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Natural history of snakes in Forests of the Manaus Region, Central Amazonia, Brazil
Abstract and Figures
We present natural history information on 66 species of snakes found in the forests of the Manaus region, Central Amazonia, Brazil. For each species, we provide information on size, color pattern, habitat and microhabitat, feeding habits, reproduction, and defense. We also include a partial summary of the information available in the literature for Amazonian localities. Our results are based on nearly 800 captures or sightings of snakes made from 1990-95 at localities around Manaus, mostly at a primary forest reserve 25 km north of Manaus. Field data at this reserve were obtained during over 2600 person-h of visually searching for snakes, ca. 1600 of which occurred during time-constrained search. Temperature and relative humidity in Manaus are high and the amount of annual rainfall (2075 mm/yr) is relatively small, with a long dry season (4-7 mo). Of the 65 species for which information is available, 28 (42%) are primarily terrestrial, 20 (30%) fossorial and/or cryptozoic, 13 (20%) arboreal, and four (6%) aquatic, although many species use more than one microhabitat when active. Nearly all inactive snakes were found on vegetation. In relation to time of activity, 26 (41 %) of the 62 species for which information is available seem to be strictly diurnal, 13 (21%) strictly nocturnal, and 23 (38%) both diurnal and nocturnal. The five prey types most commonly consumed by snakes in the Manaus region are vertebrates: lizards (consumed by 58% of the species), frogs (39%), mammals (23%), birds (18%), and snakes (16%). A cluster analysis combining data on microhabitat use, diel activity, and diet resulted in several groups of species with similar habits. All these "guilds" included closely related species, as well as distantly related ones that converge in habits. These combined results indicate that in addition to current ecological factors (e.g., predation pressure, differential prey availability in different microhabitats), historical factors (phylogeny and biogeography) may have played an important role in determining the current natural history patterns of this snake assemblage. A high diversity of defensive tactics was found in this assemblage, and phylogeny may be a strong determinant factor for the occurrence of defensive tactics in each species. Contradicting generalizations on the timing and length of reproductive season in Amazonian snakes, juvenile recruitment seems to occur mainly during the rainy season in most species from the Manaus region, although some species seem to breed throughout the year. This may be a consequence of the prolonged dry season that occurs in the region, during which time some resources occur in limited supplies.
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... Essa serpente como mecanismo de defesa costuma vibrar a cauda no chão (Martins e Oliveira, 1998) e produz um som que lembra o barulho de um chocalho ou guizo para alguns moradores. ...
... Percebeu-se que alguns indígenas chamam também Oxybelis fulgidus e Corallus batesii de papagaia, devido a coloração verde dessas espécies(Bernarde et al., 2017). As serpentes M. lemniscatus e M.surinamensis foram as mais reconhecidas dentre as corais provavelmente devido o padrão de coloração coralino(Bernarde et al., 2017) e também por serem as espécies de Micrurus mais abundantes nas florestas (e.g.,Martins e Oliveira 1998;Silva et al., 2020;Almeida et al., 2024) e as mais envolvidas em acidentes Elapídicos na Amazônia(Bisneto et al., 2020).Assim como relatado por Mota-da-Silva et al. (2019b) eRodrigues et al. (2023), esse estudo corroborou que os espécimes juvenis de Bothrops atrox tendem a serem chamados de jararaca e os adultos de surucucu. Moradores do Alto Juruá pensam que esses dois nomes populares representem duas espécies distintas, inclusive empiricamente sabendo que a picada da jararaca (juvenis) tende a causar um quadro hemorrágico mais evidente e a surucucu (adultas) produzir mais efeitos locais (edemas maiores, necrose e amputação)(Silva et al., 2019), o que corrobora com os sinais e sintomas apresentados pelos pacientes picados por essa serpente (e.g.,Costa et al., 2020). ...
