to 2050. Using the 1998 flood as a benchmark for evaluating additional protection measures, the authors calculate conservatively that necessary capital investments out to 2050 would total US$2,671 million (at 2009 prices) to protect roads and railways, river embankments surrounding agricultural lands, and drainage systems and erosion control measures for major towns. With gradual climate change, however, required investments would be phased. Beyond these capital-intensive investments, improved policies, planning and institutions are essential to ensure that such investments are used correctly and yield the expected benefits. Particular attention is needed to the robustness of benefits from large-scale fixed capital investments. Investments in increased understanding of risk-mitigation options and in economic mobility will have especially high returns.
Article
Full-text available
In probabilistic terms, Bangladesh is prone, to at least one major ‘tropical cyclone’ every year. This situation is primarily due to the geographical location of Bangladesh in tropical Asia, and to its concave coastline and shallow continental shelf. The devastating impact of such cyclones on humans stems from a combination of intense human occupation of the area, predominance of traditional sociocultural values and religion, the precarious socioeconomic conditions of the majority of the coastal inhabitants, and the lack of a coordinated institutional disaster planning and management strategy. Bangladesh has experienced several catastrophic environmental disasters during the last decade; among these events, the 1991 April cyclone was the most catastrophic in terms of both physical and human dimensions. An initial study was carried out in the coastal regions of Bangladesh less than two weeks after they were hit by the severe cyclone of 29 April 1991. This research examined the process through which warning of the impending disastrous cyclone was received by the local communities and disseminated throughout the coastal regions of Bangladesh. It was found that the identification of the threatening condition due to atmospheric disturbance, the monitoring of the hazard event, and the dissemination of the cyclone warning were each very successful. The present study followed up on the initial research by surveying 267 respondents with an elaborate survey instrument, focusing on the most crucial academic and planning issues identified in the 1991 study. In particular, the nature and characteristics of the cyclone preparedness of the coastal inhabitants were assessed by the study; other factors considered included rural-urban variations, mainland-island differences, the nature and role of previous knowledge, and the disaster experience. The survey results show the variety of indigenous adjustment mechanisms that help to rehabilitate the survivors; also visible are the profound roles played by the social inequality variables and the magnitude of physical vulnerability in influencing the disaster loss and recovery process. The study recommends that hazard mitigation policies should be integrated with national economic development plans and programs. Specifically, it is suggested that the cyclone warning system should incorporate the human response to warnings as its constituent part, and in this way accommodating human dimensions in its operational design.
Article
The paper explores the distinction between climate and climate change. Adaptation to current climate variability has been proposed as an additional way to approach adaptation to long-term climate change. In effect improved adaptation to current climate is a step in preparation for longer term climate change. International programs of research and assessment are separately organized to deal with natural disasters and climate change. There is no scientific concensus so far, that extreme events have changed in frequency on a world-wide basis, although some regional changes have occured. It is extremely unlikely that significant shifts in the means of weather distrbutions will take place without shifts in the tails. In some situations it may make more sense to focus on adaptation to extreme events and the tails of distributions. In other circumstances adaptation to the norms is the logical focus. The relationship between normal climate and climate change is examined in terms of single and complex variables and phenomena. It is proposed that the research communities studying adaptation to extreme events and adaptation to climate change work more closely together, perhaps in a newly organized joint research program.
Article
Many who study global change, particularly from industrialized countries, are optimistic about the capacity of agriculture to successfully adapt to climate change. This optimism is based on historic trends in yield increases, on the spread of cropping systems far beyond their traditional agroecological boundaries, and the inherent flexibility of systems of international trade. Analysis of the success (or in rare cases, failure) of adaptation is by analogy—either to analogous socioeconomic or technological change or to short term environmental change. Such studies have been limited to industrialized countries. This paper uses five analogs from developing countries to examine potential adaptation to global climate change by poor people. Two are studies of comparative developing country responses to drought, flood, and tropical cyclone and to the Sahelian droughts of the 1970s and 80s that illustrate adaptations to climate and weather events:. Two address food production and rapid population growth in South Asia and Africa. Three types of adaptive social costs are considered: the direct costs of adaptation, the costs of adapting to the adaptations, and the costs of failing to adapt. A final analog reviews 30 village-level studies for the role that these social costs of adaptation play in perpetuating poverty and environmental degradation.
Article
Bangladesh is frequently visited by natural disasters such as tropical cyclones, storm surges, floods, droughts, tornadoes, and norwesters. Of these, tropical cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and associated storm surges are the most disastrous. There are various reasons for the disastrous effects of cyclones and storm surges in Bangladesh. Superimposed on these disastrous effects, climate change and any consequent sea level rise are likely to add fuel to the fire. Arise in temperature is likely to change cyclone activity: cyclone intensity, if not cyclone frequency, may increase. As a result, storm surges may also increase substantially. Sea level rise, an increase in cyclone intensity, and consequent increases in storm surge heights will have disastrous effects on a deltaic country like Bangladesh, which is not much above the mean sea level. This paper examines the climatology of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal for the last 110 years and trends in cyclone frequency and intensity. The phenomenon of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal is examined along with the primary reasons for the severity of storm surges in Bangladesh. The paper discusses both qualitatively and quantitatively the impacts of rises in temperature on tropical cyclone intensity in Bangladesh. With the use of a mathematical model developed for the simulation of storm surges along the Bangladesh coast; various scenarios of storm surges are developed. Using lower and upper bounds of sea surface temperature rise of 2 and 4C and of sea level rise of 0.3 and 1.0 m (according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change standard), the model simulates the maximum possible surges that are likely to occur under these conditions.