... Essa aparência de H. angulatus que lembra a de B. atrox, associada com os sinais e sintomas que a pessoa mordida por essa serpente pode apresentar (parecidos com o do acidente botrópico) pode induzir profissionais da saúde a se equivocarem com o diagnóstico e administrarem o soro antibotrópico nesses pacientes (e.g., Moreno et al., 2005; Mota-da-Silva et al., 2019c). A pico-de-jaca (Lachesis muta) trata-se da maior serpente peçonhenta do Brasil, podendo alcançar 3,15 m de comprimento (Barrio-Amorós et al., 2020) e não foi reconhecida pela maioria dos entrevistados, o que pode estar relacionado com o fato dela ser uma espécie que ocorre em baixa densidade populacional (Campbell e Lamar, 2004) e ser relativamente menos frequente o seu encontro (e.g.,Martins e Oliveira, 1998; Turci et al., 2021). Outro fator a ser considerado é que os acidentes ofídicos com essa espécie são relativamente raros (e.g., Mota-da-Silva et al., 2019a), o que também deve contribuir para ser menos reconhecida pela população. ...
Os povos indígenas vivem em aldeias em íntimo contato com o ambiente florestal, onde ocorrem diversas espécies de serpentes. Além do risco do acidente ofídico, existe um problema de conservação, uma vez que as serpentes são muitas vezes mortas durante esses encontros. O entendimento sobre o nível de conhecimento das populações humanas tem sobre a identificação de serpentes é fundamental para a elaboração de campanhas de educação ambiental e de prevenção de acidentes. O presente estudo tem como objetivo avaliar o conhecimento de indígenas em relação à identificação das serpentes na região do Alto Juruá, estado do Acre. Foram entrevistados 62 indígenas (etnias Ashaninka, Katukinas, Kaxinawá, Nukini, Nawa, Madijá e Puyanawas) que apresentaram histórico de acidente ofídico durante a vida. A serpente mais reconhecida pelos indígenas foi Bothrops atrox principalmente por suas etnoespécies jararaca e surucucu, provavelmente por ser a espécie peçonhenta mais abundante e mais envolvida em acidentes ofídicos regionalmente. Algumas serpentes não peçonhentas foram reconhecidas como peçonhentas e também o contrário, demonstrando que o conhecimento indígena para a identificação de serpentes é parcial, sendo mais assertivos para algumas espécies mais comuns e que apresentam certas características que as tornam mais fáceis de serem identificadas. Sugere-se a necessidade de atividades de Educação Ambiental nas comunidades indígenas para ajudar no reconhecimento das serpentes peçonhentas e não peçonhentas, medidas de prevenção e primeiros socorros em casos de acidentes ofídicos e da importância das serpentes na natureza.
... Guedes et al., 2018). This is largely related to the high sampling effort needed to encounter specimens, which may range up to 15 h37 min of visual search per specimen during the day, or 04 h36 min during the night in the Amazon Forest (Martins & Oliveira, 1998). Some commonly employed sampling methods for ectotherms, such as pitfall traps, have been repeatedly shown to yield considerably less specimens than other methods, or in some cases, unable to sample any individuals (e.g. ...
... 3.30; QGIS, 2023), overlaid the individual binary presence/absence species distribution rasters based on the "Equal training sensitivity and specificity" metric, and selected localities that fulfilled the following requisites: (i) within continuous distribution of the binary presence/absence raster, as isolated climatic suitable areas are considered less likely to harbour viable populations; (ii) within a grid unit indicated as a suitable area in at least one presence/absence models. We selected the following sampling locations: (1) We conducted rapid faunal assessments from 01 February 2017 to 31 March 2023, employing two methods: (i) time-constrained active search, modified from Campbell and Christman (1982); (ii) Opportunistic encounters, modified from Martins and Oliveira (1998). For the time-constrained active search, a trail was selected in each locality, and visually available microhabitats were searched for snakes, in a time period of 2-5 man-hours in each sampling day. ...
Understanding species distribution patterns has been a major quest in biodiversity research. Due to their secretive habits and rarity, snakes have been historically underrepresented in assessments of geographic distribution range. In this work, we employ a pipeline for predictive model-based species sampling, using Neotropical snakes as a model organism. We employ species distribution models based on verified point records for five candidate snake species of probable occurrence to Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil: Apostolepis dimidiata (Jan 1862), Erythrolamprus aesculapii (Linnaeus 1758), Helicops leopardinus (Schlegel 1837), Lygophis meridionalis (Schenkel 1901), and Micrurus corallinus (Merrem 1820). Based on the resulting models, we conducted fieldwork on areas with higher overlap of suitable ranges and probability of new records. Our study yields a new state record of A. dimidiata to Rio Grande do Sul and highlights the usefulness of species distribution models in eliciting priority areas for faunal assessments.
... In plots, 30 days after planting, traces or presence of fauna were identified through observation of the existence of nests, feces, footprints, and dens, according to methodology adapted from Martins and Oliveira (1998) Chemical and soil fertility aspects evaluated were: pH in water, content of phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), saturation of aluminum (m), sum of bases (SB), effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) and pH 7.0, base saturation, organic matter content, Na, H + Al 5 saturation index and ratios: Ca/K, Mg/K, Ca/Mg. Chemical analyses followed Tanaka and Vieira (2006), Rodrigues et al. (2016), and Fernandes et al. (2013) who, in their studies, considered for diagnosis, among others, organic matter, pH (H2O), aluminum (Al), and the macronutrients: P, K and Ca. ...
In Brazil, there is a large gap in studies related to protected native species, discouraging their use in plantations, and consequently, further favoring the reduction of their conservation. In this sense, this research aimed to analyze the biotic and abiotic factors that influence the initial establishment, in enrichment planting, of five endangered forest species. The planting areas are located in extensions covered by secondary forest in the municipality of Vitória do Xingu/PA. The total perimeter outlined for enrichment with species corresponded to 147.26 ha. To evaluate the seedlings, 147 sample units of 800 m² were installed. The species survival inventory and height measurement were carried out 30 and 180 days after planting. The phytosanitary conditions of the seedlings, fauna vestige, soil fertility, herbaceous layer, and neighboring trees were evaluated. Among the main results obtained, the following stand out: (i) Cedrela odorata was found to have the highest mortality rate; (ii) Apuleia leiocarpa was the species that showed the highest absolute growth rate with a significant difference concerning Bertholletia excelsa; (iii) higher mortality was recorded at 30 days than in the second evaluation; (iv) the presence of animals inside the plots influenced seedling mortality; (v) the variability in the number of soil nutrients among the plots was not sufficient to generate different behavior among species; and (vi) the herbaceous layer and the surrounding trees did not promote any interference in the growth of the plants. It is recommended to use the species evaluated in this study in enrichment plantings.
... On admission, Bothrops atrox snakebites were diagnosed based on clinical and epidemiological characteristics or, when the patient brought the snake responsible for the envenomation. Snake identification was performed by a zoologist from the FMT-HVD research group using a validated taxonomic key [27]. B. atrox is the only species of this genus in the study region [25,26]. ...
Background
Bothrops venom consists primarily of metalloproteinase and phospholipase A2 toxins, which are responsible for the acute inflammatory, coagulant and hemorrhagic action following snakebite. The local effects of snakebite envenomation by Bothrops species are particularly prevalent yet poorly studied, but include pain, edema, erythema, blistering, bleeding, and ecchymosis.
Methods and findings
In this study, we describe the dermatopathological findings observed in a series of 22 patients diagnosed with Bothrops envenomation treated in a tertiary hospital of Manaus, in the Brazilian Amazon. Clinically, pain and edema were observed in all patients, followed by fang marks (63.6%), secondary infection (36.3%), ecchymosis (31.8%), erythema (22.7%), blister (13.6%), and necrosis (4.5%). Regarding histopathological findings, epidermal alterations such as spongiosis, acanthosis and hyperkeratosis were the most observed characteristics in our cases series, with isolated cases of hyperplasia, hemorrhagic intraepidermal blister and severe necrosis. Changes in dermis and hypodermis consisted mainly of hemorrhage, inflammatory infiltrate, edema, congestion, and vascular damage, whereas cases of collagen damage, necrosis, abscess, and signs of tissue repair, indicated by the presence of granulation tissue, were also observed, with a persistence of inflammatory and hemostatic alterations even days after antivenom administration. Therefore, the tissue damage resulting from Bothrops envenomation could be related to both direct venom activity as well as inflammatory response or presence of infectious process. The histopathological analysis of human skin injury can enlighten the pathological and endogenous effects of local envenomation and could underpin new strategies, including novel treatments, adjuvants or changes in clinical management, that lead to better outcomes in snakebite patients.
... In the Brazilian Amazon, the species is broadly distributed from the western Amazonas to the eastern middle Tapajós River, also occurring at the states of Acre, Rondônia, and Mato Grosso (Bernarde et al. 2011;Mendes-Pinto and Souza 2011;Carvalho et al. 2013). According to the available literature, Bothrocophias hyoprora is often found on the leaf litter near water bodies (Campbell and Lamar 2004), and feeds upon centipedes, anurans, lizards, and rodents (Martins and Oliveira 1998;Martins et al. 2002). ...
O artigo trata de novos registros de distribuição da Bothrocophias hyoprora, também conhecida como "jararaca-bicuda" no Brasil, com foco na Amazônia. Ele expande a área de ocorrência conhecida da espécie em cerca de 190 km ao sul do último registro no Pará e 270 km a sudeste para Altamira. O estudo ressalta a relevância de registros adicionais para preencher lacunas sobre a distribuição da herpetofauna amazônica, especialmente em áreas pouco exploradas.
A descoberta de novas ocorrências em locais distintos contribui para uma compreensão mais detalhada do habitat da espécie e suas preferências ecológicas, essenciais para estratégias de conservação. Os registros foram realizados em florestas densas e preservadas. Isso destaca a necessidade de conservar esses ambientes para proteger não apenas esta espécie, mas também outras que compartilham seu habitat. O artigo fornece dados fundamentais para futuras investigações sobre a ecologia, comportamento e riscos enfrentados pela Bothrocophias hyoprora, especialmente em regiões de desmatamento e exploração mineral. A documentação da espécie em áreas pouco estudadas reforça a importância de esforços contínuos de monitoramento da biodiversidade, que podem revelar espécies mal documentadas ou desconhecidas.
... As armadilhas foram checadas e inspecionadas diariamente, sendo registrados todos os espécimes de répteis e anfíbios capturados. No ambiente terrestre, dois observadores utilizaram o método de busca ativa [39] por duas horas no período matutino e por duas horas no período noturno. O monitoramento usando essas metodologias foi realizado em quatro expedições (Tabela 1). . ...
O Pantanal vem sofrendo diferentes ameaças ao longo dos anos, as quais têm alterado suas paisagens e prejudicado o pulso de inundação. Desde 2020, uma das maiores preocupações relativas à conservação de biodiversidade do bioma é a mudança do regime de fogo e os impactos dos grandes incêndios. O aumento na frequência e na intensidade de incêndios é uma das ameaças apontadas pela ciência como causa de declínio mundial das populações de anfíbios e répteis. O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi descrever os padrões observados na composição, distribuição e história natural das espécies de répteis e anfíbios amostrados durante e após os eventos de incêndio que vêm afetando o Pantanal desde 2020. Além disso, apontamos as dificuldades enfrentadas para estimar o impacto do fogo sobre a herpetofauna local e sugerimos aprimoramentos da metodologia utilizada. Os dados foram obtidos durante seis expedições, realizadas entre 2020 e 2023, em momentos hidrológicos distintos (seca e vazante) e em diferentes circunstâncias de amostragem: emergência e monitoramento. Emergência compreende os registros feitos durante eventos de incêndio e consistiu na contagem de animais mortos; enquanto o monitoramento, aplicado em momentos sem fogo, consistiu na amostragem passiva e ativa de animais vivos. Para cada espécie registrada durante as amostragens buscamos na literatura informações complementares sobre a categoria de risco de extinção, habitat e hábitos. Considerando as expedições e as diferentes metodologias aplicadas, contabilizamos 1708 registros de 45 espécies nos municípios de Barão de Melgaço e Poconé. A riqueza e abundância de anfíbios e répteis responderam de formas diferentes em campanhas emergenciais e no monitoramento. Os anfíbios de grande porte com hábitos terrestres ou semifossoriais, assim como as serpentes aquáticas e semiaquáticas, foram os grupos com maior número de carcaças registradas após os incêndios. Durante o monitoramento, entretanto, avistamentos de serpentes aquáticas foram muito reduzidos. Nesse contexto, destacamos a importância de estudos de monitoramento de longo prazo com metodologias adequadas às condições hidrológicas, grupo taxonômico e ocorrência de incêndios. Helicops boitata, uma espécie de cobra d’água endêmica do Pantanal, foi registrada apenas durante a campanha de contagem de animais mortos nos incêndios de 2020, realizada na estação seca. A recorrência de grandes incêndios na região pode representar forte ameaça para essa e outras espécies com hábitos semelhantes. O monitoramento contínuo de áreas amostradas durante incêndios é de extrema importância para identificar espécies resilientes ou intolerantes ao fogo e fundamental para o desenvolvimento de medidas de conservação adequadas para cada grupo taxonômico.
... Lithobates vaillanti Mora, 1999 Scinax elanochroa Russell et al., 1999 Smilisca baudini Savage, 2002 Smilisca cyanosticta Dendropsophus bokermanni Duellman, 1978;Duellman, 2005 Dendropsophus marmoratus Duellman, 1978;Duellman, 2005 Dendropsophus parviceps Duellman, 1978;Duellman, 2005 Phyllomedusa sp. Martins & Oliveira, 1998;Duellman, 2005 Phyllomedusa vaillanti Nascmiento et al., 2013 ...
Las serpientes ojo de gato presentan una amplia variedad de presas compuesto principalmente por ranas y lagartijas. En este trabajo realizamos una revisión de las presas registradas para el género Leptodeira, y reportamos nuevos registros de dieta para varias especies de estos ofidios.
Cat-eyed snakes consume a wide variety of prey items, mostly including frogs and lizards. In this paper, we report new dietary records for snakes of the genus Leptodeira, and perform a review of prey items recorded for the genus.
Background
Accidents caused by snakes constitute a serious public health problem in Latin America and worldwide. The situation in the Brazilian Amazon region is neglected, resulting in the highest incidence of cases per capita in the country. Furthermore, the distance from urban areas makes it difficult for the population to access timely and effective medical care, including antivenom treatment. The Brazilian Amazon is characterised by high ethnic and cultural diversity, yet it lacks robust epidemiological information that would allow for the development of surveillance and prevention policies. This study aimed to assess the epidemiological profile of individuals affected by snakebite accidents from 2007 to 2021 in a poorly studied region of the Brazilian Amazon.
Methods
To assess the relationship between snakebite accidents, rainfall and river flood levels, cross‐correlation functions were employed. Data from the public healthcare system database was used for this analysis.
Results
The results indicate that the study area experiences a snakebite rate 10 times greater than the Brazilian average and double that of other Amazonian regions. The most affected victims consist of adult males residing in rural areas, with snakebite accidents being more common during the rainy season. Viperid snakes were responsible for most bites, with the lower limbs being the most common location of injury. The data revealed a positive correlation between the number of snakebite accidents both rainfall and fluvial data.
Conclusions
The accident peak coincides with the Brazil nut harvest season, a highly significant forest product for the economy of rural communities. Our data reinforces the need for public policies focused on environmental education and prevention, such as the use of boots and leg guards. These preventive measures have the potential to reduce the number of snakebites accidents by approximately 85%.
This is the first book to present a multidisciplinary approach to venomous snake research. As well as focusing on the medical aspects of snake venoms and the effects of snakebites, the book examines the evolution and ecology of venomous snakes, which are so crucial in the search for snakebite antidotes. The book has been written to be accessible to an audience of varied scientific backgrounds. Due to the wide range of information, it will be of great interest to scientists and students involved in any aspect of venomous snake research, whilst also appealing to the growing band of amateur enthusiasts.
We analyze the systematics of pitviper populations normally assigned to the species Bothrops atrox, B. moojeni, and B. marajoensis using multivariate analysis of morphological characters. Most populations of B. moojeni are clearly distinct from B. atrox, but there are phenotypically intermediate populations where the ranges of the two forms meet, suggesting the existence of a hybrid zone. The status of the populations currently assigned to B. marajoensis remains uncertain, as the populations assigned to this species are heterogeneous and poorly differentiated from B. atrox. This study confirms the results of previous workers, who found low levels of divergence within the B. atrox species complex.
(1) A technique of scale clipping live snakes is being used to identify individuals in population studies. (2) To avoid harming the reptile, yet at the same time providing a reliable method of marking, it is necessary only to remove a small part of the ventral acute. The reliability of an alternative method of identifying individuals, that is by photographing certain parts of each animal, is being investigated.
Seventy-six species of snakes and 2 species of amphisbaenians are reported to display the tail so that it becomes unusually conspicuous. This behavior is ordinarily a response to stress, such as a sudden tactile stimulus, and is probably an antipredator strategy. The snakes can be placed in 3 groups on the basis of coloration and caudal morphology. (1) Five species are obscurely patterned or unicolored and have short tails with blunt tips. (2) Fifty-four species have contrasting or brightly colored tails without stout, blunt tips. (3) Seventeen species have either blunt, brightly colored tails or tapered, dull colored tails. Display is correlated with a brightly colored, autotomizeable tail in one amphisbaenian and with a blunt, heavily reinforced tail tip in another. A study of injuries on the tails of 52 Eryx johnii and 63 Calabaria reinhardtii suggests that these snakes display their blunt tails to misdirect the attacks of predators. Skeletal peculiarities of several boids (Charina and Eryx) and of Amphisbaena alba might be adaptations for this function of tail display. The injury data for 156 pipe snakes (Cylindrophis rufus) imply that misdirection of attack is not an important function of the display of this brightly colored species. Bright colors associated with the tail displays of many snakes and of A. fuliginosa might serve as intimidating devices, aposematic signals, or mimetic signals. The display of A. fuliginosa probably also facilitates caudal autotomy. Different functions of tail display need not, of course, be mutually exclusive. A comprehensive bibliography of tail display behavior, new information for many species, a brief discussion of terminology, speculation on the origins of tail displays, and suggestions for future investigations are also presented. /// Bei 76 Arten von Schlangen und zwei von Amphisbäniden beobachtete man Verhaltens-formen, bei denen der Schwanz auffällig demonstriert wird. Gewöhnlich geschieht dies bei Erregung, z.B. plötzlicher Berührung, und dient zur Ablenkung von Fressfeinden. Nach ihrer Färbung und Morphologie lassen sich die Schlangen drei Gruppen einteilen. (1) Fünf Arten sind düster gemustert oder einfarbig und haben einen kurzen Schwanz mit stumpfen Ende. (2) 54 Arten haben einen mehr oder weniger dünn zegespitzten Schwanz, der bei einigen grell gefärbt ist. (3) 17 Arten lassen sich nicht eindeutig in einer der vorgenannten Gruppen unterbringen. Bei der einen Amphisbänide (Amphisbaena fuliginosa) ist der zur Schau gestellte Schwanz autotomisierbar, bei der anderen (A. alba) ist sein Ende stumpf und kräftig gepanzert. Eine Untersuchung an den Schwänzen von 52 Indischen Sanboas (Eryx johnii) und 63 Erdpythons (Calabaria reinhardtii) bestärkt die Annahme, dass diese Arten ihre Schwänze demonstrieren, um Fressfeinde abzulenken. Skeletteigentümlichkeiten mehrerer Boiden (Charina und Eryx) und von Amphisbaena alba könnten Anpassungen an diese Funktion des Schwanzes sein. Die Auswertung der Schwanzverletzungen von 156 Walzenschlangen (Cylindrophis rufus) ergibt, dass der Schwanz dieser auffällig gefarbten Art Angriffe nicht in stärkerem Mass abzulenken vermag. Bei vielen Schlangen und A. fuliginosa könnte die grelle Färbung kombiniert mit Schwanzbewegung als abschreckendes, warnendes oder mimetiches Signal wirken. Die Schwanzbewegung von A. fuliginosa erleichtert wahrscheinlich auch die Autotomie. Die auffallenden Schwanzbewegungen können durchaus mehrere Funktionen nebeneinander haben. Diese Arbeit enthält auch ein umfassendes Literatureverzeichnis uber auffällige Schwanzbewegungen, neue Angaben über viele Arten, eine kurze Diskussion der Terminologie sowie Anregungen für zufünftige Untersuchungen ze diesum Thema.